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Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S55,  by 

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in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts 


3J~-"f 


Sl'EiitWITPED  BY  SHBPAKD,  OLIVER,  &  CO. 
No.  3,  Water  Street,  Boston. 


Martinson  &  Co.,  Printers. 


PREFACE 


In  presenting  this  volume  to  the  American  public,  the  introduc- 
tory remarks  in  which  we  shall  indulge  will  be  few  and  general, 
as  the  book  is  one  of  that  kind  that  speaks  with  singular  plainness 
for  itself,  and  seems  to  us  to  require  little  upon  the  prefatory  page 
in  the  way  of  explanation,  either  with  reference  to  its  character 
considered  collectively,  or  in  detail. 

The  chief  object  in  preparing  this  work  has  been  to  furnish 
something  which  should  be  found  to  embrace  those  subjects  which 
are  of  abiding  interest  and  importance  to  all  classes.  It  has  been 
a  wish  to  present  such  matters,  as  well  as  could  be  done  in  the  com- 
pass allowed,  as  are  of  interest  to  all  classes  of  readers,  and  an  ac- 
quaintance with  which  is  desirable  for  our  own  citizens  especially. 

Directed  by  these  intentions,  it  is  hoped  that  the  efforts  to  bring 
a  valuable  and  attractive  volume  before  the  public  may  have  prov- 
ed successful ;  and  that,  viewed  with  reference  to  the  subjects  of 
which  it  treats,  this  may  be  called,  emphatically,  a  book  for  this 
country,  exhibiting,  at  one  view,  a  picture  of  the  Republic  in  its 
physical,  political,  and  social  conditions,  so  drawn  and  colored  as 
to  present  in  pleasant  relief  its  most  striking  and  peculiar  features. 

Simplicity  was  a  leading  object  in  the  preparation  of  the  work. 
By  such  object  it  was  natural  to  be  guided,  when  it  was  remem- 
bered that  the  pages  were  designed  for  the  general  eye  and  for  all 
classes.  This  quality  was  allowed  to  govern,  in  a  great  degree,  both 
in  the  thought  and  style ;  and  if,  in  any  case,  it  may  have  been 
carried  to  a  point  beyond  the  fortunate  one,  it  will  be  believed,  we 
presume,  that  the  fault,  if  it  be  such,  is  upon  the  better  side. 


IT  PREFACE. 

In  some  instances  interesting  historical  accounts  are  retained  and 
enlarged  upon,  from  a  consideration  of  the  universally  popular  cha- 
racter which  such  accounts  generally  possess.  It  is  not  known, 
however,  that  they  are  referred  to  or  dwelt  upon  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  induce  the  charge  of  credulity  beyond  that  very  pardonable  de- 
gree which  all  well  disposed  and  good  natured,  and  we  may  add> 
well  informed,  writers  and  readers  are  ever  ready  to  meet. 

Frequent  references  are  made  to  able  and  prominent  writers,  in 
connection  with  the  several  important  subjects  which  are  here  intro- 
duced ;  and  such  extracts  are  given,  as,  it  is  thought,  will  best  illus- 
trate and  enforce  them.  This  course,  with  most  readers,  is  an  ac- 
ceptable one,  and  in  a  work  of  this  nature  it  is  the  best  that  can  be 
pursued,  frequently,  to  accomplish,  within  reasonable  limits,  tha 
design  of  the  undertaking.    , 

To  enlarge  would  seem  to  be  useless.  The  volume  must  speak 
for  itself,  and  bear  its  recommendation  within.  It  is  hoped,  with 
the  several  sketches  of  the  Republic  which  it  intends  to  present, 
under  its  different  aspects,  it  may  prove  an  agreeable  and  instruc- 
tive one  to  the  community. 

We  had  intended  to  have  annexed  a  list  of  the  writers  consulted 
and  extracted  from  in  the  course  of  the  volume ;  but  we  believe 
the  references  in  the  pages  will  supersede  the  necessity  of  a  more 
particular  notice.  It  would  be  unjust,  however,  not  to  mention 
our  especial  obligation  to  the  excellent  View  of  the  United  States 
by  Mr.  Hinton,  of  which  we  have  made  the  freest  use  throughout 
the  volume. 

Boston,  November,  18S4. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I. 
PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Page. 

Chap.  I.    Mountains 13 

Chap.  II.     Valleys 27 

Chap.  III.     Prairies  and  Plains 32 

Chap.  IV.    Rivers 33 

CHAr.  V.     Cataracts  and  Cascades 63 

Chap.  VI.    Lakes 75 

Chap.  VII.     Springs 87 

Chap.  VIII.     Caverns 97 

Chap.  IX.    Islands 10S 

Chap.  X.     Capes  and  Peninsulas 114 

Chap.  XI.     Bays,  Harbors,  Sounds,  and  Gulfs 116 

Chap.  XII.      Oceans 122 

Chap.  XIII.     Soil             127 

Chap.  XIV.     Climate .        .  140 

Chap.  XV.     Minerals 155 

Chap.  XVI.    Animals .        .        .  165 

Chap.  XVII.     Botany 235 

Chap.  XVIII.     Geology 249 

Chap.  XIX.     Natural  Curiosities 257 


PART  IL 
POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Chap.  I.    Political  and  Geographical  Division       .        .        .        .        .        263 
CaAP.  II.    Cities  and  Towns  .  ....     373 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  III.     Agriculture 

Chap.  IV.     Manufactures 

Chap.  V.     Commerce 

Chap.  VI.     Rail-roads 

Chap.  VII.     Canals 

Chap.  VIII.     Government 

Chap.  IX.     Convention 

Chap.  X.     Indian  Tribes 

Chap.  XI.     American  Antiquities, 

Chap.  XII.     Religion    .... 

Chap.  XIII.     Manners  and  Amusements 

Chap.  XIV.     Penitentiary  System 

Chap.  XVI.     Literature  and  Education 

Chap.  XVII.     Fine  Arts        . 

Chap.  XVIII.     Banking  System 

Chap.  XIX.     Biographical  Sketches 

Chap.  XX.     History 


Page. 

339 

353 
361 
369 
379 
387 
405 
411 
436 
445 
453 
465 
473 
486 
490 
498 
552 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


PART   I. 

PHYSICAL      GEOGRAPHY, 


CHAPTER  L— MOUNTAINS. 

Though  embracing  in  its  extent  several  elevated  ranges  of  great  length 
and  breadth,  the  territory  of  the  United  States  cannot  be  considered  as  a 
mountainous  country.  The  land  along  the  whole  line  of  the  seacoast 
is  level  for  a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior.  The  breadth  of  this 
level  tract  expands  from  fifty  miles  in  the  north-east  extremity,  gradually, 
as  we  advance  to  the  south-west,  till  in  the  state  of  Georgia,  it  has  attained 
an  extent  of  near  two  hundred  miles.  Beyond  this  the  land  gradually 
rises  into  mountains,  which  are  much  more  remarkable  for  their  length 
and  breadth,  than  their  height.  They  sometimes  consist  of  numerous 
parallel  ridges  rising  successively  behind  each  other ;  at  other  times  they 
run  into  knots  ;  and  sometimes  they  recede  from  their  parallel  direction 
into  what  are  called  spurs.  These  ranges  or  belts  of  mountainous  country, 
though  receiving  a  vast  number  of  different  appellations,  are  most  usually 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Alleghanies.  The  long  continuity  of  this  chain 
has  obtained  it  the  name  of  the  Endless  Mountains,  from  the  northern 
savages.  The  French  and  Spaniards,  who  first  became  acquainted  with 
it  in  Florida,  applied  to  it  through  its  whole  extent  the  name  of  Apalackian, 
which  is  still  retained  by  a  considerable  river  of  that  country. 

The  general  course  of  the  Alleghanies  is  about  north-east  and  south- 
west ;  east  of  the  Hudson  they  are  scattered  in  irregular  groups,  without 
any  very  marked  direction. 

The  range  of  the  Rocky  or  Chippewan  Mountains  divides  the  waters 
which  flow  east  into  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi,  from  those  which  flow 
west  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  are  a  continuation  of  the  Cordilleras 
of  Mexico.  Their  longitude  is  about  one  hundred  and  twelve  west,  and 
they  terminate  in  about  seventy  north  latitude.  Along  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific  is  another  range  which  seems  to  form  a  step  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  extends  from  the  Cape  of  California  along  the  coast  to 
Cook's  Inlet,  generally  rising  to  no  great  height  in  the  southern  portion. 
In  the  northern  part,  La  Perouse  states  that  it  is  ten  thousand  feet  high, 
and  at  its  northern  extremity  is  Mount  Elias,  eighteen  thousand  feet  high, 
and  the  loftiest  peak  of  North  America. 

2 


14 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  White  Mountains  in  New  England,  largely  considered,  are  the 
principal  ranges  running  north-east  and  south-west,  projecting  from  the 
main  ridge  that  forms  the  boundary  of  the  United  States,  and  separates 
the  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  from  those  that  run  south  through  the 
Northern  States.  The  highest  ridge  is  that  called  the  White  Mountain 
Ridge  in  New  Hampshire,  running  from  south  to  north,  the  loftiest  sum- 


White  Mountains. 


ttiits  of  which  are  Monadnock,  a  hill  of  an  abrupt  and  striking  character, 
S'unapee,  Kearsarge,  Carr's  Mountain,  and  Moosehillock.  Towards  the 
north  of  the  state,  these  eminences  rise  to  a  much  higher  elevation,  and 
are  known  specifically  by  the  name  of  the  White  Mountains. 


White  Mountains. 

These  are  the  loftiest  mountains  in  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi* They  lie  between  the  Connecticut  and  Androscoggin  rivers  on 
Ihe  north-east  and  west,  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Merrimack  on  the 
South  sixty  or  seventy  miles    from  the  coast ;    yet  their   white  summit* 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  15 

are  visible  from  many  miles  at  sea.  They  extend  about  twenty  miles 
from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  their  base  is  eight  or  ten  miles  broad. 

Mount  Washington  is  the  highest  of  all  the  White  Mountains,  being 
six  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Next  to  Mount  Washington  in  height  is  Mount  Adams,  then  Jefferson, 
then  Madison,  all  more  than  five  thousand  feet  high ;  there  are  several 
besides  these,  though  none  so  elevated.  The  country  around  and  among 
the  mountains  is  very  wild  and  rough,  and  the  mountains  themselves  are 
difficult  of  access.  The  east  side  of  Mount  Washington  rises  at  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  The  lower  part  of  the-  mountain  is  covered 
with  thick  woods  of  spruce  and  fir  trees,  with  deep  beds  of  moss  beneath. 
Heavy  clouds  of  vapor  often  rest  upon  the  mountain,  and  fill  the  moss 
with  water,  which  cannot  be  exhaled  or  dried  up  by  the  sun  on  account  of 
the  woods,  and  therefore  it  breaks  out  in  numerous  springs  which  feed 
the  streams  from  the  mountain.  The  trees  are  short  and  stunted  higher 
up  the  mountain  ;  soon  there  are  only  bushes  ;  then  instead  of  bushes  are 
vines ;  the  last  thing  that  grows  is  winter  grass  mixed  with  moss ;  the 
summit  is  entirely  bare  of  vegetation.  There  is  a  plain  from  which  the  last 
height  of  Mount  Washington  rises  to  the  height  of  fifteen  hundred  feet. 
This  elevation  or  pinnacle  is  composed  of  huge  grey  rocks.  Reaching  the 
top  much  fatigued  and  out  of  breath,  the  traveller  is  instantly  master 
of  a  boundless  prospect,  noble  enough  to  pay  him  for  his  l^bor.  The 
Atlantic  dimly  seen  through  a  distance  of  sixty-five  miles,  the  Vermont 
Mountains  on  the  west,  the  southern  and  northern  mountains  of  New 
Hampshire,  Lake  Winnipiseogee,  ponds,  streams,  and  towns,  without 
number,  all  form  a  great  impressive  picture. 

The  road  from  the  seacoast  to  the  mountains  passes  along  the  head 
stream  of  the  Saco,  which  rises  among  these  mountains,  and  breaks 
through  them  at  a  place  known  by  the  name  of  the  Notch,  a  narrow  defile 
extending  two  miles  in  length  between  two  large  cliffs,  apparently  rent 
asunder  by  some  vast  convulsion  of  nature. 

'  The  sublime  and  awful  grandeur  of  this  passage  baffles  all  description. 
Geometry  may  settle  the  heights  of  the  mountains  ;  and  numerical  figures 
may  record  the  measure;  but  no  words  can  tell  the  emotions  of  the  soul,  as 
it  looks  upward,  and  views  the  almost  perpendicular  precipices  which  line 
the  narrow  space  between  them  ;  while  the  senses  ache  with  terror  and 
astonishment,  as  one  sees  himself  hedged  in  from  all  the  world  besides. 
He  may  cast  his  eye  forward  or  backward,  or  to  either  side ;  he  can 
see  only  upward,  and  there  the  diminutive  circle  of  his  vision  is  cribbed 
and  confined  by  the  battlements  of  nature's  '  cloud-capped  towers,'  which 
seem  as  if  they  wanted  only  the  breathing  of  a  zephyr,  or  the  wafting  of 
a  straw  against  them,  to  displace  them,  and  crush  the  prisoner  in  their 
fall.  Just  before  our  visit  to  this  place,  on  the  26th  of  June,  1826, 
there  was  a  tremendous  avalanche,  or  slide,  as  it  is  there  called,  from  the 
mountain  which  makes  the  southern  wall  of  the  passage.  An  immense 
mass  of  earth  and  rock,  on  the  side  of  the  mountain,  was  loosened  from 
its  resting  place,  and  began  to  slide  towards  the  bottom.  In  its  course, 
it  divided  into  three  portions,  each  coming  down,  with  amazing  veloci- 
ty, into  the  road,  and  sweeping  before  it  shrubs,  trees,  and  rocks,  and 
filling  up  the  road,  beyond  all  possibility  of  its  being  removed.  With  great 
labor,  a  pathway  has  been  made  over  these  fallen  masses,  which  admits 


16'  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  passage  of  a  carriage.  The  place  from  which  the  slide,  or  slip,  was 
loosened,  is  directly  in  the  rear  of  a  small,  but  comfortable  dwelling-house, 
owned  and  occupied  by  a  Mr.  Willey,  who  has  taken  advantage  of  a 
narrow,  a  very  narrow  interval, — where  the  bases  of  the  two  mountains 
seem  to  have  parted  and  receded,  as  if  afraid  of  coming  into  contact, — to 
erect  his  lone  habitation :  and,  were  there  not  a  special  Providence  in  the 
fall  of  a  sparrow,  and  had  not  the  finger  of  that  Providence  traced  the 
direction  of  the  sliding  mass,  neither  he,  nor  any  soul  of  his  family,  would 
ever  have  told  the  tale.  They  heard  the  noise,  when  it  first  began  to 
move,  and  ran  to  the  door.  In  terror  and  amazement,  they  beheld  the 
mountain  in  motion.  But  what  can  human  power  effect  in  such  an 
emergency?  Before  they  could  think  of  retreating,  or  ascertain  which 
wray  to  escape,  the  danger  was  passed.  One  portion  of  the  avalanche 
crossed  the  road  about  ten  rods  only  from  their  habitation ;  the  second, 
a  few  rods  beyond  that ;  and  the  third,  and  much  the  largest  portion,  took  a 
much  more  oblique  direction.  The  whole  area,  now  covered  by  the 
slide,  is  nearly  an  acre  ;  and  the  distance  of  its  present  bed  from  its 
former  place  on  the  side  of  the  mountain,  and  which  it  moved  over  in  a 
few  minutes,  is  from  three  quarters  of  a  mile  to  a  mile.  There  are 
many  trees  of  large  size  that  came  down  with  such  force  as  to  shiver 
them  in  pieces  ;  and  innumerable  rocks,  of  many  tons'  weight,  any  one  of 
which  was  sufficient  to  carry  with  it  destruction  to  any  of  the  labors  of 
man.  The  spot  on  the  mountain,  from  which  the  slip  was  loosened,  is  now 
a  naked,  white  rock ;  and  its  pathway  downward  is  indicated  by  deep 
channels,  or  furrows  grooved  in  the  side  of  the  mountain,  and  down  one 
of  which  pours  a  stream  of  water,  sufficient  to  carry  a  common  saw-mill. 

'  &rom.  this  place  to  the  Notch,  there  is  almost  a  continual  ascent,  gene- 
rally gradual,  but  sometimes  steep  and  sudden.  The  narrow  pathway  pro- 
ceeds along  the  stream,  sometimes  crossing  it,  and  shifting  from  the  side 
of  one  mountain  to  the  other,  as  either  furnishes  a  less  precarious  foothold 
for  the  traveller  than  its  fellow.  Occasionally  it  winds  up  the  side  of  the 
steep  to  such  a  height,  as  to  leave,  on  one  hand  or  the  other,  a  gulf  of 
unseen  depth ;  for  the  foliage  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  is  impervious  to  the 
sight.  The  Notch  itself  is  formed  by  a  sudden  projection  of  rock  from 
the  mountain  on  the  right  or  northerly  side,  rising  perpendicularly  to  a 
great  height, — probably  seventy  or  eighty  feet, — and  by  a  large  mass  of 
rock  on  the  left  side,  which  has  tumbled  from  its  ancient  location,  and 
taken  a  position  within  twenty,  feet  of  its  opposite  neighbor.  The  length 
of  the  Notch  is  not  more  than  three  or  four  rods.  The  moment  it  is 
passed,  the  mountains  seem  to  have  vanished.  A  level  meadow,  over- 
grown with  long  grass  and  wild  flowers,  and  spotted  with  tufts  of 
shrubbery,  spreads  itself  before  the  astonished  eye,  on  the  left,  and  a 
swamp  or  thicket,  on  the  right,  conceals  the  ridge  of  mountains  which 
extend  to  the  north  :  the  road  separates  this  thicket  from  the  meadow. 
Not  far  from  the  Notch,  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  road,  several  springs> 
issue  from  the  rocks  that  compose  the  base  of  the  mountain,  unite  in  the 
thicket,  and  form  the  Saco  river.  This  little  stream  runs  across  the  road 
into  the  meadow,  where  it  almost  loses  itself  in  its  meandering  among  the 
bogs,  but  again  collects  its  waters  and  passes  under  the  rock  that  makes 
the  southerly  wall  of  the  Notch.  It  is  here  invisible  for  several  rods,  and 
its  presence  is  indicated  only  by  its  noise,  as  it  rolls  through  its  rugged 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


JTrB 

tunnel.  In  wet  seasons  and  freshets,  probably  a  portion  of  the  water 
passes  over  the  fragments  of  rock,  which  are  here  wedged  together,  and 
form  an  arch  or  covering  for  the  natural  bed  of  the  stream. 

'  The  sensations  which  affect  the  corporeal  faculties,  as  one  views  these 
stupendous  creations  of  Omnipotence,  are  absolutely  afflicting  and  painful. 
If  you  look  at  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  when  a  cloud  passes  towards 
them,  it  is  impossible  for  the  eye  to  distinguish,  at  such  a  height,  which  is 
in  motion,  the  mountain,  or  the  cloud ;  and  this  deception  of  vision  pro- 
duces a  dizziness,  which  few  spectators  have  nerve  enough  to  endure  for 
many  minutes.  If  the  eye  be  fixed  on  the  crags  and  masses  of  rock,  that 
project  from  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  the  flesh  involuntarily  quivers, 
and  the  limbs  seem  to  be  impelled  to  retreat  from  a  scene  that  threatens" 
impendent  destruction.  If  the  thoughts  which  crowd  upon  the  intellectual 
faculties  are  less  painful  than  these  sensations  of  flesh  and  blood,  they  are 
too  sublime  and  overwhelming  to  be  described.  The  frequent  alterations 
and  great  changes,  that  have  manifestly  taken  place  in  these  majestic 
masses,  since  they  were  first  piled  together  by  the  hand  of  the  Creator,  are 
calculated  to  awaken  "  thoughts  beyond  the  reaches  of  the  soul."  If  the 
<;  everlasting  hills"  thus  break  in  pieces,  and  shake  the  shaggy  covering 
from  their  sides,  who  will  deny  that 

"  This  earthly  globe,  the  creature  of  a  day, 

Though  built  by  God's  right  hand,  shall  pass  away? — 

The  sun  himself,  by  gathering  clouds  oppressed, 

Shall,  in  his  silent,  dark  pavilion  rest ; 

His  golden  urn  shall  break,  and,  useless,  lie 

Among  the  common  ruins  of  the  sky ; 

The  stars  rush  headlong,  in  the  wild  commotion, 

And  bathe  their  glittering  foreheads  in  the  ocean  ?" 

1  Reflection  needs  not  the  authority  of  inspiration  to  warrant  a  belief,  that 
this  anticipation  is  something  more  than  poetical.  History  and  philosophy 
teach  its  truth,  or,  at  least,  its  probability.  The  melancholy  imaginings 
which  it  excites  are  relieved  by  the  conviction  that  the  whole  of  God's  cre- 
ation is  nothing  less 

"  Than  a  capacious  reservoir  of  means, 
Formed  for  his  use,  and  ready  at  his  will ;" 

and  that,  if  this  globe  should  be  resolved  into  chaos,  it  will  undergo  a  new 
organization,  and  be  re-moulded  into  scenes  of  beauty,  and  abodes  of  hap- 
piness. Such  may  be  the  order  of  nature,  to  be  unfolded  in  a  perpetual 
series  of  material  production  and  decay — of  creation  and  dissolution — a 
magnificent  procession  of  worlds  and  systems,  in  the  march  of  eternity.'^ 

A  few  weeks  after  the  slide  mentioned  in  the  above  description,  a  dis- 
aster occurred  which  occasioned  the  destruction  of  the  interesting  family 
to  which  allusion  is  there  made. 

The  afternoon  had  been  rainy,  and  the  weather  continued  so  till  eleven 
o'clock  in  the  evening,  when  it  cleared  away.  About  the  same  hour,  a 
great  noise  was  heard,  at  the  distance  of  several  miles  like  the  rushing 
down  of  rocks  and  much  water  from  the  mountains.  The  next  morning, 
the  people,  at  Conway,  could  perceive  that  some  disaster,  of  no  ordinary 

*J.  T.  Buckingham. 


18  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

character,  had  happened,  by  the  appearance  of  the  mountains  on  each  side 
of  the  road.  On  repairing  to  the  spot,  they  found  the  house  of  Mr.  Wil- 
ley,  standing  near  the  Notch,  unhurt,  but  destitute  of  any  of  the  family. 
It  is  supposed  that  they  left  it  in  their  fright,  and  were  instantly  swept 
away,  and  buried  under  the  rocks  and  earth  which  were  borne  down  by 
the  freshet.  This  family  consisted  of  Mr.  Willey,  his  wife,  five  children, 
and  two  hired  men,  all  of  whom  were  suddenly  swept  from  time  to  eter- 
nity, by  this  lamentable  disaster.  Had  they  remained  in  the  house,  they 
would  probably  have  been  safe. 

The  central  and  western  parts  of  Maine  are  mountainous.  The  highest 
mountains  are  the  Katahdin,  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  state,  the 
Speckled,  Bald,  Bigelow,  and  Ebeeme  mountains.  The  range  between 
the  rivers  Hudson  and  Connecticut,  and  this  last  and  lake  Champlain, 
is  called  the  Green  Mountains,  an  appellation  which  it  has  received 
from  its  perpetual  verdure,  being  covered  on  its  western  side  with  hem- 
lock, pine,  spruce,  and  other  evergreens.  These  mountains  are  from 
ten  to  fifteen  miles  wide,  much  intersected  with  valleys,  and  abound- 
ing in  springs  and  streams.  Vegetation  decreases  on  approaching  their 
summits ;  the  trees  diminish  in  size,  and  frequently  terminate  in  a  shrub- 
bery of  spruce  and  hemlock,  two  or  three  feet  high,  with  branches  so 
interwoven  as  to  prevent  all  passage  through  them.  The  sides  of  the 
mountains  are  generally  rugged  and  irregular ;  some  of  them  have  large 
apertures  and  caves.  Their  tops  are  coated  with  a  compact  and  firm  moss, 
which  lies  in  extensive  beds,  and  is  sometimes  of  a  consistency  to  bear  the 
weight  of  a  man  without  being  broken  through.  These  mosses  absorb  a 
great  deal  of  moisture,  and  afford  wet  and  marshy  places,  which  in  the 
warm  season  are  the  constant  resort  of  water  fowl.  The  loftiest  summits 
are  Killington  Peak,  near  Rutland ;  Camel's  Rump,  between  Montpe- 
lier  and  Burlington,  and  Mansfield  Mountain,  a  few  miles  farther  north, 
all  which  are  more  than  three  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Ascutney,  a  single  mountain  near  Windsor,  is  three  thousand 
three  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  height. 

The  range  called  Green  Mountains  in  Vermont,  enters  the  west  part 
of  Massachusetts  from  the  north,  and  forms  the  Hoosac  and  Tagkan- 
nuc  Ridges,  which  run  nearly  parallel  to  each  other  south,  into  Connecticut. 
The  most  elevated  peaks  of  the  Tagkannuc  Ridge  are  Saddle  Mountain  in 
the  north,  four  thousand  feet  high,  and  Tagkannuc  Mountain  in  the  south, 
three  thousand  feet.  No  summits  of  the  Hoosac  Ridge  much  exceed  half 
these  elevations.  Mount  Holyoke,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Northampton, 
commands  a  prospect  of  the  highest  beauty;  the  waters  of  the  Connecticut 
wind  about  its  base,  giving  fertility  and  wealth  of  vegetation  to  the  surround- 
ing country.  On  its  top  a  shanty  is  erected,  in  which  refreshments  are  kept  for 
the  visitors  who  at  favorable  seasons  make  this  excursion  in  great  numbers. 

There  are  two  distinct  chains  belonging  to  the  Alleghany  range  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  the  Catskill  and  the  Wallkill.  The  Catskill,  which  is 
the  most  northern,  is  the  continuation  of  the  proper  Alleghany  or  western 
chain  ;  the  eastern  is  called,  by  some  geographers,  Wallkill. 

A  visit  to  the  Catskill  is  a  favorite  excursion  of  northern  travellers,  and 
several  days  may  be  spent  very  agreeably  in  examining  the  grand  and 
romantic  scenery  of  the  neighborhood.  Pine  Orchard  is  a  small  plain, 
'wo  thousand  two  hundred  and  fourteen  feet  above  the  Hudson,  scattered 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


19 


with  forest  trees,  and  furnished  with  an  elegant  house  of  great  size.  Im- 
mediately below  is  seen  a  wild  and  mountainous  region,  finely  contrasting 
with  the  cultivated  country  beyond,  which  presents  every  variety  of  hill 
and  valley,  interspersed  with  town,  hamlet,  and  cottage. 

The  hills  of  Weehawken  are  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson,  nearly 
opposite  the  city  of  New  York. 


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The  Highlands  of  the  Hudson,  or  Fishkill  Mountains,  which  first  appear 
about  forty  miles  from  New  York,  are  marked  for  their  sublimity  and 


grandeur,  and  interesting  from  their  connection  with  many  great  events 
of  the  revolution.  This  chain  is  sixteen  miles  in  width,  and  extends  twenty 
miles  along  both  sides  of  the  Hudson.    'The  height  of  the  principal  has 


20  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

been  estimated  at  one  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet.  The 
Peruvian  Mountains  consist  of  a  lofty  tract  in  the  northern  part  of  New 
York,  being  round  the  sources  of  the  Hudson,  and  separating  the  waters 
of  Lake  Champlain  from  those  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  They  received  their 
name  from  the  supposition  that  they  contained  mineral  treasures.  Their 
loftiest  summit,  called  Whiteface,  is  about  three  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  Lake  Champlain. 

The  Apalachian  chain  in  Pennsylvania  spreads  to  its  widest  limits,  and 
covers  with  its  various  ranges  more  than  one  half  of  the  state.  The 
greatest  width  of  the  chain  equals  two  hundred  miles.  It  consists  of  pa- 
rallel ridges  sometimes  little  distant  from  each  other,  and  at  other  times 
with  valleys  twenty  or  thirty  miles  broad  lying  between  them.  The  range 
nearest  the  coast  is  called  the  South  Mountain,  and  is  a  continuation  of 
the  Blue  Ridge  of  Virginia.  This,  however,  is  hardly  a  distinct  ridge, 
but  only  an  irregular  series  of  rocky,  broken  eminences,  sometimes  disap- 
pearing altogether,  and  at  others  spreading  out  several  miles  in  breadth. 
These  eminences  lie  one  hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  their  height  does  not  exceed  one  thousand  two  hundred  feet  above 
the  surrounding  country.  Beyond  these  are  the  Kittatinny  or  Blue  Moun- 
tains, which  extend  from  Maryland  to  New  Jersey  across  the  Susquehanna 
and  Delaware.  Farther  westward  are  the  ridges  bearing  the  names  of  the 
Sideling  Hills,  Ragged  Mountains,  Great  Warrior  Mountain,  East  Will's 
Mountain,  till  we  come  to  the  Alleghany  Ridge,  the  highest  range,  and 
from  which  this  whole  chain  has  in  common  language  received  the  name 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  The  highest  summits  are  between  three  and 
four  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  West  of  the  Alleghany  are 
the  Laurel  and  Chesnut  Ridges. 

These  mountains  are  in  general  covered  with  thick  forests.  The  Laurel 
Mountains  are  overgrown  on  their  eastern  front  with  the  tree  from  which 
they  are  named.  The  wide  valleys  between  the  great  ridges  are  filled 
with  a  multitude  of  hills,  confusedly  scattered  up  and  down.  The  tops  of 
the  ridges  sometimes  exhibit  long  ranges  of  table  land,  two  or  three  miles 
broad ;  some  of  them  are  steep  on  one  side,  and  extend  with  a  long  slope 
on  the  other.  These  mountains  are  traversed  by  the  great  streams  of  the 
Susquehanna  chain,  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Ohio. 

The  Wallkill,  which  crosses  the  Hudson  at  West  Point,  forty  miles 
below  the  Catskill,  is  the  continuation  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  or  Eastern  Chain, 
which  is  the  most  general  appellation  for  the  extensive  ridge  which  fronts 
the  Atlantic.  The  eastern  and  western  ranges  run  parallel  to  each  other, 
south-west,  till  on  the  frontiers  of  North  Carolina  and  Virginia  they  unite 
in  a  knot  which  has  been  called  the  Alleghany  Arch,  because  the  principal 
chain  embraces  there  in  a  curve  all  its  collaterals  from  the  east.  A  little 
farther  to  the  south,  but  still  in  North  Carolina,  a  second  knot  unites  all  the 
collateral  ridges  from  the  west,  and  forms  a  culminating  point  of  heads  of 
rivers.  The  second  bifurcation  stretches  south-west  and  then  west,  and 
the  name  of  the  *  Cumberland  Mountains  through  the  whole  state  of  Ten- 

*  Among  the  Enchanted  Mountains,  a  name  given  to  several  spurs  of  the  Cumber 
land  Ridge,  are  some  very  singular  footprints  marked  in  the  solid  limestone  rock. 
These  are  tracks  of  men,  horses,  and  other  animals,  as  distinctly  marked  as  though  but 
yesterday  impressed  in  clay  or  mortar.  Their  appearance  often  indicates  that  the  feet 
which  made  them  had  sudden,   as -if  in  descending  a  declivity  of  soft  clay.    The 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


21 


nessee,  while  the  proper  Alleghany  Chain,  left  almost  alone,  continues  its 
course  to  the  south-west,  and  completes  the  boundary  of  Georgia  and  the 
two  Carolinas.  From  the  Alleghany  Arch,  there  are  three  principal  ridges 
or  ramifications  of  the  Alleghany,  running  north-east  and  nearly  parallel 
to  each  other,  namely,  the  Alleghany  Proper,  the  North  Mountain,  and 
the  Blue  Ridge.  Of  the  last  ridge  the  highest  summits  are  the  Otter 
Peaks.  The  elevated  district  of  South  Carolina  presents  seven  or  eight 
mountains  running  in  regular  directions,  the  most  distinguished  of  which 
is  the  ^Table  Mountain.  Mr.  Jefferson,  with  peculiar  felicity  of  illustra- 
tion, called  the  range  of  the  Alleghanies  the  spine  of  *the  United  States  ; 
separating  the  eastern  from  the  western  waters,  and  the  whole  of  the  terri- 
tory from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic  into  three  natural  divisions,  mate- 
rially differing  from  each  other  in  climate,  configuration,  soil,  and  produce  ; 
namely,  the  coast,  the  mountains,  and  the  western  territory. 

In  extent,  in  elevation,  and  in  breadth,  the  Rocky  Mountains  far  exceed 
the  Alleghanies  of  the  Eastern-  States.  Their  mean  breadth  is  two  hun- 
dred miles,  and  where  broadest,  three  hundred.  Their  height  must  be 
very  great,  since,  when  first  seen  by  Captain  Lewis,  they  were  at  least  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  distant.  On  a  nearer  approach,  the  sublimity  of 
the  prospect  is  increased,  by  the  appearance  of  range  rising  behind  range, 
each  yielding  in  height  to  its  successor,  till  the  most  distant  is  mingled 
with  the  clouds.  In  this  lofty  region  the  ranges  are  covered  with  snow  in 
the  middle  of  June.     From  this  last  circumstance,  these  ranges  have  been 


Table  lands  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

sometimes  denominated  the  Shining  Mountains — an  appellation  much 
more  appropriate  than  that  of  the  Rocky  or   Stony  Mountains,  a  property 

human  feet  have  uniformly  six  toes,  with  the  exception  of  one  track,  which  is  thought 
to  be  that  of  a  negro.  One  of  the  tracks  is  sixteen  inches  long,  and  thirteen  inches 
wide  from  toe  to  heel,  with  the  ball  of  the  heel  five  inches  in  diameter.  On  the  shore 
of  the  Mississippi  is  a  similar  impression  of  the  human  feet  in  a  mass  of  limestone. 
No  satisfactory  explanation  has  been  given  of  these  singular  appearances. 

*  Table  Mountain,  in  Pendleton  district,  near  the  north-west  corner  of  South  Caro. 
jwia,  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Ramsay.    '  Its  height  exceeds  three  thousand  feet,  and 


22  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

possessed  by  all  mountains,  but  peculiar  to  none.  The  longitudinal  extent 
of  this  great  chain  is  immense,  running  as  far  north-west  as  sixty  degrees 
north  latitude,  and  perhaps  to  the  Frozen  Ocean  itself.  The  snows  and 
fountains  of  this  enormous  range,  from  the  thirty-eighth  to  the  forty-eighth 
degree  of  northern  latitude,  feed,  with  never-failing  supplies,  the  Missouri 
and  its  powerful  auxiliary  streams. 

In  endeavoring  to  explore  these  Alpine  heights,  and  the  sources  of  the 
Red  and  Arkansaw  rivers,  Captain  Pike  and  his  party  were  bewildered 
amidst  snows,  and  torrents,  and  precipices.  The  cold  was  so  intense,  that 
several  of  the  party  had  their  limbs  frostbitten,  and  were  obliged  to  be  aban- 
doned to  their  fate,  by  Pike  and  his  surviving  companions.  In  a  lateral 
ridge,  separating  the  valley  of  the  Arkansaw  from  that  of  the  Platte  river, 
in  north  latitude  forty-one  degrees,  is  a  remarkable  peak,  called  the 
Great  White  Mountain;  so  remarkable,  indeed,  as  to  be  known  to  all 
the  savage  tribes  for  hundreds  of  miles  round,  and  spoken  of  in  terms  of 
admiration  by  the  Spaniards  of  New  Mexico,  and  which  formed  the  boun- 
dary of  their  knowledge  to  the  north-west.  The  altitude  of  this  peak  was 
taken  on  the  base  of  a  mile  by  Pike,  and  found  to  be  ten  thousand  five 
hundred  and  eighty-one  feet  above  the  level  of  the  meadow  at  its  foot ; 
and  the  height  of  this  latter  was  estimated  at  eight  thousand  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  in  all,  eighteen  thousand  five  hundred  and  eighty-one 
feet  of  absolute  elevation  ;  being  six  thousand  feet  higher  than  the  peak  of 
Teneriffe,  by  Humboldt's  measurement ;  or  two  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  ninety-one  feet  short  of  that  of  Chimborazo,  admitting  the  elevation  of 
this  last  to  be  twenty-one  thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy-two  feet. 
Captain  Pike  and  his  companions  never  lost  sight  of  this  tremendous  peak, 
unless  in  a  valley,  for  the  space  of  ten  weeks,  wandering  amongst  the 
mountains.  What  is  the  elevation  at  the  sources  of  the  Missouri  can  only 
be  matter  of  mere  conjecture.  The  level  of  the  river,  where  they  left  their 
canoes,  could  not  be  less  than  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  how 
high  the  mountains  rose  above  this  point  the  narrative  does  not  inform  us, 
and  hardly  gives  us  any  data  to  decide.  The  central  chain,  as  usual,  is 
marked  in  the  map  as  highest,  and  covered  with  snow  during  the  whole 
year.  The  latitude  is  between  forty-five  and  forty-seven  degrees ;  and 
between  these  parallels,  in  Europe,  the  lower  limit  of  perpetual  congelation 
is  fixed  at  from  nine  to  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and 
it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  the  summits  of  this  snowy  range  were  less 
than  eight  thousand  five  hundred  or  nine  thousand  feet  high,  making  a 
reasonable  allowance  for  the  greater  coldness  of  the  American  continent. 
Captain  Clarke  allows  this  central  range  to  be  sixty  miles  across,  and  that 

thirty  farms  may  be  distinguished  at  any  one  view  from  its  top  by  the  unaided 
eye.  Its  side  is  an  abrupt  precipice  nine  hundred  feet  deep,  and  nearly  perpen- 
dicular. The  valley  underneath  appears  to  be  as  much  below  the  level  as  the  top  of 
the  mountain  towers  above  it.  This  precipice  is  called  the  Lover's  Leap.  To  those 
who  are  in  the  valley  it  looks  like  an  immense  wall  stretching  up  to  heaven.  At 
its  base  lie  whitening  in  the  sun  the  bones  of  various  animals  that  had  incautiously 
advanced  too  near  its  edge.     Its  summit  is  often  surrounded  with  clouds. 

1  The  gradual  ascent  of  the  country  from  the  seacoast  to  this  western  extremity  of 
the  State,  added  to  the  height  of  this  mountain,  must  place  its  top  more  than  four 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Atlantic  ocean.  Large  masses  of  snow  tumble 
down  from  the  side  of  this  mountain  in  the  winter  season,  the  fall  of  which  has  been 
heard  seven  miles.  Its  summit  is  the  resort  of  deer  and  bears.  Wild  pigeons  reson 
to  it  in  such  flocks  as  sometimes  to  break  the  limbs  of  the  trees  on  which  they  alight.3 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  23 

the  shortest  road  across  the  different  ranges  is  at  least  one  hundred  and 
forty  miles,  besides  two  hundred  miles  more,  before  we  can  reach  a  navi- 
gable river.  In  their  first  passage  across  these  tremendous  mountains,  the 
American  party  suffered  every  thing  which  hunger,  cold,  and  fatigue,  could 
impose,  during  three  weeks.  They  were  compelled  to  melt  the  snow  for 
their  portable  soup;  many  of  their  horses  (which  they  used  for  conveying 
their  baggage,  or  for  riding,)  were  foundered  by  falls  from  precipices ;  the 
men  became  feeble  through  excessive  toil,  and  sickly  from  want  of  food,  as 
there  are  no  wild  animals  in  these  inhospitable  regions;  and,  but  for  an 
occasional  meal  of  horse  flesh,  the  whole  party  must  have  perished.  In 
returning  home  from  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  their  state  was  little  bet- 
ter. Having  again  come  in  sight  of  the  mountains,  in  the  middle  of  May, 
they  attempted  to  pass  them  but  in  vain,  on  account  of  the  snow,  which 
lay  from  six  to  ten  feet  deep,  and  were  obliged  to  return,  and  rest  in  the 
plains  to  the  twenty-fourth  of  June.  These  mountains  are,  therefore,  a 
far  more  formidable  barrier  to  the  Pacific,  than  the  Alleghanies  to  the  back 
country,  and  can  be  passed  with  great  difficulty  only  for  three  months  in 
the  year,  namely,  from  the  latter  end  of  June  to  the  latter  end  of  Sep- 
tember. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  Missouri  Advocate  for  the  following  account  of 
General  Ashley's  discoveries  in  this  quarter.  He  considers  it  quite  possi- 
ble to  form  a  route  across  this  formidable  barrier  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  route  proposed,  after  leaving  St.  Louis,  and  passing  generally  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Missouri  river,  strikes  the  river  Platte,  a  short  distance 
above  its  junction  with  the  Missouri ;  then  pursues  the  waters  of  the  Platte 
to  their  sources,  and,  in  continuation,  crosses  the  head-waters  of  what  Gen- 
eral Ashley  believes  to  be  the  Rio  Colorado  of  the  west,  and  strikes,  for 
the  first  time,  a  ridge  or  single  connecting  chain  of  mountains,  running 
from  north  to  south.  This  however  presents  no  difficulty,  as  a  wide  gap 
is  found  apparently  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  a  passage.  After  passing 
this  gap,  the  route  proposed  falls  directly  on  a  river,  called  by  George  Ash- 
ley the  Buenaventura,  and  runs  from  that  river  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
face  of  the  country,  in  general,  is  a  continuation  of  high,  rugged,  and  bar- 
ren mountains  ;  the  summits  of  which  are  either  timbered  with  pine,  quak- 
ing-asp, or  cedar ;  or,  in  fact,  almost  entirely  destitute  of  vegetation.  Other 
parts  are  hilly  and  undulating ;  and  the  valleys  and  table-lands  (except 
on  the  borders  of  water-courses,  which  are  more  or  less  timbered  with  cot- 
ton-wood and  willows,)  are  destitute  of  wood ;  but  this  indispensable  arti- 
cle is  substituted  by  an  herb,  called  by  the  hunters  wild  sage,  which  grows 
from  one  to  five  feet  high,  and  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  most  parts 
of  the  country.  The  sterility  of  the  country  generally  is  almost  incredible. 
That  part  of  it,  however,  bounded  by  the  three  ranges  of  mountains,  and 
watered  by  the  sources  of  the  supposed  Buenaventura,  is  less  sterile  ;  yet 
the  proportion  of  arable  land,  even  within  those  limits,  is  comparatively 
small ;  and  no  district  of  the  country  visited  by  General  Ashley,  or  of 
which  he  obtained  satisfactory  information,  offers  inducements  to  civilized 
people,  sufficient  to  justify  an  expectation  of  permanent  settlement.  The 
river  visited  by  General  Ashley,  and  which  he  believes  to  be  the  Rio  Colo- 
rado of  the  west,  is,  at  about  fifty  miles  from  its  most  northern  source, 
eighty  yards  wide.  At  this  point,  General  Ashley  embarked  and  descend- 
ed the  river,  which  gradually  increased  in  width  to  one  hundred  and  eighty 


"24  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

yards.  In  passing  through  the  mountains,  the  channel  is  contracted  to 
fifty  or  sixty  yards,  and  so  much  obstructed  by  rocks  as  to  make  its  descent 
extremely  dangerous,  and  its  ascent  impracticable.  After  descending  this 
river  about  four  hundred  miles,  General  Ashley  shaped  his  course  north- 
wardly, and  fell  upon  what  he  supposed  to  be  the  sources  of  the  Buenaven- 
tura ;  he  represents  those  branches  as  bold  streams,  from  twenty  to  fifty 
yards  wide,  forming  a  junction  a  few  miles  below  where  he  crossed  them, 
and  then  emptying  into  a  lake  (called  Grand  Lake,)  represented  by  the 
Indians  as  being  forty  or  fifty  miles  wide,  and  sixty  or  seventy  miles  long. 
This  information  is  strengthened  by  that  of  the  white  hunters,  who  have 
explored  parts  of  the  lake.  The  Indians  represent,  that  at  the  extreme 
west  end  of  this  lake,  a  large  river  flows  out,  and  runs  in  a  westward  di- 
rection. General  Ashley,  when  on  those  waters,  at  first  thought  it  proba- 
ble they  were  the  sources  of  the  Multnomah :  but  the  account  given  by 
the  Indians,  supported  by  the  opinion  of  some  men  belonging  to  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  confirms  him  in  the  belief,  that  they  are  the  head-waters 
of  the  river  represented  as  the  Buenaventura.  To  the  north  and  north- 
west from  the  Grand  Lake,  the  country  is  represented  as  abounding  in 
salt.  The  Indians  west  of  the  mountains  are  remarkably  well  disposed 
towards  the  citizens  of  the  United  States ;  the  Eutaws  and  Flatheads  are 
particularly  so,  and  express  a  great  wish  that  the  Americans  should  visit 
them  frequently. 

A  large  number  of  lateral  ranges  project  to  the  south-east,  east,  and 
north-east  of  the  main  range.  Where  the  Missouri  enters  the  plains,  is 
the  most  eastern  projection ;  and  from  where  the  Jaune  leaves  the  snowy 
range,  there  is  a  lateral  range,  running  more  than  two  hundred  miles 
south-east,  which  is  intersected  by  the  Bighorn  river.  As  these  mountains 
have  not  yet  been  explored  by  the  eye  of  geological  science,  it  is  impossible 
to  say  any  thing  respecting  their  component  parts  ;  but,  from  every  thing 
that  we  can  learn  from  Pike  and  Clarke,  they  seem  to  be  chiefly  granitic. 
No  volcanoes  have  yet  been  discovered  amongst  them ;  but  strange  unu- 
sual noises  were  heard  from  the  mountains,  by  the  American  party,  when 
stationed  above  the  falls  of  the  Missouri.  These  sounds  seemed  to  come 
from  the  north-west.  '  Since  our  arrival  at  the  falls,'  says  the  narrative, 
'  we  have  repeatedly  heard  a  strange  noise  coming  from  the  mountains,  a 
little  to  the  north  of  west.  It  is  heard  at  different  periods  of  the  day  and 
night :  sometimes  when  the  air  is  perfectly  still  and  unclouded,  and  con- 
sists of  one  stroke  only,  or  of  five  or  six  discharges  in  quick  succession.  It 
is  loud,  and  resembles  precisely  the  sound  of  a  six  pounder  at  the  distance 
of  three  miles.  The  Indians  had  before  mentioned  this  noise  like  thun- 
der, but  we  had  paid  no  attention  to  it.  The  watermen  also  of  the  party 
say,  that  the  Pawnees  and  Ricaras  give  the  same  account  of  a  similar 
noise  made  in  the  Black  Mountains,  to  the  westward  of  them.'  Again, 
near  the  same  place,  it  is  afterwards  said  :  '  They  heard,  about  sunset,  two 
discharges  of  the  tremendous  mountain  artillery.'  Not  a  word  more 
occurs  upon  the  subject ;  but  we  know  that  similar  explosions  take  place 
among  the  mountains  near  the  head  of  the  Washita,  and  among  the  moun 
tains  of  Namhi,  near  the  sources  of  the  Red  river. 

In  our  present  state  of  ignorance  respecting  these  mountains,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  a  solution  of  this  phenomenon,  though  it  may  proceed  from 
some  distant  volcano,  which,  like  Stromboli,  may  be  in  a  state  of  constant 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  25 

activity,  but  more  irregularly.  It  is  well  known  that  the  sounds  of  volca- 
noes are  heard  at  very  great  distances,  as  at  Guatimala,  where  the  sound 
of  the  volcano  of  Cotopaxi  was  distinctly  heard,  though  more  than  two 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  distant.  Some  indications  of  volcanoes  had 
been  seen  by  the  American  party,  when  ascending  the  river,  about  sixty 
miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Missouri,  where  they  passed  several 
very  high  bluffs  on  the  south  side,  one  of  which  had  been  lately  a  burning 
volcano,  as  the  pumice  stones  lay  very  thick  around  it,  and  emitted  a 
strong  sulphureous  smell.  Similar  appearances  are  mentioned  by  Macken- 
zie, as  taking  place  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  their  eastern  side,  in 
north  latitude  fifty-six  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees  west  longi- 
tude. ■  Mr.  Mackay,'  says  he,  '  informed  me,  that  in  passing  over  the 
mountains,  he  observed  several  chasms  in  the  earth  that  emitted  heat  and 
smoke,  which  diffused  a  strong  sulphureous  stench.'  From  all  these 
circumstances  combined,  it  is  natural  to  infer  that  the  sound  proceeds  from 
some  very  distant  and  unknown  volcano. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi,  and  about  midway  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Alleghanies,  lies  a  broad  range  of  mountains, 
called  the  Omrks,  six  or  seven  hundred  miles  in  length,  about  one  hundred 
broad,  and  having  an  elevation  varying  from  one  to  two  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea.  This  range  of  low  mountains,  which  is  penetrated  by  two 
branches  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Arkansas  and  Red  river,  was  nearly  alto- 
gether unknown  till  within  these  few  years.  It  is  parallel  with  the  range 
of  the  Alleghanies,  making  an  angle  of  about  forty  degrees  with  the  great 
range  of  the  Andes.  As  far  as  the  Ozarks  have  yet  been  explored,  the 
granites  and  older  primitive  rocks  are  found  at  the  lowest  part,  being  sur- 
mounted by  those  of  more  recent  formation.  The  reverse  of  this  is  observ- 
ed in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A  similar  range  of  broken  and  hilly  country 
commences  on  the  Ouisconsin  river  and  extends  north  to  Lake  Superior. 
It  is  called  the  Wisconsin  or  Ouisconsin  Hills. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  MOUNTAINS. 

Mountains  are  supposed  by  naturalists  to  have  different  origins,  and  to  date 
their  commencement  from  various  periods.  Those  which  form  a  chain,  and  are 
covered  with  snow,  are  accounted  primitive,  or  antediluvian.  They  greatly  ex 
ceed  all  other  mountains  in  height ;  in  general  •  their  elevation  is  very  sudden, 
and  their  ascent  steep  and  difficult.  They  are  composed  of  vast  masses  of  quartz,  des- 
titute of  shells,  and  of  all  organized  marine  matter  ;  and  appear  to  descend  almost  per- 
pendicularly into  the  body  of  the  earth.  Of  this  kind  are  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the 
Himmaleh  ranges,  the  Atlas,  and  the  Andes.  Another  class  are  of  volcanic  origin. 
These  are  either  detached  or  surrounded  with  groups  of  lower  hills,  the  soil  of  which  is 
heaped  up  in  disorder,  and  consists  of  gravel  and  other  loose  substances.  Among 
these  are  Mount  JEtna  and  Vesuvius.  A  third  class  of  mountains,  whether  grouped  or 
isolated,  are  such  as  are  composed  of  stratified  earth  or  stone,  consisting  of  different 
substances  of  various  colors.  The  interior  consists  of  numerous  strata,  almost  hori- 
zontally disposed,  containing  shells,  marine  productions,  and  fish  bones  in  great  quan- 
tities. The  strata  of  mountains  which  are  lower  and  of  more  recent  date,  sometimes 
appear  to  rise  from  the  side  of  primitive  mountains  which  they  surround,  and  of  which 
they  form  the  first  step  in  the  ascent. 

The  mountains  in  Asia  are  the  most  elevated  and  imposing  in  the  world.  Of  these 
the  Himmaleh  chain  is  the  highest;  one  of  its  peaks,  Dhawalaghiri,  reaching  the  alti- 
tude of  twenty-eight  thousand  and  ninety-six  feet,  and  several  exceeding  twenty-four 
thousand.  Africa  has  some  extensive  chains  of  mountains,  but  the  altitudes  of  only  a 
few  have  been  ascertained.  Mont  Blanc  is  the  highest  summit  of  Europe,  reaching  an 
elevation  of  fifteen  thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty-five  feet.  The  Andes  of  South 
4  3 


26  BOOK  OF  THF  UNITED  STATES. 

America  present  the  most  striking  and  stupendous  features ;  cataracts,  volcanoes,  and 
immense  chasms  of  an  almost  perpendicular  descent.  Chimborazo,  the  highest  point  of 
the  Andes,  reaches  twenty-one  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-four  feet ;  in  many 
places  the  peaks  rise  to  upwards  of  twenty  thousand  feet,  though  in  others  they  sink  to 
less  than  one  thousand. 

In  general,  all  the  chains  of  mountains  in  the  same  continent,  seem  to  have  a  mutua. 
connection  more  or  less  apparent ;  they  form  a  sort  of  frame-work  to  the  land,  and  ap- 
pear in  the  origin  of  things  to  have  determined  the  shape  which  it  was  to  assume  ;  but 
this  analogy,  were  we  to  generalize  too  much,  would  lead  us  into  error.  There  are 
many  chains,  which  have  very  little,  or,  rather,  no  affinity  to  each  other.  Such  are  the 
mountains  of  Scandinavia  and  of  Scotland,  mountains  as  independent  as  the  character 
of  the  nations  who  inhabit  them. 

TABLE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  ELEVATIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  Long's  Peak,  the  highest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Missouri  Territory,  .   .   12,000 

2.  James's  Peak,         ...        do.       ...       do.       ..  .     11,500 

3.  Inferior  peaks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  varying  from  10,700  to        .  .     .    7,200 
|  4.  Mt.  Washington,  the  highest  of  the  White  Hills,  New  Hampshire,       .  .      6,234 

5.  Inferior  peaks  of  the  White  Hills,  varying  from  5,328  to 4,355 

6.  Mooshillock  Mt.,  Grafton  County,  New  Hampshire, 4,636 

;  7>    Mansfield  or  Chin  Mt.,  Chittenden  County,  Vermont,        4,279 

8.  Camels'  Rump,         ...     do     ...     .      do 4,188 

9.  Shrewsbury  Peak,  Rutland  County,         .     .     do 4,034 

10.  Saddleback  Mt.,  Berkshire  County,  Massachusetts,         4,000 

11.  Table  Mountain,  Pendleton  District,  South  Carolina, 4,000 

12.  Peaks  of  Otter,  Bedford  County,  Virginia,         3,955 

13.  Killington  Peak,  Rutland  County,  Vermont,       3,924 

14.  Round  Top,  the  highest  of  the  Catskill  Mountains,  New  York,        ....  3,804 

15.  High  Peak,  one  of  the  highest  of  do.         .     do.     .      .      do 3,718 

16.  Grand  Monadnock,  Cheshire  County,  New  Hampshire,         3,718 

17.  Manchester  Mountain,  Bennington  County,  Vermont,         3,706 

18.  Ascutney  Mountain,  Windsor     ...  do.     ..    do 3,320 

19.  Ozark  Mountains,  Arkansas  Territory,  average  height, 3,200 

20.  Wachuset  Mountain,  or  Mount  Adams,  Worcester  County,  Mass.,  .       .  2,990 

21.  Whiteface  Mountain,  Essex  County,  New  York,         2,690 

22.  Kearsarge  Mountain,  Hillsborough  County,  New  Hampshire,  ....  2,460 

23.  Alleghany  Mountains,  average  height, 2.400 

24.  Porcupine  Mountains,  Chippeway  County,  south  of  Lake  Superior,         .      .  2,200 

25.  Cumberland  Mountains,  average  height,        2,200 

26.  Moose  Mountain,  New  Hampshire,         2,008 

27.  New  Beacon,  the  highest  of  the  Highlands,  New  York, 1£58 


27 


CHAPTER   II.— VALLEYS. 

The  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  is  the  largest  in  the  world ;  and  differs 
from  any  other  of  very  great  extent,  in  the  peculiar  distinctness  of  its  outline. 
It  is  bounded  south  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  west  by  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
north  by  the  great  lakes  of  British  America,  and  east  by  the  Apalachian 
Mountains.  Its  general  surface  may  be  classed  under  three  distinct  aspects  ; 
the  thickly  timbered,  the  barren,  and  the  prairie  country.  This  valley 
extends  from  the  twenty-ninth  to  the  forty-ninth  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
and  exhibits  every  variation  of  temperature  from  the  climate  of  Canada  to 
that  of  Louisiana.  It  is  a  wide  extent  of  level  country,  in  which  the  various 
rivers,  inclosed  between  two  chains  of  mountains  three  thousand  miles  apart, 
find  a  common  centre,  and  discharge  their  waters  into  the  sea  by  a  single 
channel.  Geologically  considered,  this  immense  valley  presents  every 
where  the  aspect  of  what  is  called  secondary  formation.  Its  prevailing 
rocks  are  carbonate  of  lime,  disposed  in  the  most  regular  lamina,  masses  of 
limestone,  in  which  seashells  or  organic  remains  are  imbedded,  retaining 
their  distinct  and  original  form.  At  every  step,  is  presented  the  aspect  of 
a  country  once  covered  by  lakes  or  seas.  The  soil,  stones,  and  exuviae  of 
lake  or  river  formation,  are,  to  all  appearance,  of  comparatively  recent 
origin.  In  the  alluvial  soils,  to  the  depth  of  from  twenty  to  an  hundred 
feet,  are  found  pebbles,  smoothed  by  the  evident  attrition  of  waters,  having 
the  appearances  of  those  masses  of  smoothed  pebbles  that  are  thrown  on  the 
seashore  by  the  dashing  of  the  surge.  Leaves,  branches,  and  logs  are 
also  found  at  great  distances  from  the  points  where  wood  is  seen  at  present, 
and  at  great  depths  below  the  surface.  In  the  most  solid  blocks  of  lime* 
stone,  split  for  building,  deers'  horns  and  other  animal  exuviae  are  found 
incorporated  in  the  solid  stone. 

1  From  its  character  of  recent  formation,'  says  Mr.  Flint,  '  from  the 
prevalence  of  limestone  every  where,  from  the  decomposition  which  it  has 
undergone,  and  is  constantly  undergoing,  from  the  prevalence  of  decompo* 
sed  limestone  in  the  soil,  probably,  results  another  general  attribute  of  this 
valley — its  character  generally  for  uncommon  fertility.  We  would  not  be 
understood  to  assert,  that  the  country  is  every  where  alike  fertile.  It  has 
ts  sterile  sections.  There  are  here,  as  elsewhere,  infinite  diversities  of 
soil,  from  the  richest  alluvions,  to  the  most  miserable  flint  knobs ;  from 
the  tangled  cane  brakes,  to  the  poorest  pine  hills.  There  are,  too,  it  is 
well  known,  towards  the  Rocky  Mountains,  wide  belts  that  have  a  surface 
of  sterile  sands,  or  only  covered  with  a  sparse  vegetation  of  weeds  and 
coarse  grass.  But  of  the  country  in  general,  the  most  cursory  observer 
must  have  remarked,  that,  compared  with  lands,  apparently  of  the  same 
character  in  other  regions,  the  lands  here  obviously  show  marks  of  singular 
fertility.  The  most  ordinary,  third  rate,  oak  lands,  will  bring  successive 
crops  of  wheat  and  maize,  without  any  manuring,  and  with  but  little  care 
of  cultivation.  The  pine  lands  of  the  southern  regions  are  in  many  places 
cultivated  for  years,  without  any  attempts  at  manuring  them.  The  same  fact 
is  visible  in  the  manner  in  which  vegetation  in  this  country  resists  drought. 


28  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES: 

It  is  a  proverb  on  the  good  lands,  that  if  there  be  moisture  enough  to  bring-  the 
corn  to  germinate,  and  come  up,  they  will  have  a  crop,  if  no  more  rain  falls 
until  the  harvest.  We  have  a  thousand  times  observed  this  crop  continuing 
to  advance  towards  a  'fresh  and  vigorous  maturity,  under  a  pressure  of 
drought,  and  a  continuance  of  cloudless  ardor  of  sun,  that  would  have 
burned  up  and  destroyed  vegetation  in  the  Atlantic  country. 

'  We  have  supposed  this  fertility  to  arise,  either  from  an  uncommon  pro- 
portion of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil;  from  the  saline  impregnations 
mixed  with  the  earth,  as  evidenced  in  the  numberless  licks,  and  springs  of 
salt  water,  and  the  nitrous  character  of  the  soil,  wherever,  as  in  caves,  or 
under  buildings,  it  is  sheltered  from  moisture ;  or,  as  we  have  remarked, 
from  the  general  diffusion  of  dissolved  limestone,  and  marly  mixtures  over 
the  surface.  In  some  way,  spread  by  the  waters,  diffused  through  the  soil, 
or  the  result  of  former  decomposition,  there  is  evidently  much  of  the  quick- 
ening and  fertilizing  power  of  lime  mixed  with  the  soil.' 

The  greatest  length  of  the  Valley  of  the  Missouri  is  twelve  hundred 
miles,  its  greatest  breadth  seven  hundred.  In  the  direction  of  the  western 
rivers,  the  inclined  plain  of  the  Missouri  extends  eight  hundred  miles  from 
the  Chippewayan  Mountains,  and  rather  more  than  that  distance  from 
south  to  north,  from  the  southern  branches  of  the  Kansas,  to  the  extreme 
heads  of  the  northern  confluents  of  the  valley.  Ascending  from  the  lower 
verge  of  this  widely  extended  plain,  wood  becomes  more  and  more  scarce, 
until  one  naked  surface  spreads  on  all  sides.  Even  the  ridges  and  chains 
of  mountains  partake  of  these  traits  of  desolation. 

The  celebrated  valley  called  the  American  Bottom  extends  along  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Piasa  Hills,  four  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It  is  several  miles  in  width,  and  has  a  soil  e£ 
astonishing  fertility.  It  has  all  the  disadvantages  attending  tracts  of  recent 
alluvion,  the  most  valuable  parts  of  it  being  liable  to  be  swept  away  by  the 
current  of  the  Mississippi.  '  But  the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  its  soil,'  says 
Major  Long,  '  makes  amends  for  the  insalubrity  of  the  air,  and  the  incon- 
venience of  a  fiat  and  marshy  situation,  and  this  valley  is  undoubtedly 
destined  to  become  one  of  the  most  populous  parts  of  America.-  We  were 
formerly  shown  here  a  field  that  had  been  cultivated,  without  manure,  one 
hundred  years  in  succession,  and  which  when  we  saw  it,  (in  August,  1816,) 
was  covered  with  a  very  luxuriant  growth  of  corn.' 

The  Ohio  Valley  is  divided  by  the  river  into  two  unequal  sections,  leaving 
on  the  north-west  side  eighty  thousand,  and  on  the  south-east  one  hundred 
and  sixteen  thousand  square  miles.  The  river  flows  in  a  deep  ravine  five 
hundred  and  forty-eight  miles  long  in  a  straight  line,  and  nine  hundred 
and  ninety-eight  by  the  windings  of  the  stream.  In  its  natural  state  the 
Ohio  valley,  with  the  exception  of  the  central  plain,  was  covered  with  a 
dense  forest.  Open  savannahs  commence  as  far  east  as  the  sources  of  the 
Muskingum.  Like  the  plain  itself,  those  savannahs  expand  to  the  west- 
ward, and  on  the  Illinois  open  into  immense  prairies.  This  valley  may  be 
regarded  as  a  great  plain  inclining  from  the  Apalachian  system  of  the  north- 
west, obliquely  and  deeply  cut  by  the  Ohio  and  its  numerous  confluents, 
into  chasms  from  an  elevation  of  four  hundred  feet  to  nearly  the  level  oi 
the  streams.  On  the  higher  parts  of  the  valley,  the  banks  of  the  river  rise 
by  bold  acclivities  which  wear  almost  a  mountainous  aspect.  This  bold- 
ness of   outline  imperceptibly  softens  in  descending  the   Ohio,  and  on 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


29 


appToaching  the  Mississippi,  an  extent  of  level  woodland  bounds  the  hori- 
zon. Ascending  the  rivers  of  the  south-east  slope,  the  scenery  becomes 
anore  and  more  rugged,  until  it  terminates  in  the  ridges  of  the  Apalachian 
chains  :  if  the  rivers  of  the  north-west  slope  are  followed,  on  the  contrary, 
we  rind  the  landscape  broken  and  varied  near  the  Ohio,  but  around  their 
sources  flat  and  monotonous. 

The  Valley  of  the  Hudson  varies  extremely  in  its  width,  being  in  some 
places  contracted  to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  stream ;  in  others 
extending  forty  miles.  On  the  borders  of  the  river  the  land  is  generally 
elevated.   The  Mohawk  is  bordered  by  two  long  ranges  of  hills,  presenting 


Valley  of  the  Mohawk. 

little  variety  of  aspect.  In  the  early  part  of  its  course  it  flows  through 
extensive  flats.  The  valleys  of  the  Susquehanna  and  its  branches  are 
remarkably  irregular.  These  streams  traverse  the  whole  width  of  the 
Apalachian  chain  of  mountains,  sometimes  flowing  in  wide  valleys  between 
parallel  ranges  for  fifty  or  sixty  miles  in  a  direct  course,  and  at  other  times 
breaking  through  the  mountain  ridges.  The  valleys  between  the  different 
ranges  of  the  great  chain  extending  throughout  Pennsylvania  are  often 
twenty  or  thirty  miles  in  width  with  a  hiRy  or  broken  surface. 

The  only  large  valley  in  North  Carolina  lies  between  the  BJue  Ridge, 
and  a  parallel  range  called  the  Iron,  Bald,  and  Smoky  Mountains.  It  runs 
north-east  and  south-west,  is  one  hundred  .and  eighty  miles  in  length,  and 
from  ten  to  forty  in  width. 

The  valleys  of  the  small  rivers  of  Tennessee  are  singularly  beautiful  and 
fertile,  surpassing  all  others  of  the  same  description  in  the  Western  .States. 
The  valleys  of  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  differ  little  from  the  allu- 
vions of  the  other  great  rivers  ©f  the  west. 

The  Valley  of  the  Connecticut  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  valleys  of  the 
United  States  for  its  fertility  .and  beauty.     It  is  a  large  tract  of  land  extend- 

3* 


30  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ing  from  Long  Island  sound  to  Hereford  Mountains  in  Canada,  five  miles 
beyond  the  forty-fifth  degree  of  latitude.  In  the  largest  sense,  it  is  from  five 
to  forty-five  miles  in  width,  and  its  surface  is  composed  of  a  succession  of 
hills,  valleys  and  plains.  The  interval  lands  begin  about  twelve  or  fourteen 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river.  These  are  formed  by  a  long  and  con- 
tinued alluvion.  The  tributary  streams  of  the  Connecticut  run  every 
where  through  a  soft  and  rich  soil,  considerable  quantities  of  which,  par- 
ticularly the  lighter  and  finer  particles,  are  from  time  to  time  washed  into 
their  channels,  by  occasional  currents  springing  from  rains  and  melted 
snows.  Wherever  the  stream  moves  with  an  uniform  current  these  parti- 
cles are  carried  along  with  it;  but  where  the  current  is  materially  checked, 
they  are  in  greater  or  less  quantities  deposited.  In  this  manner  a  shoal  is 
formed  at  first,  which  afterwards  rises  into  dry  land ;  this  is  almost  invari- 
ably of  good  quality,  but  those  parts  which  are  lowest  are  commonly  the 
best,  as  being  the  most  frequently  overflowed,  and  therefore  most  enriched 
by  successive  deposits  of  slime.  Of  these  parts,  that  division  which  is 
farthest  down  the  river  is  the  most  productive,  consisting  of  finer  particles, 
and  being  more  plentifully  covered  with  this  manure.  In  the  spring  these 
grounds  are  almost  annually  overflowed.  In  the  months  of  March  and 
April,  the  snows,  which  in  the  northern  parts  of  New  England  are  usually 
deep,  and  the  rains,  which  at  this  time  of  the  year,  are  generally  copious, 
raise  the  river  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet,  and  extend  the  breadth  of  its 
waters  in  some  places  a  mile  and  a  half  or  two  miles.  Almost  all  the  slime 
conveyed  down  the  current  at  this  season,  is  deposited  on  these  lands,  for 
here,  principally,  the  water  becomes  quiescent,  and  permits  the  earthy 
particles  to  subside  ;  this  deposit  is  a  rich  manure  ;  the  lands  dressed  with 
it  are  preserved  in  their  full  strength,  and  being  regularly  enriched  by  the 
hand  of  nature,  cannot  but  be  highly  valuable.  Nor  are  these  grounds 
less  distinguished  by  their  beauty.  The  form  of  most  of  them  is  elegant ; 
a  river  passing  through  them  becomes,  almost  of  course,  winding ;  the 
earth  of  which  they  are  composed  is  of  a  uniform  texture,  the  impressions 
made  by  the  stream  upon  the  border  are  also  nearly  uniform ;  hence  this 
border  is  almost  universally  a  handsome  arch,  with  a  neat  margin,  fre- 
quently ornamented  with  a  fine  fringe  of  shrubs  and  trees. 

Nor  is  the  surface  of  these  grounds  less  pleasing;  their  terraced  forms  and 
undulations  are  eminently  handsome,  and  their  universal  fertility  makes  a 
cheerful  impression  on  every  eye.  A  great  part  of  them  is  formed  into 
meadows  which  are  here  more  profitable,  and  every  where  more  beautiful 
than  lands  devoted  to  any  other  culture ;  here  they  are  extended  from  five 
to  five  hundred  acres,  and  are  every  where  covered  with  a  verdure  pecu- 
liarly rich  and  vivid.  The  vast  fields  also  which  are  not  in  meadow, 
exhibit  all  the  productions  of  the  climate,  interspersed  in  parallelograms, 
divided  only  by  mathematical  lines,  and  mingled  in  a  charming  confusion. 
In  many  places,  large  and  thrifty  orchards,  and  every  where  forest  trees 
standing  singly,  of  great  height  and  graceful  figures,  diversify  the  land- 
scape. Through  its  whole  extent  this  valley  is  almost  a  continual  succes- 
sion of  delightful  scenery.  The  Connecticut  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
rivers  in  the  world ;  the  purity,  salubrity  and  sweetness  of  its  waters,  the 
frequency  and  elegance  of  its  meadows,  its  absolute  freedom  from  aquatic 
vegetables,  the  enchanting  elegance  and  grandeur  of  its  banks,  sometimes 
consisting  of  a  smooth  and  winding  beach,  here  covered  with  rich  verdure. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  31 

there  fringed  with  bushes,  now  crowned  with  lofty  trees,  and  now  formed 
6y  the  intruding  hill,  the  rude  bluff,  and  the  shaggy  mountain ;  these  are 
objects  which  no  description  can  equal. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  VALLEYS. 

Valleys  are  formed  by  the  separation  of  chains  of  mountains  or  of  hills.  Those 
which  are  formed  between  high  mountains,  are  commonly  narrow  and  long,  as  if 
they  had  originally  been  only  fissures  dividing  their  respective  chains,  or  for  the 
passage  of  extensive  torrents.  The  angles  of  their  direction  sometimes  exhibit  sin- 
gular symmetry.  In  the  Pyrenees  there  are  said  to  be  valleys  whose  salient  and  re- 
entrant angles  so  perfectly  correspond,  that  if  the  force  which  separated  them  were  to  act 
in  a  contrary  direction,  and  bring  their  sides  together  again,  they  would  unite  so  exactly 
that  even  the  fissure  would  not  be  perceived.  There  are  some  highly  situated  valleys 
containing  rivers  and  lakes  which  have  no  outlets  or  streams.  Most  high  valleys  have 
their  surface  upon  a  level  with  the  summits  of  the  secondary  mountains  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  lower  valleys  widen  as  they  recede  from  the  secondary  mountains  from 
which  they  originate,  and  gradually  lose  themselves  in  the  plains.  Their  opposite  angles 
correspond  regularly,  but  are  very  obtuse. 

The  sort  of  narrow  passage  by  which  we  enter  into  these  high  valleys  is  called  a 
pass  or  defile.  Between  Norway  and  Sweden  is  one  of  these  passes,  formed  by  several 
masses  of  rock  cut  by  nature  into  the  shape  of  long  parallelograms,  and  which  have 
between  them  a  passage  shut  in  by  perpendicular  walls.  This  pass  is  near  Skiaerdal ; 
another  of  the  same  kind  is  at  Portfeld,  or  the  Mountain  of  the  Gate.  These  openings 
exactly  resemble  those  by  which  the  Hudson  passes  through  successive  chains  of  moun- 
tains, which  seem  desirous  of  checking  its  course.  The  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes  present 
the  most  stupendous  passes  of  this  kind  that  are  known  j  they  are  from  four  to  five 
thousand  feet  deep. 

The  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  Connecticut  are  equalled  by  few  in  the  old  world  for 
natural  beauty  and  romantic  scenery.  Of  the  valleys  of  Europe,  that  of  the  Rhine  is 
most  celebrated ;  and  is  only  more  interesting  than  the  Hudson  on  account  of  its  old 
historical  associations,  its  populous  cities,  and  the  picturesque  ruins  and  massive  monu- 
ments of  architecture  which  frown  upon  its  banks. 


32 


CHAPTER  III.— PRAIRIES  AND  PLAINS. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  western  country  consists  in 
its  extensive  prairies  or  savannahs,  which  prevail  in  all  the  vast  region 
between  the  Alleghany  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  also  to  the  west  ot 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  When  seen  from  the  summits  of  the  Mexican  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  they  seem  absolutely  boundless  to  the  view.  They 
are  not  to  be  considered  merely  as  dead  flat,  but  undulating  into  gentle 
swelling  lawns,  and  expanding  into  spacious  valleys,  in  the  centre  of  which 
is  always  found  a  little  timber,  growing  on  the  banks  of  the  brooks  and 
rivulets  of  the  finest  water.  Pike,  who  viewed  them  from  the  summit  of 
the  Blue  Mountain,  under  the  source  of  the  Arkansaw,  says,  '  the  un- 
bounded prairie  was  overhung  with  clouds,  which  seemed  like  the  ocean 
in  a  storm,  wave  piled  on  wave,  and  foaming ;  while  the  sky  over  our 
heads  was  perfectly  clear,  and  the  prospect  was  truly  sublime.'  In  these 
vast  prairies  the  soil  is  dry,  sandy,  with  gravel ;  but  the  moment  we  ap- 
proach a  stream,  the  land  becomes  more  humid,  with  small  timber.  It  is 
probable  that  these  steppes  or  prairies  were  never  well  wooded,  as,  from 
the  earliest  ages,  the  aridity  of  the  soil,  having  so  few  water-courses  run- 
ning through  it,  and  these  being  principally  dry  in  summer,  no  sufficient 
nourishment  has  been  afforded  to  the  growth  of  timber.  In  all  timbered 
land,  the  annual  discharge  of  the  leaves,  with  the  continual  decay  of 
old  trees  and  branches,  creates  a  manure  and  moisture,  which  are  preserv- 
ed from  the  heat — the  sun  not  being  permitted  to  direct  his  rays  perpen- 
dicularly, but  to  shed  them  only  obliquely  through  the  foliage.  But  in 
Upper  Louisiana,  a  barren  soil,  dried  up  for  eight  months  in  the  year,  pre- 
sents neither  moisture  nor  nutriment  for  the  growth  of  wood. 

These  vast  plains  of  Louisiana,  near  the  upper  courses  of  the  Ar- 
kansaw, with  its  tributary  streams,  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Kanzas. 
White  and  Grand  Osage  rivers,  may  become  in  time  like  the  sandy 
deserts  of  Africa ;  '  for,'  says  Pike, '  I  saw  in  my  route,  in  various  places, 
tracts  of  many  leagues,  where  the  wind  had  thrown  up  the  sand  in  all  the 
fancied  forms  of  the  ocean's  rolling  waves,  and  on  which  not  a  single  speck 
of  vegetation  appeared.'  From  this  circumstance  Pike  deduces  the  follow- 
ing remark :  '  From  these  immense  prairies  may  arise  a  great  advantage 
to  the  United  States,  namely,  the  restriction  of  our  population  to  some 
certain  limits,  and  thereby  a  continuation  of  the  Union.  Our  citizens  being 
so  prone  to  rambling,  and  extending  themselves  on  the  frontiers,  will, 
through  necessity,  be  compelled  to  limit  their  extent  on  the  west  to  the 
"borders  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi ;  while  they  leave  the  prairies,  in- 
capable of  cultivation,  to  the  wandering  and  uncivilized  aborigines  of  the 
country.'  These  prairies,  from  the  borders  of  the  Mississippi,  on  the  east, 
to  the  base  of  the  Mexican  Alps  on  the  west,  rise  with  a  continually  in- 
creasing acclivity  for  many  hundred  miles,  till,  at  the  base  of  the  mountains, 
they  attain  an  elevation  of  eight  thousand  feet,  as  we  are  informed  by  Pike, 
which  is  greater  than  the  elevated  level  of  the  great  desert  of  Gobi,  on  the 
noith-west  of  China,  estimated  by  Du  Halde  to  be  five  thousand  five 


{ 


US  J 


A>, 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  33 

hundred  and  eleven  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  or  the  great  arid 
desert,  to  the  north  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  traversed  by  the  Orange 
river,  and  lately  visited  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Campbell,  the  elevation  of  which 
is  estimated  by  Colonel  Gordon  at  six  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty-one 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  addition  to  the  aridity  of  the  Louisiana 
prairies,  they  are  so  impregnated  with  nitre,  and  other  salts,  as  to  taint  the 
waters  that  flow  in  various  directions.  Pike  says,  that  for  leagues  togeth- 
er, they  are  covered  with  saline  incrustations ;  and  a  number  of  tributary 
streams  descending  into  the  Arkansaw  and  Kanzas  rivers  are  perfect  sa- 
lines ;  and  beyond  the  river  Platte,  as  we  are  informed  by  Colonel  Lewis, 
the  lands  are  not  only  destitute  of  timber,  but  even  of  good  water,  of  which 
there  is  but  a  small  quantity  in  the  creeks,  and  even  that  is  brackish.  The 
same  saline  incrustations  pervade  the  prairies  on  the  Upper  Missouri ;  and 
the  same  want  of  timber,  little  or  no  dew,  with  very  little  rain,  continues 
till  the  neighborhood  of  the  mountains. 

The  calcareous  districts,  which  form  the  great  portion  of  the  region  west 
of  the  Alleghanies,  present  certain  tracts  entirely  divested  of  trees,  which 
are  called  barrens,  though  capable  of  being  rendered  productive.  The 
cause  of  this  peculiarity  has  not  been  accurately  examined.  Those  parts 
of  this  region  which  are  elevated  three  or  four  hundred  feet,  and  lie  along; 
deeply  depressed  beds  of  rivers,  are  clothed  with  the  richest  forests  in  the 
world.  The  Ohio  flows  under  the  shade  of  the  plane  and  the  tulip  tree, 
like  a  canal  dug  in  a  nobleman's  park ;  while  the  lianas,  extending  from 
tree  to  tree,  form  graceful  arches  of  flowers  and  foliage  over  branches  of 
the  river.  Passing  to  the  south,  the  wild  orange  tree  mixes  with  the  odori- 
ferous and  the  common  laurel.  The  straight  silvery  column  of  the  papaw 
fig,  which  rises  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet,  and  is  crowned  with  a  canopy 
of  large  indented  leaves,  forms  one  of  the  most  striking  ornaments  of  this 
enchanting  scene.  Above  all  these,  towers  the  majestic  magnolia,  which 
shoots  up  from  that  calcareous  soil  to  the  height  of  more  than  one  hundred 
feet.  Its  trunk,  perfectly  straight,  is  surmounted  with  a  thick  and  expand- 
ed head,  the  pale  green  foliage  of  which  affects  a  conical  figure.  From 
the  centre  of  the  flowery  crown  which  terminates  its  branches,  a  flower  of 
the  purest  white  rises,  having  the  form  of  a  rose,  and  to  which  succeeds  a 
crimson  cone.  This,  in  opening,  exhibits  rounded  seed  of  the  finest  coral 
red,  suspended  by  delicate  threads  six  inches  long.  Thus,  by  its  flowers, 
its  fruit,  and  its  gigantic  size,  the  magnolia  surpasses  all  its  rivals  of  the 
forest. 

The  following  excellent  description  of  the  prairie  country  is  from  the 
pen  of  Mr.  James  Hall.  '  That  these  vast  plains  should  be  totally  des- 
titute of  trees,  seems  to  be  an  anomaly  in  the  economy  of  nature.  Upon 
the  mind  of  an  American,  especially,  accustomed  to  see  new  lands  clothed 
with  timber,  and  to  associate  the  idea  of  damp  and  silent  fdrests  with  that 
of  a  new  country,  the  appearance  of  sunny  plains,  and  a  diversified  land- 
scape, untenanted  by  man,  and  unimproved  by  art,  is  singular  and  striking. 
Perhaps  if  our  imaginations  were  divested  of  those  associations,  the  subject 
would  present  less  difficulty  ;  and  if  we  could  reason  abstractly,  it  might 
be  as  easy  to  account  for  the  existence  of  a  prairie  as  of  a  forest. 

'  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  first  covering  of  the  earth  would  be 
composed  of  such  plants  as  arrived  at  maturity  in  the  shortest  time. 
Annual  plants  would  ripen,  and  scatter  their  seeds  many  times  before  trees 
5 


$4  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  ST1TE3. 

and  shrubs  would  acquire  the  power  of  reproducing  their  own  species.  In 
the  mean  time,  the  propagation  of  the  latter  would  be  likely  to  be  retarded 
by  a  variety  of  accidents — the  frosts  would  nip  their  tender  stems  in  the 
winter — fire  would  consume,  or  the  blasts  would  shatter  them — and  the 
wild  grazing  animals  would  bite  them  off,  or  tread  them  under  foot ;  while 
many  of  their  seeds,  particularly  such  as  assume  the  form  of  nuts  or  fruits, 
would  be  devoured  by  animals.  The  grasses,  which  are  propagated  both 
by  the  root  and  by  seed,  are  exempt  from  the  operation  of  almost  all 
these  casualties.  Providence  has,  with  unerring  wisdom,  fitted  every  pro- 
duction of  nature  to  sustain  itself  against  the  accidents  to  which  it  is  most 
exposed,  and  has  given  to  those  plants  which  constitute  the  food  of  animals, 
a  remarkable  tenacity  of  life ;  so  that  although  bitten  off,  and  trodden,  and 
even  burned,  they  still  retain  the  vital  principle.  That  trees  have  a  similar 
power  of  self  protection,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  is  evident  from  their 
present  existence  in  a  state  of  nature.  We  only  assume  that  in  the  earliest 
state  of  being,  the  grasses  would  have  the  advantage  over  plants  less  hardy, 
and  of  slower  growth ;  and  that  when  both  are  struggling  together  for  the 
possession  of  the  soil,  the  former  would  at  first  gain  the  ascendancy ; 
although  the  latter,  in  consequence  of  their  superior  size  and  strength, 
would  finally,  if  they  should  ever  get  possession  of  any  portion  of  the  soil, 
entirely  overshadow  and  destroy  their  humble  rivals. 

'  We  have  no  means  of  determining  at  what  period  the  fires  began  to 
sweep  over  these  plains,  because  we  know  not  when  they  began  to  be 
inhabited.  It  is  quite  possible  they  might  have  been  occasionally  fired  by 
lightning,  previous  to  the  introduction  of  that  element  by  human  agency. 
At  all  events,  it  is  very  evident  that  as  soon  as  fire  began  to  be  used  in  this 
country  by  its  inhabitants,  the  annual  burning  of  the  prairies  must  have 
commenced.  One  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  climate  is  the  dryness  of  its 
summers  and  autumns.  A  drought  often  commences  in  August,  which, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  showers  towards  the  close  of  that  month,  con- 
tinues throughout  the  season.  The  autumnal  months  are  almost  invariably 
clear,  warm,  and  dry.  The  immense  mass  of  vegetation  with  which  this 
fertile  soil  loads  itself  during  summer,  is  suddenly  withered,  and  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth  is  covered  with  combustible  materials.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  prairies  where  the  grass  grows  to  the  height  of  from  six  to  ten  feet, 
and  being  entirely  exposed  to  the  sun  and  wind,  dries  with  great  rapidity. 
A  single  spark  of  fire,  falling  any  where  upon  these  plains  at  such  a  time, 
would  instantly  kindle  a  blaze,  which  would  spread  on  every  side,  and 
continue  its  destructive  course  as  long  as  it  should  find  fuel.  Travellers 
have  described  these  fires  as  sweeping  with  a  rapidity  which  renders  it 
hazardous  to  fly  before  them.  Such  is  not  the  case ;  or  it  is  true  only  of  a 
few  rare  instances.  The  flames  often  extend  across  a  wide  prairie,  and 
advance  in  a  long  line.  No  sight  can  be  more  sublime  than  to  behold  in 
the  night  a  stream  of  fire  of  several  miles  in  breadth,  advancing  across 
these  wide  plains,  leaving  behind  it  a  black  cloud  of  smoke,  and  throwing 
before  it  a  vivid  glare  which  lights  up  the  whole  landscape  with  the  bril- 
liancy of  noonday.  A  roaring  and  cracking  sound  is  heard  like  the  rushing 
of  a  hurricane.  The  flame,  which  in  general  rises  to  the  height  of  about 
twenty  feet,  is  seen  sinking  and  darting  upwards  in  spires,  precisely  as  the 
waves  dash  against  each  other,  and  as  the  spray  flies  up  into  the  air ;  and 
the  whole  appearance  is  often  that  of  a  boiling  and  flaming  sea,   riolently 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  35 

agitated.  The  progress  of  the  fire  is  so  slow,  and  the  heat  so  great,  that 
every  combustible  object  in  its  course  is  consumed.  Wo  to  the  farmer 
whose  ripe  cornfields  extend  into  the  prairie,  and  who  suffers  the  tall  grass 
to  grow  in  contact  with  his  fences  !  The  whole  labor  of  the  year  is  swept 
away  in  a  few  hours.  But  such  accidents  are  comparatively  unfrequent, 
as  the  preventive  is  simple,  and  easily  applied. 

'  It  will  be  readily  seen,  that  as  soon  as  these  fires  commenced,  all  the 
young  timber  within  their  range  must  have  been  destroyed.  The  whole 
state  of  Illinois,  being  one  vast  plain,  the  fires  kindled  in  different  places, 
would  sweep  over  the  whole  surface,  with  a  few  exceptions,  of  which  we 
are  now  to  speak.  In  the  bottom-lands,  and  along  the  margins  of  streams, 
the  grass  and  herbage  remain  green  until  late  in  the  autumn,  owing  to  the 
moisture  of  the  soil.  Here  the  fire  would  stop  for  want  of  fuel,  and  the 
shrubs  would  thus  escape  from  year  to  year,  and  the  outer  bark  acquire 
sufficient  hardness  to  protect  the  inner  and  more  vital  parts  of  the  tree. 
The  margins  of  the  streams  would  thus  become  fringed  with  thickets, 
which,  by  shading  the  ground,  would  destroy  the  grass,  while  it  would 
prevent  the  moisture  of  the  soil  from  being  rapidly  evaporated,  so  that  even 
the  fallen  leaves  would  never  become  so  thoroughly  dry  as  the  grass  of  the 
prairies,  and  the  fire  here  would  find  comparatively  little  fuel.  These 
thickets  grow  up  into  strips  of  forests,  which  continue  to  extend  until  they 
reach  the  high  table-land  of  the  prairie ;  and  so  true  is  this,  in  fact,  that 
we  see  the  timber  now,  not  only  covering  all  the  bottom-lands  and  hill 
sides,  skirting  the  streams,  but  wherever  a  ravine  or  hollow  extends  from 
the  low  grounds  up  into  the  plain,  these  are  filled  with  young  timber  of 
more  recent  growth.  But  the  moment  we  leave  the  level  plane  of  the 
country,  we  see  the  evidences  of  a  continual  struggle  between  the  forest 
and  the  prairie.  At  one  place,  where  the  fire  has  on  some  occasion  burned 
with  greater  fierceness  than  usual,  it  has  successfully  assailed  the  edges 
of  the  forest,  and  made  deep  inroads ;  at  another,  the  forest  has  pushed  out 
long  points  or  capes  into  the  prairie. 

•  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  prairies  were  caused  by  hurricanes, 
which  had  blown  down  the  timber  and  left  it  in  a  condition  to  be  consumed 
by  fire,  after  it  was  dried  by  laying  on  the  ground.  A  single  glance  at  the 
immense  region  in  which  the  prairie  surface  predominates,  must  refute 
this  idea.  Hurricanes  are  quite  limited  in  their  sphere  of  action.  Although 
they  sometimes  extend  for  miles  in  length,  their  track  is  always  narrow, 
and  often  but  a  few  hundred  yards  in  breadth.  It  is  a  well  known  fact, 
that  wherever  the  timber  has  been  thus  prostrated,  a  dense  and  tangled 
thicket  shoots  up  immediately,  and,  protected  by  the  fallen  trees,  grows 
with  uncommon  vigor. 

'  Some  have  imagined  that  our  prairies  have  been  lakes  ;  but  this  hy- 
pothesis is  not  tenable.  If  the  whole  state  of  Illinois  is  imagined  to  have 
been  one  lake,  it  ought  to  be  shown  that  it  has  a  general  concavity  of  sur- 
face. But  so  far  from  this  being  true,  the  contrary  is  the  fact ;  the  highest 
parts  of  the  state  are  in  its  centre.  If  we  suppose,  as  some  assert,  that  each 
prairie  was  once  a  lake,  we  are  met  by  the  same  objection;  as  a  general 
rule,  the  prairies  are  highest  in  the  middle,  and  have  a  gradual  declivity 
towards  the  sides  ;  and  when  we  reach  the  timber,  instead  of  finding  banks 
corresponding  with  the  shores  of  a  lake,  we  almost  invariably  find  valleys, 
ravines,  and  water-courses  depressed  considerably  below  the  general  level 
of  the  plain. 


36  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

| 

1  Wherever  hills  are  found  rising  above  the  common  plane  of  the  country, 
they  are  clothed  with  timber ;  and  the  same  fact  is  true  of  all  broken  lands. 
This  fact  affords  additional  evidence  in  support  of  our  theory.  Most  of  the 
land  in  such  situations  is  poor ;  the  grass  would  be  short,  and  if  burned  at 
all,  would  occasion  but  little  heat.  In  other  spots,  the  progress  of  the  fire 
would  be  checked  by  rocks  and  ravines  ;  and  in  no  case  would  there  be 
that  accumulation  of  dry  material  which  is  found  on  the  fertile  plain,  nor 
that  broad,  unbroken  surface,  and  free  exposure,  which  are  necessary  to 
afford  full  scope  to  the  devouring  element. 

c  By  those  who  have  never  seen  this  region,  a  very  tolerable  idea  may 
be  formed  of  the  manner  in  which  the  prairie  and  forest  alternate,  by 
drawing  a  colored  line  of  irregular  thickness,  along  the  edges  of  all  the 
watercourses  laid  down  on  the  map.  This  border  would  generally  vary 
from  one  to  five  or  six  miles,  and  often  extend  to  twelve.  As  the  streams 
approach  each  other,  these  borders  would  approach  or  come  in  contact ;  and 
all  the  intermediate  spaces  not  thus  colored  would  be  prairie.  It  would  be 
seen  that  in  the  point  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi, 
the  forest  would  cover  all  the  ground ;  and  that,  as  these  rivers  diverge, 
and  their  tributaries  spread  out,  the  prairies  would  predominate.' 

Between  the  Platte  river,  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Colorado  and 
Sabine  rivers,  there  is  an  extensive  desert  tract,  which  has  been  called  the 
Great  American  Desert,  stretching  from  the  Ozark  Mountains  to  the  Chip- 
pewan.  Over  this  desert  the  members  of  Long's  expedition  travelled 
nearly  a  thousand  miles.  The  intense  reflection  of  light  and  heat,  from 
this  tract,  added  much  to  the  fatigue  and  suffering  of  their  journey.  '  We 
often  met  with  extensive  districts  covered  entirely  with  loose  and  fine  sand, 
blown  from  the  adjacent  hills.  In  the  low  plains  along  the  river  where 
the  soil  is  permanent,  it  is  nighty  impregnated  with  saline  substances,  and 
too  sterile  to  produce  any  thing  except  a  few  stinted  carices  and  rushes.' 
As  we  approached  the  mountains,  we  felt  or  fancied  a  very  manifest 
change  in  the  character  of  the  weather,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
Mornings  and  evenings  were  usually  calm,  and  the  heat  more  oppressive 
than  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Early  in  the  forenoon,  a  light  and  refreshing 
breeze  often  sprung  up,  blowing  from  the  west  or  south-west,  which  again 
subsided  on  the  approach  of  night.  This  phenomenon  was  so  often  observed, 
that  we  were  induced  to  attribute  it  to  the  operation  of  the  same  local 
cause,  which  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea  produces  a  diurnal  change  in 
the  winds,  which  blow  alternately  to  and  from  the  shore.  The  Rocky 
Mountains  may  be  considered  as  forming  the  shore  of  that  sea  of  sand, 
which  is  traversed  by  the  Platte,  and  extends  northward  to  the  Missouri 
above  the  great  bend.  The  rarefaction  of  the  air  over  this  great  plain,  by 
the  reverberation  of  the  sun's  rays  during  the  day,  causes  an  ascending 
current,  which  is  supplied  by  the  rushing  down  of  the  condensed  air  from 
the  mountains.  *  #  %  *  For  several  days  the  sky  had  been  clear,  and  in 
the  morning  we  had  observed  an  unusual  degree  of  transparency  in  every 
part  of  the  atmosphere.  As  the  day  advanced,  and  the  heat  of  the  sun 
began  to  be  felt,  such  quantities  of  vapor  were  seen  to  ascend  from  every 
part  of  the  plain,  that  all  objects  at  a  little  distance  appeared  magnified,  and 
variously  distorted.  An  undulating  and  tremulous  motion  in  ascending 
lines  was  manifest  over  every  part  of  the  surface.  Commencing  soon  after 
sunrise  it  continued  to  increase  in  quantity  until  the  afternoon,  when  ij 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  37 

diminished  gradually,  keeping  an  even  pace  with  the  intensity  of  the  sun'a 
heat.  The  density  of  the  vapor  was  often  such  as  to  produce  the  perfect 
image  of  a  pool  of  water  in  every  valley  upon  which  we  could  look  down 
at  an  angle  of  about  ten  degrees.  Tiiis  aspect  was  several  times  seen  so 
perfect  and  beautiful  as  to  deceive  almost  every  one  of  our  party.  A  herd 
of  bisons,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile,  seemed  to  be  standing  in  a  pool  of 
water,  and  what  appeared  to  us  the  reflected  image  was  as  distinctly  seen 
as  the  animal  itself.^  Illusions  of  this  kind  are  common  in  the  African 
and  Asiatic  deserts,  as  we  learn  from  travellers  and  from  the  language  of 
poets.' 

The  Pine  Plains  are  a  district  of  sandy  alluvion,  bounded  by  the  gra- 
velly soil  of  Guilderland  and  Duanesburgh  on  the  south-west,  and  by  the 
river  alluvions  of  Niskayuna  and  Watervliet,  on  the  north-east,  and  cover- 
ing an  area  of  about  seventy  square  miles.  This  tract  is  included  in  a 
triangle  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Mohawk  with  the  Hudson,  and  of 
which  the  Helleberg,  a  lofty  chain  of  highlands,  visible  from  the  plains  at 
the  distance  of  twenty  miles,  forms  the  south-western  boundary.  Situated 
near  the  centre  of  a  state,  computed  at  forty  thousand  square  miles,  and 
containing  a  population  of  nearly  two  million  souls,  this  tract  presents 
the  topographical  novelty  of  an  unreclaimed  desert,  in  the  heart  of  one  of 
the  oldest  counties  in  the  state,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  people  characterized 
for  enterprise  and  public  spirit.  Several  attempts  have  lately  been  made 
to  bring  this  tract  into  cultivation,  and  from  the  success  which  has  attended 
the  introduction  of  gypsum,  and  other  improved  modes  of  agriculture,  it  is 
probable  the  whole  will,  at  some  future  period,  be  devoted  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  various  species  of  grasses,  fruit  trees,  and  esculent  roots ;  three 
branches  of  agriculture  to  which  its  sandy  soil  seems  admirably  adapted, 

GENERAL   REMARKS   ON   PLAINS  AND   PRAIRIES. 

Plains  like  valleys  are  of  two  classes;  the  high  plains,  which  are  found  between 
two  chains  of  mountains,  are  frequently  of  great  extent,  and  are  placed  as  it  were 
upon  the  shoulders  of  secondary  mountains ;  such  are  the  elevated  plains  of  Tar- 
tary,  of  Persia,  and  probably  of  the  interior  of  Africa.  The  plains  of  Quito  are  twelve 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  those  of  Karakorum,  in  Chinese  Mongolia,  are 
probably  as  elevated.  The  low  plains,  whose  soil  is  composed  of  sand,  gravel  and 
shells,  seem  formerly  to  have  been  the  basins  of  interior  seas.  Such  are  the  plains  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Caspian,  the  large  plain  to  the  south  of  the  Baltic,  and  that  through 
which  the  river  of  the  Amazon  flows  ;  the  Tehama  of  Arabia,  the  Delta  of  Egypt,  and 
others  of  a  similar  nature,  which  seem  to  have  been  once  covered  by  the  waters  of  the 
ocean  and  its  gulfs.  The  immense  plains  covered  with  grass,  called  prairies  in  the 
United  States,  are  the  steppes  of  Asia,  and  the  pampas  of  South  America. 

*  It  is  common  in  our  own  country,  says  the  London  Monthly  Review,  for  ground  mists 
to  assume  the  appearance  of  water,  to  make  a  meadow  seem  inundated,  and  to  change  a 
valley  into  a  lake  ;  but  these  mists  never  reflect  the  surrounding  trees  and  hills.  Hence 
the  mirage  must  consist  of  a  peculiar  gas,  of  which  the  particles  are  combined  by  a 
stronger  attraction  of  cohesion  than  the  vapors  of  real  water ;  the  liquor  silicum  of  the 
alchemists  is  described  as  exhibiting  in  some  circumstances  this  glossy  surface,  yet  as 
being  equally  evanescent. 


38 


CHAPTER  IV.— RIVERS. 

All  the  rivers  of  the  United  States,  of  the  first  magnitude,  have  their 
Sources,  either  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  or  in  elevated  spurs  projecting 
from  the  sides  of  that  range.  Many  of  the  rivers  which  descend  from  the 
western  sides  of  the  Alleghanies  are  of  inconsiderable  volume,  and  by  no 
means  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  or  the  directness  of  their  course.  Those 
which  flow  from  the  eastern  and  southern  sides  of  these  mountains  are 
worthy  of  extended  description,  even  in  the  same  pages  with  the  great  tri- 
butaries of  the  Mississippi.  They  afford  the  advantages  of  a  good  inland 
navigation  to  most  parts  of  the  states. 

i.  rivers  Which  flow  into  the  Mississippi,  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  Mississippi  with  its  branches  drains  the  great  central  basin  which 
lies  between  the  Alleghany  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  river  has  its 
rise  in  the  table-lands  within  the  territories  of  the  United  States,  in  north 
latitude  forty-seven  degrees  and  forty-seven  minutes,  at  an  altitude  of 
thirteen  hundred  and  thirty  feet  above  the  Atlantic,  though  the  country  at 
its  source  appears  like  a  vast  marshy  valley.  Mr.  Schoolcraft  fixes  it  in 
Cassina  Lake,  which  is  situated  seventeen  degrees  north  of  the  Balize  on 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  two  thousand  nine  hundred  and  seventy-eight 
miles,  pursuing  the  course  of  the  river.  Estimating  the  distance  to  Lake 
La  Beesh,  its  extreme  north-western  inlet  at  sixty  miles,  we  have  a  result 
of  three  thousand  and  thirty-eight  miles  as  the  entire  length  of  this  won- 
derful river.  Mr.  Schoolcraft,  in  his  very  interesting  Journal  of  Travels, 
observed  that  he  believed  there  was  no  one  then  living,  beside  himself, 
Who  had  visited  both  the  sources  and  the  mouth  of  this  celebrated  stream. 
As  the  description  furnished  by  this  gentleman  is  the  clearest  and  most 
complete  that  we  find,  we  have  taken  the  liberty  to  transfer  it  to  our  pages, 
Without  mutilation  :— 

'  In  deciding  upon  the  physical  character  of  the  Mississippi,  it  may  be 
advantageously  considered  under  four  natural  divisions,  as  indicated  by  the 
permanent  differences  in  the  color  of  its  waters — the  geological  character 
of  its  bed  and  banks, — its  forest  trees  and  other  vegetable  productions, — its 
Velocity,— -the  difficulties  it  opposes  to  navigation, — and  other  natural  ap- 
pearances and  circumstances. 

1  Originating  in  a  region  of  lakes,  upon  the  table-lands,  which  throw  their 
Waters  north  into  Hudson's  Bay, — south  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico, — and 
east  into  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence — it  pursues  its  course  to  the  falls  of 
Peckagama,  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and  thirty  miles,  through  a  low 
prairie,  covered  with  wild  rice,  rushes,  sword  grass,  and  other  aquatic 
plants.  During  this  distance,  it  is  extremely  devious  as  to  course  and 
width,  sometimes  expanding  into  small  lakes,  at  others,  narrowing  into  a 
channel  of  about  eighty  feet.  It  is  about  sixty  feet  wide  on  its  exit  from 
Ifced  Cedar  or  Cassina  Lake,  with  an  average  depth  of  two  feet;  but  from 
the  junction  of  the  Leech  Lake  fork,  increases  to  a  hundred  feet  in  width, 
With  a  corresponding  increase  of  depth     Its  current,  during  this  distance 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  39 

is  still  and  gentle ;  and  its  mean  velocity  may  be  estimated  at  a  mile  and 
a  half  per  hour,  with  a  descent  of  three  inches  per  mile.  This  is  the 
favorite  resort  of  water-fowl,  and  amphibious  quadrupeds. 

1  At  the  falls  of  Peckagama,  the  firs4  rock  stratum,  and  the  first  wooded 
island,  is  seen.  Here  the  river  has  a  fall  of  twenty  feet ;  and  from  this  to 
the  falls  of  St.  Anthony,  a  distance  of  six  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles, 
exhibits  its  second  characteristic  division.  At  the  head  of  the  falls  of 
Peckagama,  the  prairies  entirely  cease  ;  and  below,  a  forest  of  elm,  maple, 
birch,  oak,  and  ash,  overshadows  the  stream.  The  black  walnut  is  first  seen 
below  Sandy  Lake  river,  and  the  sycamore  below  the  river  De  Corbeau. 
The  river,  in  this  distance,  has  innumerable  well  wooded  islands,  and 
receives  a  number  of  tributaries,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  river  De  Cor- 
beau, its  great  south-western  fork.  The  Pine,  Elk,  Sac,  and  Crow  rivers, 
also  enter  on  the  west,  and  the  St.  Francis  and  Missisawgaiegon,  on  the 
east.  The  course  of  the  river,  although  serpentine,  is  less  so,  than  above 
the  falls  of  Peckagama,  and  its  bends  are  not  so  short  and  abrupt.  Its 
mean  width  may  be  estimated  at  three  hundred  feet  until  the  junction  of  the 
De  Corbeau,  and  below  that  at  two  hundred  and  fifty  yards.  Its  naviga- 
tion is  impeded,  agreeably  to  a  memorandum  which  I  have  kept,  by  thirty- 
five  rapids,  nineteen  ripples,  and  two  minor  falls,  called  the  Little  and  the 
Big  Falls,  in  all  of  which  the  river  has  an  aggregate  descent  of  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-four  feet  in  fourteen  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty 
yards,  or  about  eight  miles.  The  mean  fall  of  the  current,  exclusive  of 
the  rapids,  may  be  computed  at  six  inches  per  mile,  and  its  velocity  at  three 
miles  per  hour.  In  the  course  of  this  distance  it  receives  several  small 
turbid  streams,  and  acquires  a  brownish  hue,  but  still  preserves  its  transpa- 
rency, and  is  palatable  drink-water.  A  few  miles  above  the  river  Cor- 
beau, on  the  east  side,  we  observe  the  first  dry  prairies,  or  natural  meadows, 
and  they  continue  to  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony.  These  prairies  are  the 
great  resort  of  the  buffalo,  elk,  and  deer,  and  are  the  only  parts  of  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi  where  the  buffalo  is  now  to  be  found.  Granite  rocks 
appear  at  several  of  the  rapids,  in  rolled  pieces,  and  in  beds ;  and  in  some 
places  attain  an  elevation  of  one  or  two  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
water,  but  the  banks  of  the  river  are  generally  alluvial. 

*  At  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony,  the  river  has  a  perpendicular  pitch  of 
forty  feet,  and  from  this  to  its  junction  with  the  Missouri,  a  distance  of 
eight  hundred  and  forty-three  miles,  it  is  bounded  by  limestone  bluffs, 
which  attain  various  elevations  from  one  to  four  hundred  feet,  and  present 
a  succession  of  the  most  sublime  and  picturesque  views.  This  forms  the 
third  characteristic  change  of  the  Mississippi.  The  river  prairies  cease, 
and  the  rocky  bluffs  commence  precisely  at  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony. 
Nine  miles  below  it  receives  the  St.  Peter's  from  the  west,  and  is  succes- 
sively swelled  on  that  side  by  the  Ocano,  Iowa,  Turkey,  Desmoines,  and 
Salt  rivers,  and  on  the  east  by  the  St.  Croix,  Chippeway,  Black,  Ouiscon- 
sin,  Rock,  and  Illinois.  One  hundred  miles  below  the  falls  of  St.  An- 
thony, the  river  expands  into  a  lake,  called  Pepin,  which  is  twenty-four 
miles  long  and  four  in  width.  It  is,  on  issuing  from  this  lake,  that  the 
river  first  exhibits,  in  a  striking  manner,  those  extensive  and  moving  sand- 
bars, innumerable  islands  and  channels,  and  drifts  and  snags,  which  con- 
tinue to  characterize  it  to  the  ocean.  Its  bends  from  this  point  onward  are 
larger,  and  its  course  more  direct ;  and  although  its  waters  are  adulterated 


40  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

by  several  dark  colored  and  turbid  streams,  it  may  still  be  considered  trans* 
parent.  The  principal  impediments  to  navigation  in  this  distance  are  the 
Desmoines,  and  Rock  river  rapids.  The  latter  extends  six  miles,  and  op- 
poses an  effectual  barrier  to  steam-boat  navigation,  although  keel-boats  and 
barges  of  the  largest  classes,  may  ascend.  This  rapid  is  three  hundred 
and  ninety  miles  above  St.  Louis. 

1  The  fourth  change  in  the  physical  aspect  of  this  river  is  at  the  junction 
of  the  Missouri,  and  this  is  a  total  and  complete  one,  the  character  of  the 
Mississippi  being  entirely  lost  in  that  of  the  Missouri.  The  latter  is,  in 
fact,  much  the  larger  stream  of  the  two,  and  carries  its  characteristic  ap- 
pearances to  the  ocean.  It  should  also  have  carried  the  name,  but  its 
exploration  took  place  too  long  after  the  course  of  the  Mississippi  had  been 
perpetuated  in  the  written  geography  of  the  country,  to  render  an  alteration 
in  this  respect,  either  practicable  or  expedient.  The  waters  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi at  its  confluence  with  the  Missouri,  are  moderately  clear,  and  of  a 
greenish  hue.  The  Missouri  is  turbid  and  opake,  of  a  grayish  white 
color,  and  during  its  floods,  which  happen  twice  a  year,  communicates, 
almost  instantaneously,  to  the  combined  stream  its  predominating  qualities, 
but  towards  the  close  of  the  summer  season,  when  it  is  at  its  lowest  stage 
of  water,  the  streams  do  not  fully  incorporate  for  twenty  or  thirty  miles, 
but  preserve  opposite  sides  of  the  river ;  and  I  have  observed  this  pheno- 
menon at  the  town  of  Herculaneum,  forty-eight  miles  below  the  junction. 

1  The  water  in  this  part  of  the  river  cannot  be  drank  until  it  has 
been  set  aside  to  allow  the  mucl  to  settle.  The  distance  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Missouri  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico  is  one  thousand  two  hundred  and 
twenty  miles,  in  the  course  of  which  it  receives  from  the  west,  the  Merrl- 
mac,  St.  Francis,  White,  Arkansas,  and  Red  rivers ;  and  from  the  east, 
the  Kaskaskia,  Great  Muddy,  Ohio,  Wolf,  and  Yazoo.  This  part  of  the 
river  is  more  particularly  characterized  by  snags  and  sawyers,  falling-in 
banks  and  islands,  sand-bars  and  mud-banks  ;  and  a  channel  which  is 
shifting  by  every  flood,  and  of  such  extreme  velocity,  that  it  was  formerly 
thought  it  could  not  be  navigated  by  vessels  propelled  with  sails.  Subse- 
quent experience  has  shown  this  conjecture  to  be  unfounded,  although  a 
strong  wind  is  required  for  its  ascent.  It  is  daily  navigated  in  ships  of 
from  four  hundred  to  eight  hundred  tons  burden,  from  the  Balize  to  New 
Orleans,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  miles,  and  could  be  ascended  higher 
were  it  necessary ;  but  the  commerce  of  the  river  above  New  Orleans  is 
now  carried  on,  in  a  great  measure,  by  steam-boats.  The  width  of  the 
river  opposite  St.  Louis  is  one  mile ;  it  is  somewhat  less  at  New  Orleans, 
and  still  less  at  its  disembochure.  A  bar  at  its  mouth  prevents  ships  draw- 
ing more  than  eighteen  feet  water  from  entering.  This  river  is  occupied 
by  different  bands  of  the  Chippeway  Indians  from  its  sources,  to  the  Buffalo 
Plains  in  the  vicinity  of  the  upper  St.  Francis,  the  precise  limit  being  a 
matter  of  dispute,  and  the  cause  of  the  long  war  between  them  and  the 
Sioux.  The  Sioux  bands  claim  from  thence  to  the  Prairie  des  Chiens,  and 
the  Foxes  and  Sacs  to  the  river  Desmoines.  From  this  vicinity  to  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  the  Indian  title  has  been  extinguished  by  the  United  States* 
government,  either  through  purchase,  treaty,  or  conquest,  an(J  we  have  now 
the  complete  control  of  this  river  and  all  its  tributary  streams,  with  the 
exception  of  the  upper  part  of  Red  river.  The  wild  rice  is  not  found  on 
the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  south  of  the  forty-first  degree  of  north  lati- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  41 

tude,  nor  the  Indian  reed,  or  cane,  north  of  the  thirty-eighth.  These  two 
productions  characterize  the  extremes  of  this  river.  It  has  been  observed 
by  McKenzie,  that  the  former  is  hardly  known,  or  at  least  does  not  come 
to  maturity,  north  of  the  fiftieth  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  alligator  is 
first  seen  below  the  junction  of  the  Arkansas.  The  paroquet  is  found  as 
far  north  as  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  and  flocks  have  occasionally  been 
seen  as  high  as  Chicago.  The  name  of  this  river  is  derived  from  the 
Algonquin  language,  one  of  the  original  tongues  of  our  continent,  which  is 
now  spoken  nearly  in  its  primeval  purity  by  the  different  bands  of  Chip- 
peways.' 

The  navigation  upon  this  river  is  very  great.  Ships  seldom  ascend 
higher  than  Natchez.  It  is  navigable  for  boats  of  the  largest  size  as  far  as 
the  Ohio.  The  number  of  steam-boats  upon  the  Mississippi  is  about  three 
hundred.  Their  size  is  from  five  hundred  and  forty  tons  downwards. 
The  passage  from  Cincinnati  to  New  Orleans  and  back  has  been  made  in 
nineteen  days.  From  New  Orleans  to  Louisville  the  shortest  passage  has 
been  eight  days  and  two  hours,  the  distance  being  one  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles,  and  against  the  current.  The  steam-boats  have 
generally  high-pressure  power,  and  many  fatal  explosions  have  happened 
upon  these  waters.     The  first  steam-vessel  here  was  built  in  1810. ^ 

#  The  following  very  graphic  description  of  a  flood  dn  the  Mississippi,  is  from  the  pen 
of  the  celebrated  naturalist,  Audubon  : 

1  There  the  overflow  is  astonishing  ;  for  no  sooner  has  the  water  reached  the  upper 
part  of  the  banks,  thart  it  rushes  out  and  overspreads  the  whole  of  the  neighboring 
swamps,  presenting  an  ocean  overgrown  with  stupendous  forest  trees.  So  sudden  is  the 
calamity,  that  every  individual,  whether  man  or  beast,  has  to  exert  his  utmost  inge- 
nuity to  enable  him  to  escape  from  the  dreaded  element.  The  Indian  quickly  removes 
to  the  hills  of  the  interior,  the  cattle  and  game  swim  to  the  different  stripes  of  land  that 
remain  uncovered  in  the  midst  of  the  flood,  or  attempt  to  force  their  way  through  the 
waters  until  they  perish  from  fatigue.  Along  the  banks  of  the  river  the  inhabitants 
have  rafts  ready  made,  on  which  they  remove  themselves,  their  cattle,  and  their  provi- 
sions, and  which  they  then  fasten  with  ropes  or  grape  vines  to  the  larger  trees,  while 
they  contemplate  the  melancholy  spectacle  presented  by  the  current,  as  it  carries  off  their 
houses  and  wood-yards  piece  by  piece.  Some  who  have  nothing  to  lose,  and  are  usually 
known  by  the  name  of  squatters,  take  this  opportunity  of  traversing  the  woods  in  canoes, 
for  the  purpose  of  procuring  game,  and  particularly  the  skins  of  animals,  such  as  the 
deer  and  bear,  which  may  be  converted  into  money.  They  resort  to  the  low  ridges 
surrounded  by  the  waters,  and  destroy  thousands  of  deer,  merely  for  their  skins,  leaving 
the  flesh  to  putrefy. 

1  The  river  itself,  rolling  its  swollen  waters  along,  presents  a  spectacle  of  the  most 
imposing  nature.  Although  no  large  vessel,  unless  propelled  by  steam,  can  now  make 
its  way  against  the  current,  it  is  seen  covered  by  boats  laden  with  produce,  which,  run- 
ning out  from  all  the  smaller  streams,  float  silently  towards  the  city  of  New-Orleans, 
their  owners,  meanwhile,  not  very  well  assured  of  finding  a  landing-place  even  there. 
The  water  is  covered  with  yellow  foam  and  pumice,  the  latter  having  floated  from  the 
rocky  mountains  of  the  north-west.  The  eddies  are  larger  and  more  powerful  than  ever. 
Here  and  there  tracts  of  forests  are  observed  undermined,  the  trees  gradually  giving 
way,  and  falling  into  the  stream.  Cattle,  horses,  bears,  and  deer,  are  seen  at  times 
attempting  to  swim  across  the  impetuous  mass  of  foaming  and  boiling  water ;  whilst 
here  and  there  a  vulture  or  an  eagle  is  observed  perched  on  a  bloated  carcass,  tearing 
it  up  in  pieces,  as  regardless  of  the  flood  as  on  former  occasions  it  would  have  been  of 
the  numerous  sawyers  and  planters  with  which  the  surface  of  the  river  is  covered  when 
the  water  is  low.  Even  the  steamer  is  frequently  distressed.  The  numberless  trees 
and  logs  that  float  along,  break  its  paddles  and  retard  its  progress.  Besides,  it 
is  on  such  occasions  difficult  to  procure  fuel  to  maintain  its  fires ;  and  it  is  only 
at  very  distant  intervals  that  a  wood-yard  can  be  found  which  the  water  has  not 
carried  oflf. 

6  4* 


42  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Missouri  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  nearly  the  same  parallel 
with  the  Mississippi,  and  about  a  mile  distant  from  the  head-waters  of  the 
Columbia.  The  most  authentic  information  we  have  yet  had  of  the  sources 
of  this  mighty  river  is  from  its  first  intrepid  American  discoverers,  Lewis  and 
Clarke.     What  may  properly  be  called  the  Missouri,  seems  to  be  formed 

'  Following  the  river  in  your  canoe,  you  reach  those  parts  of  the  shores  that  are  pro- 
tected  against  the  overflowing  of  the  waters,  and  are  called  levees.  There  you  find  the 
whole  population  of  the  district  at  work,  repairing  and  augmenting  those  artificial  barriers 
which  are  several  feet  above  the  level  of  the  fields.  Every  person  appears  to  dread 
the  opening  of  a  crevasse,  by  which  the  waters  may  rush  into  his  fields.  In  spite  of  ail 
exertions,  however,  the  crevasse  opens,  and  water  bursts  impetuously  over  the  planta- 
tions, and  lays  waste  the  crops  which  so  lately  were  blooming  in  all  the  luxuriance  of 
spring.  It  opens  up  a  new  channel,  which,  for  aught  I  know  to  the  contrary,  may  carry 
its  waters  even  to  the  Mexican  gulf.  . 

'  But  now,  kind  reader,  observe  this  great  flood  gradually  subsiding,  and'  again  see 
the  mighty  changes  which  it  has  effected.  The  waters  have  now  been  carried  into 
the  distant  ocean.  The  earth  is  every  where  covered  by  a  deep  deposit  of  muddy  loam, 
which,  in  drying,  splits  into  deep  and  narrow  chasms,  presenting  a  reticulated  appear- 
ance, and  from  which,  as  the  weather  becomes  warmer,  disagreeable,  and  at  times 
noxious,  exhalations  arise,  and  fill  the  lower  stratum  of  the  atmosphere,  as  with  a  dense 
fog.  The  banks  of  the  river  have  almost  every  where  been  broken  down  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree.  Large  streams  are  now  found  to  exist,  where  none  were  formerly  to  be 
seen,  having  forced  their  way  in  direct  lines  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  bends.  These 
are,  by  the  navigator,  called  short  cuts.  Some  of  them  have  proved  large  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  change  in  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  If  I  mistake  not,  one  of  these,  known 
by  the  name  of  Grand  Cut-off,  and  only  a  few  miles  in  length,  has  diverted  the  river 
from  its  natural  course,  and  has  shortened  it  by  fifty  miles.  The  upper  parts  of  the 
islands  present  a  bulwark  consisting  of  an  enormous  mass  of  floated  trees  of  all  kinds, 
which  have  lodged  there.  Large  sand-banks  have  been  completely  removed  by  the 
impetuous  whirls  of  the  waters,  and  have  been  deposited  in  other  places.  Some  appear 
quite  new  to  the  eye  of  the  navigator,  who  has  to  mark  their  situation  and  bearings  in 
his  log-book.  The  trees  on  the  margins  of  the  banks  have  in  many  parts  given  way. 
They  are  seen  bending  over  the  stream,  like  the  grounded  arms  of  an  overwhelmed 
army  of  giants.  Every  where  are  heard  the  lamentations  of  the  farmer  and  planter, 
whilst  their  servants  and  themselves  are  busily  employed  in  repairing  the  damages 
occasioned  by  the  floods.  At  one  crevasse,  an  old  ship  or  two,  dismantled  for  the  pur- 
pose, are  sunk,  to  obstruct  the  passage  opened  by  the  still  rushing  waters,  while  new 
earth  is  brought  to  fill  up  the  chasms.  The  squatter  is  seen  shouldering  his  rifle,  and 
making  his  way  through  the  morass,  in  search  of  his  lost  stock,  to  drive  the  survivors 
home,  and  save  the  skins  of  the  drowned.  New  fences  have  every  where  to  be  formed  ; 
even  new  houses  must  be  erected,  to  save  which  from  a  like  disaster,  the  settler  places 
them  on  an  elevated  platform,  supported  by  pillars  made  of  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  lands 
must  be  ploughed  anew ;  and  if  the  season  is  not  too  far  advanced,  a  crop  of  corn  and 
potatoes  may  yet  be  raised.  But  the  rich  prospects  of  the  planter  are  blasted.  The 
traveller  is  impeded  in  his  journey,  the  creeks  and  smaller  streams  having  broken  up 
their  banks  in  a  degree  proportionate  to  their  size.  A  bank  of  sand  which  seems  firm 
and  secure,  suddenly  gives  way  beneath  the  traveller's  horse,  and  the  next  moment  the 
animal  has  sunk  in  the  quicksand,  either  to  the  chest  in  front,  or  over  the  crupper 
behind,  leaving  its  master  in  a  situation  not  to  be  envied. 

'Unlike  the  mountain  torrents  and  small  rivers  of  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  Missis- 
sippi rises  but  slowly  during  these  floods,  continuing  for  several  weeks  to  increase  at 
the  rate  of  about  an  inch  in  the  day.  When  at  its  height,  it  undergoes  little  fluctuation  for 
some  days,  and  after  this  subsides  as  slowly  as  it  rose.  The  usual  duration  of  a  flood 
is  from  four  to  six  weeks,  although,  on  some  occasions,  it  is  protracted  to  two  months. 

'  Every  one  knows  how  largely  the  idea  of  floods  and  cataclysms  enters  into  the 
speculations  of  the  geologist.  If  the  streamlets  of  the  European  continent  afford  illus- 
trations of  the  formation  of  strata,  how  much  more  must  the  Mississippi,  with  its  ever- 
Jiifting  sand-banks,  its  crumbling  shores,  its  enormous  masses  of  drift-timber,  the  source 
of  future  beds  of  coal,  its  extensive  and  varied  alluvial  deposits,  and  its  mighty  mass  of 
waters  rolling  sullenly  along,  like  the  flood  of  eternity !' 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  43 

by  three  considerable  branches,  which  unite  not  far  from  the  bases  of  the 
principal  ranges  of  the  mountains.  To  the  northern  they  gave  the  name 
of  Jefferson,  to  the  middle  Gallatin,  and  to  the  southern  Madison.  All 
these  streams  run  with  great  velocity,  throwing  out  large  volumes  of 
water ;  their  beds  are  formed  of  smooth  pebble  and  gravel,  and  their  waters 
are  perfectly  transparent.  One  hundred  and  a  half  miles  beyond  the  forks 
of  the  Missouri  are  the  forks  of  Jefferson  river ;  two  subordinate  branches 
of  which  are  called  Wisdom  and  Philanthropy,  one  coming  from  the 
north-west,  and  the  former  from  the  south-east.  Wisdom  river  is  fifty 
yards  wide,  cold,  rapid,  and  containing  a  third  more  water  than  the  Jef- 
ferson ;  it  seems  to  be  the  drain  of  the  melting  snows  on  the  mountains, 
but  is  unnavigable  on  account  of  its  rapidity.  One  hundred  and  forty -eight 
miles  farther  up  is  the  extreme  navigable  point  of  the  river  in  north  lati- 
tude forty-three  degrees  thirty  minutes  and  forty-three  seconds.  Two 
miles  beyond  this  is  a  small  gap  or  narrow  entrance,  formed  by  the  high 
mountains  which  recede  on  each  side,  at  the  head  of  an  elevated  valley, 
ten  miles  long  and  five  broad,  so  as  to  form  a  beautiful  cove  several  miles 
in  diameter.  From  the  foot  of  one  of  the  lowest  of  these  mountains,  which 
rises  with  a  gentle  ascent  of  half  a  mile,  issues  the  remotest  water  of  the 
Mississippi.  At  the  source,  we  are  told  that  the  weather  is  so  cold  at  the 
end  of  August,  that  water  standing  in  vessels  exposed  in  the  night  air  has 
been  frozen  to  the  depth  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 

After  the  junction  of  the  three  branches  before  mentioned,  the  river 
continues  a  considerable  distance  to  be  still  a  foaming  mountain  torrent. 
It  then  spreads  into  a  broad  and  comparatively  gentle  stream  full  of  islands. 
Precipitous  peaks  of  blackish  rock  frown  above  the  river  in  perpendicular 
elevations  of  a  thousand  feet.  The  mountains  whose  bases  it  sweeps 
are  covered  with  pines,  cedars  and  firs ;  and  mountain  sheep  are  seen 
bounding  on  their  summits  where  they  are  apparently  inaccessible.  In 
this  distance  the  mountains  have  an  aspect  of  inexpressible  loneliness  and 
grandeur.  In  the  meadows  and  along  the  shore  the  tree  most  common  is 
the  cotton-wood,  which  with  the  willow  forms  almost  the  exclusive  growth 
of  the  Missouri. 

About  forty-seven  miles  below  the  spot  where  the  Missouri  issues 
from  the  mountains  to  the  plains,  a  most  sublime  and  extraordinary  spec- 
tacle presents  itself,  emphatically  denominated  the  Gates  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  ascending  the  stream  it  increases  in  rapidity,  depth,  and 
breadth,  to  the  mouth  of  this  formidable  pass.  Here  the  rocks  approach  it 
on  both  sides,  rising  perpendicularly  from  the  edge  of  the  water  to  the 
height  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  feet.  Near  the  base  they  are  com- 
posed of  black  granite;  but  above,  the  color  is  of  a  yellowish,  brown,  and 
cream  color.  Nothing  can  be  imagined  more  tremendous  than  the  frown- 
ing darkness  of  these  rocks,  which  project  over  the  river,  and  menace  the 
passenger  with  instant  destruction.  For  the  space  of  five  miles  and  three 
quarters,  the  rocks  rise  to  the  above  degree  of  elevation,  and  the  river, 
three  hundred  and  fifty  yards  broad,  seems  to  have  forced  its  channel 
down  the  solid  mass ;  or,  to  use  Volney's  expression  respecting  the  falls 
of  Niagara,  literally  to  have  sawed  a  passage  through  this  body  of  hard 
and  solid  rock,  near  six  miles  in  length,  being  incased  as  it  were,  during 
all  this  distance,  between  two  walls  of  one  thousand  and  two  hundred  feet 
high.     During  the  whole  distance  the  water  is  very  deep,  even  at  the 


44  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

edges ;  and  for  the  first  three  miles,  there  is  not  a  spot,  except  one  of  a 
few  yards,  in  which  a  man  could  stand  between  the  water  and  the  tow- 
ering- perpendicular  precipice  of  the  mountain. 

The  river,  for  the  distance  of  about  seventeen  miles,  becomes  almost  a 
continued  cataract.  In  this  distance  its  perpendicular  descent  is  three 
hundred  and  sixty-two  feet.  The  first  fall  is  ninety-eight  feet ;  the  second, 
nineteen ;  the  third,  forty-seven ;  the  fourth,  twenty-six.  Next  to  the 
Niagara  these  falls  are  the  grandest  in  the  world.  The  river  continues 
rapid  for  a  long  distance  beyond,  but  there  is  not  much  variation  in  its 
appearance  till  near  the  mouth  of  the  Platte.  That  powerful  river  throws 
out  vast  quantities  of  coarse  sand,  which  contribute  to  give  a  new  face 
to  the  Missouri,  which  is  now  much  more  impeded  by  islands.  The 
sand,  as  it  is  drifted  down,  adheres  in  time  to  some  of  the  projecting  points 
from  the  shore,  and  forms  a  barrier  to  the  mud  which  at  length  fills  to  the 
same  height  with  the  sand-bar  itself.  As  soon  as  it  has  acquired  a 
consistency,  the  willow  grows  there  the  first  year,  and  by  its  roots  gives 
solidity  to  the  whole ;  with  further  accumulations  the  cotton-wood  tree 
next  appears,  till  the  soil  is  gradually  raised  to  a  point  above  the  highest 
freshets.  Thus  stopped  in  its  course,  the  water  seeks  a  passage  elsewhere, 
and  as  the  soil  on  each  side  is  light  and  yielding,  what  was  only  a  penin- 
sula becomes  gradually  an  island,  and  the  river  compensates  the  usur- 
pation by  encroaching  on  the  adjacent  shore.  In  this  way  the  Missouri, 
like  the  Mississippi,  is  continually  cutting  off  the  projections  of  the  shore, 
and  leaving  its  ancient  channel,  which  may  be  traced  by  the  deposits  of 
mud  and  a  few  stagnant  ponds. * 

During  the  whole  length  of  the  Missouri  below  the  Platte,  the  soil 
is  generally  excellent,  and  although  the  timber  is  scarce,  there  is  still 
sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  settlers.  But  beyond  that  river,  although  the 
soil  is  still  rich,  yet  the  almost  total  absence  of  timber,  and  particularly 
the  want  of  good  water,  of  which  there  is  but  a  small  quantity  in  the 
creeks,  oppose  very  powerful  impediments  to  its  occupancy.  The  prai- 
ries for  many  miles  on  each  side  of  the  river  produce  abundance  of  good 
pasturage. 

Above  the  mouth  of  the  Osage,  the  immediate  valley  of  the  Missouri 
gradually  expands,  embracing  some  wide  bottoms  in  which  are  many 
settlements  gradually  increasing  in  the  number  of  inhabitants.  The 
Manito  Rocks,  and  some  other  precipitous  cliffs,  are  the  terminations  of 
low  ranges  of  hills,  running  in  quite  to  the  river.  These  hills  sometimes 
occasion  rapids,  and  opposite  the  Manito  rocks  a  small  group  of  islands 
stretches  obliquely  across  the  river,  separated  by  narrow  channels  in 
which  the  current  is  stronger  than  below.  This  group  is  called  the 
Thousand  Islands.  Some  of  the  channels  are  obstructed  by  collections 
of  floating  trees,  which  usually  accumulate  about  the  heads  of  islands, 
and  are  here  called  rafts.  After  increasing  to  a  certain  extent,  portions 
of  these  rafts  become  loosened,  and  float  down  the  river,  covering  nearly 
its  whole  surface,  and  greatly  impeding  and  endangering  the  progress  of 
the  ascending  boats. 

Council  Bluffs,  the  seat  of  an  important  military  establishment  of  the 
United  States,  about  six  hundred  miles  up  the  Missouri,  is  a  remarkable 

#  Lewis  and  Clarke. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  45 

bank,  rising  abruptly  from  the  brink  of  the  river  to  an  elevation  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet.  From  the  hill  tops,  a  mile  in  the  rear  of  the 
Bluffs,  is  presented  a  most  extensive  and  beautiful  landscape.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  river,  the  Bluffs  exhibit  a  chain  of  peaks,  stretching  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  reach.  The  river  is  here  and  there  seen  meandering  in 
serpentine  folds  along  its  broad  valley,  chequered  with  woodlands  and 
prairies,  while,  at  a  nearer  view,  you  look  down  on  an  extensive  plain, 
interspersed  with  a  few  scattered  copses  or  bushes,  and  terminated  at  a 
distance  by  the  Council  Bluffs. 

Taken  in  connection  with  the  Mississippi  into  which  it  flows,  this  river 
is  the  longest  on  the  globe. *  Its  whole  course,  from  its  mouth  in  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  to  its  source  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  four  thousand 
four  hundred  and  twenty-four  miles,  including,  its  windings ;  and  for  four 
thousand  three  hundred  and  ninety-six  miles  of  this  course  it  is  navigable. 
From  the  point  of  its  confluence  with  the  Mississippi  to  fort  Mandan,  it  is 
one  thousand  six  hundred  and  nine  miles;  to  the  foot  of  the  rapids  at 
Great  Falls  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy-five  miles ;  two  thou- 
sand six  hundred  and  sixty-four  to  where  it  issues  from  the  mountains ; 
two  thousand  six  hundred  and  ninety  to  the  Gates  of  the  Mountains; 
three  thousand  and  ninety-six  to  the  extreme  navigable  point  of  Jefferson 
river;  and  three  thousand  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  miles  to  its 
remotest  source.  In  this  immense  course  it  receives  upwards  of  fifty 
large  rivers,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  smaller  streams.  Its  principal 
tributaries  are  the  Roche  Jaune,  or  Yellowstone,  the  Kansas,  Platte, 
Osage,  Gasconade,  Little  Missouri,  Running  Water,  Charaton,  White,  and 
Milk  rivers. 

The  Yellowstone  is  the  largest  of  these  tributaries.  Its  sources  are  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  near  those  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Platte,  and  it 
may  be  navigated  in  canoes  almost  to  its  head.  It  runs  first  through  a 
mountainous  country,  but  in  many  parts  fertile  and  well  timbered ;  it  then 
waters  a  rich,  delightful  land,  broken  into  valleys  and  meadows,  and 
well  supplied  with  wood  and  water,  till  it  reaches  near  the  Missouri  open 
meadows  and  low  grounds,  sufficiently  timbered  on  its  borders.  In  the 
upper  country  its  course  is  said  to  be  very  rapid,  but  during  the  two  last 
and  largest  portions,  its  current  is  much  more  gentle  than  that  of  the 
Missouri.  On  the  sand-bars  and  along  the  margin  of  this  river  grows  the 
small  leafed  willow;  in  the  low  grounds  adjoining  are  scattered  rose 
bushes  three  or  four  feet  high,  the  red-berry,  service-berry  and  redwood. 
The  higher  plains  are  either  immediately  on  the  river,  in  which  case  they 
are  generally  timbered,  and  have  an  undergrowth  like  that  of  the  low 
grounds,  with  the  addition  of  the  broad  leafed  willow,  gooseberry, 
purple  currant  and  honeysuckle ;  or  they  are  between  the  low  grounds 
and  the  hills,  and  for  the  most  part  without  wood,  or  any  thing  except 

*(  The  American  Fur  Company  have  sent  their  steam-boats  twenty-one  hundred  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  and  in  high  water,  steam-boats  of  light  draft  can 
ascend  two  thousand  and  six  hundred  miles.  The  Mississippi  is  navigable  by  steam  between 
six  and  seven  hundred  miles  above  St.  Louis.  Thege  rivers  pass  through  an  exceedingly 
fertile  country  ;  and  when  a  just  system  of  internal  improvement  shall  be  carried  into 
operation,  not  only  New  Orleans  and  the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi  will  be  benefit- 
ted, but  every  portion  of  the  United  States  will  feel  the  invigorating  influence  of  such  a 
course.' — St.  Louis  Republican. 


46  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

large  quantities  of  wild  hyssop,  a  plant  which  rises  to  the  height  of  about 
two  feet,  and,  like  the  willow  of  the  sand-bars,  is  a  favorite  food  of  the 
buffalo,  elk,  deer,  grouse,  porcupine,  hare,  and  rabbit.* 

The  Platte  is  in  fact  much  more  rapid  than  the  Missouri,  and  drives 
the  current  on  the  northern  shore,  on  which  it  is  constantly  encroaching. 
At  some  distance  below  the  confluence,  the  Missouri  is  two  miles  wide, 
with  a  rapid  current  of  ten  miles  an  hour  in  some  parts,  the  rapidity 
increasing  as  we  approach  the  mouth  of  the  Platte ;  the  velocity  of  which, 
combined  with  the  vast  quantity  of  rolling  sands  which  are  drifting  from 
it  into  the  Missouri,  renders  it  completely  unnavigable,  unless  for  flats  or 
rafts,  though  the  Indians  pass  it  in  small  flat  canoes  made  of  hides,  and 
the  Americans  have  contrived  to  navigate  it  by  means  of  keel-boats,  which, 
being  constructed  to  draw  but  little  water,  and  built  upon  a  small  keel, 
are  remarkably  well  adapted  for  sailing  up  rapid  and  shallow  streams. 
The  P]atte  runs  a  course  of  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude,  from  west  to  east, 
or  more  than  eight  hundred  miles. 

The  Kansas  River  has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Missouri,  but 
its  current  is  more  moderate,  and  its  water  less  turbid,  except  at  times  of 
high  floods.  Its  valley,  like  that  of  the  Missouri,  has  a  deep  and  fertile 
soil,  bearing  forests  of  cotton-wood,  sycamore,  and  other  trees,  interspersed 
with  meadows ;  but  in  ascending,  trees  become  more  and  more  scattered, 
and  at  length  disappear  almost  entirely,  the  country  at  its  sources  being 
one  immense  prairie. 

The  River  Osage,  so  called  from  the  well  known  tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting 
its  banks,  enters  the  Missouri  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  miles  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Mississippi.  Its  sources  are  in  the  Ozark  Mountains. 
Flowing  along  the  base  of  the  north-western  slope  of  a  mountainous  range, 
it  receives  from  the  east  several  rapid  and  beautiful  tributaries.  In  point 
of  magnitude  this  river  ranks  with  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee.  It 
has  been  represented  as  navigable  for  six  hundred  miles,  but  this  Major 
Long  considers  an  exaggeration,  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  shoals 
and  sand-bars  in  its  current.  In  the  lower  part  of  its  course  it  traverses 
broad  and  fertile  bottom-lands,  bearing  heavy  forests  of  sycamore  and  cot- 
ton trees. 

Charaton  River  is  seventy-five  yards  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  navigable 
at  high  water  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Half  a  mile  from  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Missouri,  it  receives  the  Little  Charaton,  also  a  considerable 
stream,  and  navigable  for  many  miles.  The  Charaton  has  its  source  near 
the  De  Moyen  river  of  the  Mississippi,  and  traverses  a  country  which  is 
of  great  importance,  both  on  account  of  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  its  inex- 
haustible mines  of  gold. 

The  Arkansas  River  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  north  latitude 
forty-two  degrees,  near  the  borders  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  and 
Mexico.  It  is  about  two  thousand  miles  in  length,  running  in  a  direction 
east  south-east.  Tributary  streams  are  little  known ;  they  are  remarkable 
for  being  deeply  impregnated  with  salt.  That  part  of  Arkansas  that  tra- 
verses the  Missouri  territory  is  skirted,  in  great  part,  by  extensive  prairies. 
Spurs  of  the  Masserne  Mountains  often  reach  the  river.  It  may  be  re- 
marked as  singular,  that  to  the  extent  of  upwards  of  three  hundred  miles 

*  Lewis  and  Clarke 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  47 

in  the  lower  part  of  the  Arkansas,  its  valley  is  confined  merely  to  the 
stream  of  the  river ;  the  waters  of  the  "Washita  on  one  side,  and  White 
river  on  the  other,  rising  almost  from  the  very  margin  of  the  Arkansas. 
The  land  upon  the  Arkansas,  in  the  Missouri  territory,  is  in  great  part 
alluvial ;  and  where  not  subject  to  overflow,  excellent.  The  timber  cor- 
responds nearly  to  that  of  the  state  of  Mississippi,  in  similar  relative  situ- 
>  ations. 

Red  River  rises  about  one  hundred  miles  north-east  of  Santa  Fe,  in 
Mexico,  at  the  base  of  a  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  called  the  Caous, 
and  after  a  very  serpentine  course  of  about  two  thousand  five  hundred 
miles,  enters  the  Mississippi  in  thirty-one  degrees  fifteen  minutes  north 
latitude.  There  are  many  streams  rising  in  the  same  mountains,  flow- 
ing separately  for  three  or  four  hundred  miles,  and  then  uniting  to  form 
the  Red  river.  Of  the  regions  in  which  the  upper  waters  of  these 
streams  lie,  but  little  is  known.  They  are  principally  inhabited  by  the 
Pawnees.  When  the  river  enters  Louisiana,  its  south  bank  is  for  a  long 
distance  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Texas.  A  great  part 
of  its  course  is  through  delightful  prairies  of  a  rich  red  soil,  covered  with 
grass  and  vines  which  bear  delicious  grapes.  About  a  hundred  miles 
above  Natchitoches  commences  what  is  called  the  Raft ;  a  swampy  ex- 
pansion of  the  alluvion  to  the  width  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles.  The  river 
divides  into  a  great  number  of  channels,  many  of  them  shallow ;  and  for 
ages  these  channels  have  been  becoming  clogged  with  a  mass  of  fallen 
timber  carried  down  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  river. 

At  this  place  its  navigation  is  effectually  obstructed,  except  in  a  high 
stage  of  water,  when  keel-boats  of  ten  or  fifteen  tons  burden  may  pass  it 
through  devious  channels,  or  bayoux,  and  ascend  several  miles  above. 
That  part  of  the  river  situated  above  the  Raft  is  rendered  impassable  for 
boats  of  burden,  by  shoals  and  sand-bars  in  a  moderate  stage  of  water.* 

The  Washita,  tributary  to  Red  river,  is  navigable  many  miles.  That 
portion  of  it  situated  within  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  denominated 
Black  river,  admits  of  constant  navigation  for  boats  of  burden.  White  river 
is  navigable  in  a  moderate  stage  of  water  between  three  and  four  hundred 
miles.  Of  the  rivers  tributary  to  the  Missouri,  it  is  remarkable,  that  their 
mouths  are  generally  blocked  up  with  mud,  after  the  subsiding  of  the 
summer  freshet  of  that  river,  which  usually  takes  place  in  the  month  of 
July.  The  freshets  of  the  more  southerly  tributaries  are  discharged  early 
in  the  season,  and  wash  from  their  mouths  the  sand  and  mud  previously 
deposited  therein,  leaving  them  free  from  obstructions.  These  freshets 
having  subsided,  the  more  northerly  branches  discharge  their  floods,  form- 
ed by  the  melting  of  the  snow,  at  a  later  period.  The  Missouri  being  thus 
swollen,  the  mud  of  its  waters  is  driven  up  the  mouth  of  its  tributaries. 
These  streams  having  no  more  freshets  to  expel  it,  their  mouths  remain 
thus  obstructed  till  the  ensuing  spring.! 

The  St.  Peter  has  its  rise  in  a  small  lake  about  three  miles  in  circum- 
ference, at  the  base  of  a  remarkable  ridge,  distinguished  by  the  name  of 

#  Appropriations  have  recently  been  made  by  Congress  for  the  removal  of  obstruc- 
tions in  the  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers.  The  officer  employed  on  that  service  is  confi* 
dent  in  the  practicability  of  removing  the  Raft  by  means  of  boats. 

f  Long's  Expedition. 


48  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Coteau  des  Prairies.  It  enters  the  Mississippi  nine  miles  below  the  falls 
of  St.  Anthony.  Its  length  in  all  its  windings  is  about  five  hundred  miles. 
Its  course  is  exceedingly  Serpentine,  and  is  interrupted  by  several  rocky 
ridges,  extending  across  the  bed  of  the  river  and  occasioning  falls  of  con- 
siderable descent.  During  the  times  of  spring  freshets  and  floods,  this 
river  is  navigable  for  boats  from  its  mouth  to  the  head  of  Big  Stone  Lake, 
•about  fifteen  miles  from  its  sources.  For  a  distance  of  about  forty  miles  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  river,  it  is  from  sixty  to  eighty  yards  only  wide,  and 
navigable  for  pirogues  and  canoes  in  all  stages  of  the  water ;  higher  up, 
its  navigation  is  obstructed  in  low  water  by  numerous  shoals  and  rapids. 
The  aggregate  descent  of  the  St.  Peter  may  be  estimated  at  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  the  general  level  of  the  country  at  its  source  having 
an  elevation  of  about  fifty  feet  above  the  river.  The  chief  of  its  tributaries 
is  the  Blue-earth  river,  which  flows  in  from  the  south  a  hundred  miles 
west  of  the  Mississippi  by  a  mouth  fifty  yards  in  width.  It  is  chiefly  noted 
for  the  blue  clay  which  the  Indians  procure  upon  its  banks,  and  which  is 
much  employed  in  painting  their  faces  and  other  parts  of  their  bodies. 
The  river  St.  Peter's  enters  the  Mississippi  behind  a  large  island,  which 
is  probably  three  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  covered  with  the  most  luxu- 
riant growth  of  sugar-maple,  elm,  ash,  oak,  and  walnut.  At  the  point  of 
embouchure  it  is  one.  hundred  and  fifty  yards  in  width,  with  a  depth  of  ten 
or  fifteen  feet.  Its  waters  are  transparent,  and  present  a  light  blue  tint  on 
looking  upon  the  stream.  From  this  circumstance  the  Indians  have  given 
it  the  name  of  Clear-water  river. 

Red  River  of  the  north  rises  near  the  sources  of  the  St.  Peter's  ;  and  by 
a  northern  and  winding  course  runs  nearly  two  hundred  miles  in  our  ter- 
ritorial limits  ;  and  then  passes  into  the  British  dominions  of  Upper  Cana- 
da, and  empties  into  Lake  Winnepeck.  Its  principal  branches  are  Red 
Lake  river  and  Moose  river,  the  latter  of  which  streams  rises  within  a 
mile  of  fort  Mandan  on  the  Missouri.  Red  river  is  a  broad,  deep,  and 
very  interesting  stream,  abounding  with  fish,  and  the  country  along  its 
banks  with  elk  and  buffaloes. 

The  name  Ohio  is  an  Indian  appellation,  signifying '  the  beautiful  river.' 
This  epithet  is  not  bestowed  upon  it  for  the  whole  of  its  course,  but  com- 
mences at  the  confluence  of  the  two  principal  streams,  at  Pittsburg  ;  above 
the  junction  it  is  called  the  Alleghany.  The  remotest  source  of  the  Alle- 
ghany is  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  in  north  latitude  forty-one  degrees 
and  forty-five  minutes,  and  west  longitude  seventy-eight  degrees.  It  is 
composed  of  two  small  streams.  At  Pittsburg,  the  Alleghany  being  joined 
by  the  Monongahela,  the  confluent  stream  receives  the  appellation  of  the 
Ohio.  The  Monongahela  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  two  streams,  both 
rising  from  the  Alleghany  chain,  in  the  north-west  angle  of  Virginia,  and 
running  parallel  to  each  other  for  sixty  miles  in  a  direct  line.  The  abso- 
lute course  of  the  Monongahela  is  more  than  two  hundred  miles,  but  not 
above  one  hundred  and  thirty  in  a  direct  line  from  south  to  north.  It  seems 
a  larger  and  deeper  stream  at  Pittsburg  than  the  Alleghany,  which  in  the 
dry  season  has  not  above  seven  feet  water  where  deepest.  The  waters  of 
the  Alleghany  are  always  clear  and  limpid,  while  those  of  the  Mononga- 
hela, on  the  contrary,  become  muddy  and  turbid,  whenever  there  are  a  few 
days  of  successive  rain  in  that  part  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  where  it 
rises.     Each  of  the  streams  is  four  hundred  yards  wide  at  the  conflux ; 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  49 

<md  after  the  junction,  the  united  stream  is  more  enlarged  in  depth  than  in 
oreadth. 

The  Ohio,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Monongahela  and  Alleghany, 
appears  to  be  rather  a  continuation  of  the  former  than  the  latter,  which 
arrives  at  the  confluence  in  an  oblique  direction.  From  Pittsburg  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio  is  one  thousand  and  thirty-three  miles  by  the  course 
of  the  stream.  It  receives  a  vast  number  of  tributary  streams  on  both 
sides,  in  its  progress  to  the  Mississippi.  For  the  space  of  three  hundred 
miles  below  Pittsburg,  the  Ohio  runs  between  two  ridges  of  hills,  rising 
from  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  feet  in  height.  These  appear  fre- 
quently undulated  at  their  summits,  but  at  other  times  seem  to  be  perfectly 
level.  They  sometimes  recede,  and  sometimes  approach  the  banks  of  the 
river,  and  have  their  direction  parallel  to  that  of  the  Alleghany  chain. 
These  ridges  gradually  recede  farther  down  the  river,  till  they  disappear 
from  the  view  of  those  who  descend  the  Ohio.  It  is  not  till  this  river  has 
burst  its  passage  through  a  transverse  chain,  at  the  rapids,  near  Louisville, 
that  it  rolls  its  waters,  through  a  level  and  expanded  country,  as  far  as  the 
Mississippi.  The  general  appearance  of  the  river  is  beautiful,  placid,  gentle 
and  transparent,  except  in  the  times  of  high  water.  There  are  two  seasons 
of  periodical  inundations  ;  namely,  winter  and  spring.  According  to  some, 
the  vernal  inundations  of  this  river  commence  in  the  latter  end  of  March, 
and  subside  in  July ;  and,  according  to  others,  they  commence  early  in 
February,  and  subside  in  May.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  this 
period  is  forwarded  or  retarded  as  the  rivers  thaw  sooner  or  later,  which 
may  reconcile  these  apparently  discordant  statements. 

The  Ohio  is  then  swelled  to  a  prodigious  height,  varying  in  different 
places,  as  it  is  more  or  less  expanded  in  breadth.  It  is  a  favorable  circum- 
stance for  the  country  in  the  upper  course  of  the  Ohio,  that  it  has  very 
high  and  steep  banks  ;  having  gradually  hollowed  out  for  itself  a  deep  and 
comparatively  narrower  bed,  being,  like  all  its  southern  tributary  streams, 
inclosed  as  it  were  in  a  groove  between  them,  which  prevents  the  general 
level  of  the  land  from  being  overflowed  for  many  miles,  and  thereby  ren- 
dered marshy  and  unwholesome,  as  in  the  lower  Missouri,  and  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  Ohio.  Yet  high  as  these  banks  are,  the  Ohio  is  both  a  dan- 
gerous and  troublesome  neighbor  to  the  towns  which  are  not  sufficiently 
far  removed  from  them.  That  part  of  the  town  of  Marietta  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Muskingum  with  the  Ohio,  though  elevated  forty-five  feet 
above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  stream,  has  been  twice  inundated,  and  con- 
sequently abandoned  by  the  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Portsmouth,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Sciota,  and  two  hundred  and  eighteen  miles  below 
Marietta  by  water,  though  elevated  sixty  feet  above  the  usual  surface  of 
the  river,  is  also  subjected  to  the  same  misfortune,  which  has  materially 
affected  the  prosperity  of  the  place.  At  Cincinnati,  the  breadth  of  the 
river  is  five  hundred  and  thirty-five  yards,  and  the  banks  fifty  feet  in  per- 
pendicular height,  yet  these  are  annually  overflowed.  The  winter  floods 
commence  in  the  middle  of  October,  and  continue  to  the  latter  end  of 
December.  Sometimes,  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  abundant  rains  fall 
among  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  by  which  the  Ohio  is  suddenly  raised, 
but  such  occurrences  are  rare.  In  the  times  of  these  two  periodical  floods, 
which  taken  together  last  for  near  half  the  year,  ships  drawing  twelve 
feet  water  may  sail  with  perfect  case  from  Pittsburg  to  New  Orleans,  a 
7  5 


60  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

distance  of  near  two  thousand  and  two  hundred  miles.  In  these  seasons 
the  passage  to  the  falls  may  be  accomplished  in  nine  or  ten  days,  ~but  it  is 
generally  effected  in  twelve  days.  The  difficulty  of  navigating  the  Ohio 
during  the  dry  season,  is  only  confined  to  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  or 
between  Pittsburg  and  Limestone,  a  space  of  four  hundred  and  twenty-five 
miles  by  water ;  and  this,  not  so  much  owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the 
stream,  as  to  its  being  divided  by  islands  ;  for  the  depth  of  the  Monongahela 
branch  of  the  Ohio  alone,  at  Pittsburg,  is  twelve  feet.  Michaux  counted 
no  less  than  fifty  of  these  islands  in  the  distance  of  three  hundred  and 
ninety  miles  ;  some  of  them  only  containing  a  few  acres,  and  others  exceed- 
ing a  mile  in  length. 

The  Tennessee  rises  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  traverses  East  Ten- 
nessee, and  almost  the  whole  northern  limit  of  Alabama,  re-enters 
Tennessee,  and  crosses  almost  the  whole  width  of  it,  into  Kentucky,  and 

f »asses  into  Ohio,  fifty-seven  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi, 
t  is  near  twelve  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  is  the  largest  tributary  of 
the  Ohio.  It  has  numerous  branches,  and  is  navigable  for  boats  one  thou- 
sand miles ;  most  of  the  branches  rise  among  the  mountains,  and  are  too 
shallow  for  navigation,  except  during  the  floods,  which  take  place  occa- 
sionally, at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  admit  flat  boats  to  be  floated  down 
to  the  main  stream. 

The  Muscle  Shoals  are  about  three  hundred  miles  from  its  entrance  into 
the  Ohio.  At  this  place  the  river  spreads  to  the  width  of  three  miles,  and 
forms  a  number  of  islands.  The  passage  by  boats  is  difficult  and  dangerous, 
except  when  the  water  is  high. 

From  these  shoals  to  the  place  called  the  Whirl  or  Suck,  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles,  the  navigation  all  the  way  is  excellent,  to  the  Cumberland 
Mountain ;  where  the  river  breaks  through.  This  mountain  is  sometimes 
so  steep,  that  even  the  Indians  cannot  ascend  it  on  foot.  In  one  place, 
particularly,  near  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  there  is  a  remarkable  ledge 
of  rocks,  of  about  thirty  miles  in  length,  and  two  hundred  feet  high,  with 
a  perpendicular  front  facing  the  south-east,  more  noble  and  grand  than  any 
artificial  fortification  in  the  known  world,  and  apparently  equal  in  point 
of  regularity.  The  Whirl,  as  it  is  called,  is  about  latitude  thirty-four 
degrees.  It  is  considered  a  greater  curiosity  than  the  bursting  of  the  river 
Potomac  through  the  Blue  Ridge. 

The  river,  which  above  is  half  a  mile  wide,  is  here  compressed  to  one 
hundred  yards,  or  eighteen  rods.  Just  at  the  entrance  of  the  mountain,  a 
large  rock  projects  from  the  northern  shore,  in  an  oblique  direction,  which 
renders  the  channel  still  narrower.  This  causes  a  sudden  bend,  by  which 
the  waters  are  thrown  with  great  force  against  the  opposite  shore.  From 
thence  they  rebound  about  the  point  of  the  rock,  and  produce  a  whirl  of 
eighty  yards,  or  two  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  circumference.  By  the 
dexterity  of  the  rowers,  canoes  drawn  into  this  whirl  have  sometimes 
escaped  without  damage.  In  less  than  a  mile  below  the  whirl,  the  river 
spreads  to  its  common  width,  down  to  Muscle  Shoals  ;  and  thence  runs  in 
a  regular  and  beautiful  stream  to  its  confluence  with  the  Ohio. 

The  Wabash  rises  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Indiana,  and  flows  south- 
westerly nearly  across  the  state,  when  it  turns  to  the  south,  and  flows  into 
the  Ohio,  forming  towards  its  mouth  the  western  boundary.  Its  length* 
from  its  mouth  to  its  extreme  source,  exceeds  five  hundred  miles.     It  is 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  51 

navigable  for  keel-boats,  about  four  hundred  miles,  to  Ouitanon,  where 
there  are  rapids.  From  this  village  small  boats  can  go  within  six  miles 
of  St.  Mary's  river ;  ten  of  Fort  Wayne  ;  and  eight  of  the  St.  Joseph's  of 
the  Miami-of-the-lakes.  Its  current  is  gentle  above  Vincennes ;  below  the 
town  there  are  several  rapids,  but  not  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  prevent  boats 
from  ascending.  The  principal  rapids  are  between  Deche  and  White 
rivers,  ten  miles  below  Vincennes.  White  river  and  Tippecanoe  river  are 
branches  of  the  Wabash. 

The  Cumberland  rises  in  the  Cumberland  Mountains  in  Kentucky,  and 
after  a  course  of  nearly  two  hundred  miles  in  that  state,  passes  into  Ten- 
nessee, through  which  it  makes  a  circuit  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles, 
when  it  re-enters  Kentucky  and  falls  into  the  Ohio,  about  fifty  miles  above 
the  entrance  of  that  river  into  the  Mississippi.  From  the  source  of  this 
river  to  its  conflux  with  the  Ohio,  the  distance  in  a  direct  line  is  three  hun- 
dred miles,  but  by  the  course  and  windings  of  the  stream,  it  is  near  six 
hundred  miles,  five  hundred  of  which  it  is  navigable  for  batteaux  of  four- 
teen or  fifteen  tons  burthen. 

The  Muskingum  rises  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Ohio,  and  flows 
southerly  into  the  Ohio  river.  It  is  two  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  is 
navigable  for  boats  one  hundred  miles.  It  is  connected  by  a  canal  with 
Lake  Erie.  The  Sciota  rises  in  the  western  part,  and  flows  southerly  into 
the  Ohio.  It  is  about  two  hundred  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty.  There  are  rich  and  beautiful  prairies  on  the  river,  and  its 
valley  is  wide  and  fertile.  A  canal  passes  along  this  valley,  and  extends 
north-easterly  to  Lake  Erie.  The  Licking  and  Kentucky  rivers  take  their 
rise  in  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  and  flow  north-westerly  into  the  Ohio. 
They  are  each  about  two  hundred  miles  in  length.  The  latter  is  navigable 
for  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  has  a  width  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
yards  at  its  mouth.  The  current  is  rapid,  and  the  shores  are  high.  For 
a  great  part  of  its  course,  it  flows  between  perpendicular  banks  of  limestone. 
The  voyager  passing  down  this  stream  experiences  an  indescribable  sensa- 
tion on  looking  upwards  to  the  sky  from  a  deep  chasm  hemmed  in  by 
lofty  parapets.  Among  the  other  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  are  the  Great  and 
Little  Miami,  Saline,*  Green  river,  Big  Sandy,  Kanhawa. 

The  Illinois  rises  in  the  north-eastern  parts  of  the  state  of  that  name,  not 
more  than  thirty-five  miles  from  the  south-western  extremity  of  Lake  Mich- 
igan, and  interlocking  by  a  morass  with  the  river  Chicago,  which  empties 
into  that  lake.  Its  two  main  head-branches  are  Plein  and  Kankakee. 
Thirty  miles  from  the  junction  of  these  rivers,  enters  Fox  river  from  the 
north.  Between  this  and  the  Vermilion,  enter  two  or  three  inconsiderable 
rivers.  The  Vermilion  is  a  considerable  stream,  which  enters  the  Illinois 
from  the  south,  two  hundred  and  sixty  miles  above  the  Mississippi.  Not 
far  below  this  river,  and  two  hundred  and  ten  miles  above  the  Mississippi, 
commences  Peoria  lake,  which  is  no  more  than  an  enlargement  of  the  river, 
two  miles  wide  on  an  average,  and  twenty  miles  in  length.  Such  is  the 
depth  and  regularity  of  the  bottom,  that  it  has  no  perceptible  current  whatever. 
It  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  with  romantic  shores,  generally  bounded 
by  prairies ;  and  no  waters  in  the  world  furnish  finer  sport  for  the  angler. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  Illinois,  the  rivers  that  enter  on  that  shore 

*  On  the  banks  of  this  stream,  about  twenty  miles  from  the  Ohio,  are  extensive  salt- 
works, owned  by  the  United  States'  government. 


52  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

have  their  courses,  for  the  most  part,  in  mountainous  bluffs,  which  ofteri 
approach  near  the  river.  For  a  great  distance  above  its  mouth,  the  river 
is  almost  as  straight  as  a  canal ;  has  in  summer  scarcely  a  perceptible  cur- 
rent, and  the  waters,  though  transparent,  have  a  marshy  taste  to  a  degree  to 
be  almost  unfit  for  use.  The  river  is  wide  and  deep ;  and,  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  width,  is  filled  with  aquatic  weeds,  to  such  an  extent,  that  no 
person  could  swim  among  them.  Only  a  few  yards  width,  in  the  centre 
of  the  stream,  is  free  from  them.  It  enters  the  Mississippi  through  a  deep 
forest,  by  a  mouth  four  hundred  yards  wide.  Perhaps  no  river  of  the 
western  country  has  so  fine  a  boatable  navigation,  for  such  a  great  dis- 
tance ;  or  waters  a  richer  and  more  luxuriant  tract  of  country. 

Rock  River  is  one  of  the  most  clear  and  beautiful  tributaries  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. It  has  its  source  beyond  the  northern  limits  of  Illinois,  and  in 
a  ridge  of  hills  that  separates  between  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  and 
those  of  Lake  Michigan.  On  its  waters  are  extensive  and  rich  lead 
mines.  Its  general  course  is  south-west,  and  it  enters  the  Mississippi,  not 
far  above  the  commencement  of  the  military  bounty  lands.  Opposite  the 
mouth  of  this  river,  in  the  Mississippi,  is  the  beautiful  island, called  from  the 
name  of  the  river,  and  on  which  is  a  military  station  of  the  United  States. 

Kaskaskia  River  rises  in  the  interior  of  Illinois,  nearly  interlocking  with 
the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan.  It  has  a  course,  in  a  south-west  direction, 
of  between  two  and  three  hundred  miles,  for  the  greater  part  of  which* 
course,  in  high  stages  of  water,  it  is  boatable.  It  runs  through  a  fine 
and  settled  country,  and  empties  into  the  Mississippi  a  few  miles  below 
the  town  of  the  same  name. 

The  Ouisconsin  is  the  largest  river  of  the  North-West  territory  that 
flows  into  the  Mississippi.  It  rises  in  the  northern  interior  of  the  country, 
and  interlocks  with  the  Montreal  of  Lake  Superior.  It  has  a  course  of 
between  three  and  four  hundred  miles,  has  a  shallow  and  rapid  current, 
which  is,  however,  navigable  by  boats  in  good  stages  of  the  water,  and  is 
eight  hundred  yards  wide  at  its  mouth.  There  is  a  portage  of  only  half 
a  mile  between  this  and  Fox  river.  It  is  over  a  level  prairie,  across 
which,  from  river  to  river,  there  is  a  water  communication  for  periogues 
in  high  stages  of  the  water.  Fox  River  has  a  course  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty  miles.  It  runs  through  Winnebago  lake.  It  has  a  fine  country  on 
its  banks,  with  a  salubrious  climate.  Chippeway  is  a  considerable  river 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  enters  it  just  below  Lake  Pepin.  It  is  half  a  mile 
wide  at  its  mouth,  and  has  communications  by  a  short  portage  with  Lake 
Superior.  The  other  chief  rivers  of  this  territory,  tributary  to  the  '  father 
of  waters,'  are  St.  Croix,  Rum,  St.  Francis,  and  Savanna. 

Among  the  smaller  tributaries  to  the  Mississippi  are  the  Obian,  Forked 
Deer,  Big  Hatchet,  and  Wolf  rivers,  all  of  which  flow  into  it  from  Ten- 
nessee ;    and  the  Yazoo    and  Big   Black,  from  the  state  of  Mississippi.  , 
The  last  named  rivers  are  only  navigable  for  boats. 

Beside  the  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Mississippi,  and  are  thus  emptied 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  are  a  few  small  streams  which  disembogue 
immediately  into  the  gulf.  The  Alabama  River  rises  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Georgia,  in  two  head-streams  named  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa, 
and  running  south-westerly  through  the  centre  of  the  state  of  Alabama, 
unites  with  the  Tombeckbee;  both  the  streams  then  take  the  name  of  Mo- 
bile, and  flowing  south  for  a  short  distance  fall  into  Mobile  Bay.     Tho 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  53 

Tombeckbee  is  formed  of  two  main  branches  rising  in  the  mountains  of 
the  Mississippi.  It  has  a  boat  navigation  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course. 
The  Alabama  has  a  boat  navigation  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from 
the  bay.  Pearl  River  rises  near  the  centre  of  the  state  of  Mississippi.  A 
number  of  branches  unite  to  form  the  main  river,  which  is  afterwards  in- 
creased by  the  Chuncka  and  other  streams.  It  passes  through  a  pleasant 
and  fertile  country,  and  derives  much  importance  from  being  one  of  the 
chief  points  of  communication  between  the  state  through  which  it  flows 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Pascagoula  rises  in  latitude  thirty  three 
degrees,  and  after  travelling  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  a  tract  of  pine 
country,  broadens  at  its  mouth  into  an  open  bay,  on  which,  at  a  town  of 
its  own  name,  is  a  resort  for  the  inhabitants  of  New  Orleans  during  the 
sickly  months.  Most  of  the  rivers  of  Florida  which  flow  into  the  gulf 
have  their  sources  in  Georgia.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Ap- 
palachicola.  The  topography  of  this  country  is  as  yet  very  imperfect,  and 
the  very  numerous  streams  which  intersect  it  have  borne  a  variety  of 
names.     Most  of  them  are  barred  at  their  mouth  with  sand. 

II.  RIVERS  WHICH  FLOW  INTO  THE  ATLANTIC. 

The  River  St.  Croix  forms  a  part  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  Maine, 
and  is  little  navigable  except  by  rafts  ;  most  of  it  consists  of  a  chain  of 
small  lakes.  From  Calais  to  the  sea,  thirty  miles,  its  navigation  is  unob- 
structed. 

The  River  Penobscot  is  the  largest  in  the  state  of  Maine.  It  rises  in 
the  highlands  separating  Maine  from  Lower  Canada.  Between  the  junc- 
tion of  its  two  upper  branches  is  Moosehead  lake,  about  forty  miles 
long,  and  fifteen  wide.  From  the  Forks,  as  they  are  called,  the  Penobscot 
Indians  pass  to  Canada,  up  either  branch,  principally  the  west,  the  source 
of  which  is  said  to  be  not  more  than  twenty  miles  from  the  waters  which 
fall  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  whole  navigable  course  of  the  river  for 
sloops,  is  forty-six  miles  from  the  head  of  the  bay,  to  near  the  head  of  the 
side :  and  from  the  Forks  to  the  sea  is  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  miles. 
This  river  has  very  numerous  branches,  navigable  by  rafts  and  abounding 
in  mill  sites. 

The  Saco  rises  in  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  enters 
Maine  at  Fryeburg,  and  flows  in  an  irregular  course  south-east  to  the  sea; 
it  is  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  long,  and  has  numerous  falls  which 
afford  excellent  mill  sites  and  manufacturing  stations. 

The  Androscoggin  rises  in  Umbagog  lake,  among  the  highlands  which 
form  the  north-west  boundary  of  Maine,  and  descending  through  a  suc- 
cession of  lakes  enters  New  Hampshire  at  Errol ;  it  re-enters  Maine  at 
Gilead,  and  flows  east  and  south  till  it  joins  the  Kennebec  at  Merrymeet- 
ing  bay.  Its  length  is  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  ;  the  whole  course  is 
broken  by  rapids  and  falls,  which  prevent  the  transportation  of  any  thing 
except  timber  and  logs. 

The  Kennebec  also  rises  in  the  highlands,  near  the  sources  of  the  An- 
droscoggin, and  flows  nearly  south  to  the  sea ;  falls  and  rapids  render  the 
navigation  difficult  above  the  tide  at  Augusta,  from  which  place  it  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  one  hundred  tons,  and  from  Hallowell  and  Gardiner 
for  ships  to  the  sea.     The  country  watered  by  the  Kennebec  generally 

5* 


54  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

consists  of  excellent  land ;  it  is  one  of  the  best  grazing  districts  in  New 
England ;  and  there  are  upon  the  banks  of  the  river  a  number  of  flourish- 
ing and  handsome  towns. 

The  Merrimack  rises  in  New  Hampshire,  and  has  two  principal  branches : 
one  of  them  being  the  outlet  of  lake  Winnipiseogee.  The  north  or  longer 
branch  is  called  the  Pemigewasset,  and  has  its  source  near  the  Notch  of 
the  White  Mountains.  At  its  junction  with  the  outlet  of  the  lake  this 
stream  takes  the  name  of  Merrimack,  and  flows  south  seventy-eight  miles 
to  Chelmsford,  where  it  enters  Massachusetts,  through  which  it  runs  east 
to  the  sea.  Its  whole  course  is  about  two  hundred  miles.  There  are 
numerous  falls  in  the  New  Hampshire  portion.  Though  not  equal  to  the 
Connecticut  for  fine  scenery,  the  Merrimack  is  a  noble  and  beautiful 
stream.  Its  waters  are  pure  and  salubrious,  and  on  its  borders  are  many 
flourishing  towns.  Its  name  in  the  Indian  language  signifies  a  sturgeon. 
Its  width  varies  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  rods ;  it  receives 
many  minor  streams  and  rivers,  which  form  the  outlet  of  several  small 
lakes.  Its  obstructions  have  been  partly  remedied  by  locks  at  different 
places,  and  there  is  a  good  navigation  for  vessels  of  two  hundred  tons  to 
Haverhill.  Two  chain  bridges  cross  the  river  at  Newburyport,  and  Salis- 
bury. 

The  Piscataqua  has  its  rise  and  its  whole  course  in  New  Hampshire. 
It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  several  small  streams  in  a  wide  and  deep 
bed ;  the  longest  of  these  streams  is  Salmon  Fall  river,  which  forms  part 
of  the  boundary  between  New  Hampshire  and  Maine. 

The  Connecticut  is  the  largest  river  of  the  New  England  States.  It 
rises  beyond  the  high-lands  which  separate  the  states  of  Vermont  and 
New  Hampshire  from  Lower  Canada.  It  has  been  surveyed  to  the  head 
spring  of  its  northern  branch,  about  twenty-five  miles  beyond  the  forty- 
fifth  degree  of  latitude,  from  which  to  its  mouth  it  flows  upwards  of  three 
hundred  miles  through  a  well  inhabited  country.  Its  navigation  is  much 
interrupted  by  falls.  It  receives  several  rivers,  as  the  Chicapee,  Deerfield, 
Miller's,  and  Farmington.  At  Hartford  it  meets  the  tide,  whence  it  passes 
on  in  a  winding  course,  till  it  falls  into  Long  Island  sound,  between  Say- 
brook  and  Lyme.  This  river  is  navigable  for  sloops,  as  far  as  Hartford, 
fifty  miles  distant  from  its  mouth  ;  and  the  produce  of  the  country,  for  two 
hundred  miles  above  it,  is  brought  thither  in  flat-bottomed  boats,  which  are 
so  light  as  to  be  portable  in  carts. 

The  Hudson,  or  the  North  River,  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Hudson  proper  and  the  Mohawk,  which  unite  below  Waterford,  ten  miles 
above  Albany.  The  Hudson  takes  its  rise  in  the  forty-fourth  degree  of 
north  latitude,  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains  which  separate  the  waters 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  from  those  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  the  Mohawk  in 
the  table-land  surrounding  Oneida  lake.  The  Mohawk  river  rises  to  the 
north-east  of  Oneida  lake,  about  eight  miles  from  Sable  Water,  a  stream 
of  Lake  Ontario.  It  runs  first  twenty  miles  south  to  Rome  ;  then  south- 
east one  hundred  and  thirty-four  miles ;  and,  after  receiving  many  tribu- 
tary streams  in  its  course,  falls  into  the  Hudson  by  three  mouths.  It  is  a 
large  stream  of  water;  and  is  now  navigable  for  boats  from  Schenectady 
to  Rome,  one  hundred  and  four  miles  distant.  From  Albany  to  Schenec- 
tady is  a  portage  of  sixteen  miles,  on  account  of  the  falls  and  rapids,  which 
render  the  river  unnavigable.     These  falls  and  rapids,  denominated  the 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  55 

Cohoes,  are  three  miles  from  the  junction  of  the  Mohawk  with  the  Hud- 
son. The  river  is  one  thousand  feet  wide  at  these  falls ;  the  rock  over 
which  the  stream  descends  is  forty  feet  perpendicular  height;  and  the 
whole  height  of  the  cataract,  including  the  descent  above,  is  seventy  feet. 
Properly  speaking,  the  North  river  is  no  other  than  a  narrow  gulf  of  the 
sea,  entering  inland  at  New  York,  and  penetrating  across  the  double  chain 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  as  far  as  the  confluence  of  the  above  men- 
tioned streams,  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles  from  the  sea.  This  is 
what  distinguishes  the  Hudson  from  all  other  rivers  in  the  United  States. 
In  no  other  does  the  tide  ascend  beyond  the  first  range ;  but  in  the  North 
river,  it  crosses  the  first  chain  at  West  Point,  sixty  miles  north  of  New 
York ;  and  the  second  at  Catskill,  after  having  burst  the  beds  of  granite 
which  opposed  its  passage,  and  cut  them  into  a  thousand  different  shapes. 
Hence  the  deep  valley  of  the  Hudson  has  derived  a  most  singular  and 
magnificent  aspect ;  the  western  bank  being,  in  some  places,  five  hundred 
feet  of  perpendicular  height  above  the  level  of  the  river.* 

*  '  The  river  expands  into  a  noble  bay,  four  or  five  miles  wide,  called  the  Tappan 
Sea,  about  thirty  miles  from  New  York/at  the  top  of  which,  ten  miles  farther  on,  the 
banks  approach  each  other  so  closely,  that  the  channel  through  which  the  river  has  at 
a  distant  period  forced  its  way  by  some  violent  convulsion,  is  not  perceived  until  you 
almost  enter  it.  Here  we  suddenly  found  ourselves  in  a  narrow  pass  between  precipi- 
tous mountain  tops,  rising  on  both  sides  from  the  water's  edge  to  an  elevation  of  twelve 
or  fifteen  hundred  feet.  These  mountains  or  hills,  as  we  should  call  them,  are  what  are 
called  the 'Highlands  of  the  Hudson;  and  the  entry  to  them  seemed  to  as  the  most 
remarkable  point  on  the  river,  not  to  be  contemplated  without  feelings  of  the  deepest 
interest.  The  river  course  continues  to  run  in  this  defile  among  romantic  hills  covered 
with  wood,  sweetly  inlaid  with  plateaus  of  green  pasture,  and  of  table-land  for  about 
twenty  miles.  The  farm-houses  and  villages  look  as  if  they  hung  on  the  cliffs,  or  rose 
by  terraces  from  the  water's  edge.  The  river  is  of  various  breadths,  from  a  mile  and  a 
half  to  two  miles.  The  projecting  rocks  often  force  it  to  change  its  direction,  so  much, 
indeed,  that  you  frequently  appear  to  be  sailing  in  a  lake,  from  which  you  cannot  dis- 
cover an  outlet. 

1  After  leaving  the  Highlands,  the  banks  of  the  river  are  comparatively  low,  one 
hundred,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  The  hills  through  which  we  had 
passed  incline  to  the  right,  and  do  not.  break  off  till  they  reach  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
river,  for  sixty  or  seventy  miles,  frequently  opens  into  beautiful  lakes  and  bays,  with 
projecting  and  marked  shores.  Great  part  of  this  district,  which  is  called  the  Valley 
of  the  Hudson,  consists  of  good  land  and  fine  corn-fields,  and  is  one  of  the  richest  parts  of 
the  state  of  New  York.  The  town  of  Newburg  on  the  one  side,  the  village  of  Fishkill 
on  the  other,  the  noble  terrace  of  Hyde  Park,  the  Dutchess  County,  famed  for  Its  fertility, 
are  all  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  this  reach.  On  the  upper  part  of  it,  the  grand 
range  of  mountains  called  the  Catskills,  about  three  thousand  feet  high,  which  are  a 
spur  from  the  Alleghanies,  and  the  populous  city  of  Hudson,  strikingly  placed  on  a  fine 
promontory,  are  the  most  prominent  objects.  From  Hudson  to  Albany,  about  forty 
miles,  the  Hudson  has  more  the  appearance  of  a  river  than  below.  It  is  here  orna- 
mented with  many  islands,  the  shores  become  less  steep,  the  country  rich  looking,  and 
more  peopled.  Villas  on  the  banks  appear  more  frequently  in  approaching  Albany, 
the  view  of  which,  from  the  river,  is  very  striking.  The  oldest  part  of  the  city  reaches 
to  the  water's  edge,  but  a  great  part  of  it  is  on  a  fine  elevation  on  the  face  of  a  hill. 

'  Whether  the  glorious  scenery  of  the  Hudson  be  superior  to  that  of  the  Rhine,  the 
Danube,  or  any  of  the  European  rivers,  which  many  of  the  Americans  who  have  tra- 
velled in  Europe  maintain,  I,  who  have  not  seen  the  greatest  of  those  rivers,  do  not 
pretend  to  say ;  but  I  am  very  much  mistaken,  if  there  be  any  where  continuously  in 
Great  Britain,  so  remarkable  a  combination  of  natural  beauty  and  romantic  scenery  as 
on  the  Hudson  between  New  York  and  Albany.  Nowhere  in  the  British  dominions  can 
so  great  a  variety  of  interesting  and  pleasing  objects  be  seen  in  the  course  of  a  single 
day.  The  Trosachs,  though  in  miniature,  resemble  the  passage  through  the  Highlands 
of  the  Hudson,  in  all  respects  but  one,  the  grandeur  of  the  bounding  objects.    The 


56  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Along  the  shore  of  the  Hudson,  a  mural  precipice  extends  twenty  miles. 
It  commences  at  Weehawken,  four  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Jersey,  gradu- 
ally rising  towards  the  north,  and  mostly  occupied  by  forests.  It  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Palisadoes. 


Palisadoe  Rocka. 

Raritan  River ,  in  the  northern  part  of  New  Jersey,  is  formed  by  two 
branches  which  unite  about  twenty  miles  above  New  Brunswick.  It 
becomes  navigable  two  miles  above  that  city,  at  a  place  called  Brunswick 
Landing.  Flowing  by  New  Brunswick,  and  gradually  becoming  broader 
and  deeper,  it  passes  Amboy  and  then  widens  into  Raritan  bay,  which  is 
immediately  connected  with  the  ocean.  It  is  navigable  for  sloops  of  eighty 
tons  as  far  as  New  Brunswick,  seventeen  miles. 

The  Delaivare  issues  by  two  streams,  called  the  Coquago  and  the  Rap- 
padon,  the  union  of  which,  forty  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  their  sources, 
form  the  Delaware,  from  the  Katskill  Mountains,  in  the  county  of  Dela- 
ware, state  of  New  York.  Running  first  south,  it  next  turns  to  the  south- 
east, forming,  for  the  space  of  sixty  miles,  the  boundary  between  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York ;  and  thence,  forms  again  the  line  of  separation 
between  the  former  state  and  that  of  New  Jersey,  for  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred miles  more  to  Trenton,  where  there  are  falls,  but  of  no  great  height. 
Thence,  with  increased  breadth,  it  pursues  a  course  of  thirty-six  miles 
farther,  to  Philadelphia,  where  it  is  a  mile  broad.  Thence  it  proceeds  to 
Newcastle,  forty  miles  below  Philadelphia,  where  it  is  two  miles  broad. 
Thence  it  spreads  out  into  a  spacious  bay,  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic, 
seventy  miles  below  Newcastle,  by  an  outlet  of  twenty-five  miles.  The 
whole  course  of  the  river,  from  the  Atlantic  to  its  source,  is  three  hundred 
and  fifty  miles ;  and  two  hundred  and  eighty  from  the  head  of  Delaware 
bay,  including  the  windings.  Its  two  chief  tributary  streams  are  the  Lehigh 
and  Schuylkill.  The  navigation  betwixt  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeak  is 
now  improved  by  means  of  a  canal. 

The  River  Susquehannah,  of  all  those  of  the  eastern  states,  most  resem- 

lofty  mountains  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  impart  a  character  of  sublimity  to  those 
justly  celebrated  works  of  nature,  which  is  here  to  a  certain  extent  wanting.' — Stuart's 
America 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  57 

bles  the  Mississippi  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  on  account  of  its  numerous  and 
distant  branches.  The  north-east  branch,  which  is  the  remotest  source,  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  small  streams  that  issue  from  the  lakes  of 
Caniadebago,  Ustavantho,  and  Otsego,  in  the  state  of  New  York.  It  runs 
south  and  south-west  in  such  a  winding  course,  (receiving  in  its  progress 
the  TJnadilla  and  Chenango  rivers  from  the  north,)  that  it  crosses  the  boun- 
dary line  between  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  no  less  than  three  times. 
It  forms  a  junction  with  the  Tioga,  in  forty-one  degrees  and  fifty-seven 
minutes  north  latitude;  and  thence  pursues  a  south-east  course  of  seventy 
miles  to  Wyoming ;  whence,  making  a  sudden  bend  at  a  right  angle,  it 
runs  a  south-west  course  of  eighty  miles,  and  unites  with  the  west  branch 
at  Northumberland.  The  river,  now  increased  to  the  breadth  of  half  a 
mile,  flows  south  through  the  mountains,  a  course  of  forty  miles,  to  its 
junction  with  the  Juniata,  when,  turning  to  the  east  for  ten  miles,  it 
emerges  from  the  mountains  above  Harrisburg,  and  after  a  south-east 
course  of  eighty  miles,  falls  into  Chesapeak  bay.  The  western  branch  of 
the  Susquehannah  is  formed  by  many  streams,  beyond  the  Alleghany 
Mountains ;  and  its  most  southern  source  is  within  a  very  few  miles  of  the 
Conemaugh,  or  Kiskeminitas,  which  falls  into  the  Alleghany  a  little  above 
Pittsburg.  After  running  a  very  winding  course  of  two  hundred  miles, 
principally  among  the  mountains,  it  joins  with  the  east  branch  at  Northum- 
berland. The  Juniata  rises  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and,  pursuing  an 
eastern  and  very  serpentine  and  mountainous  course,  falls  into  the  Susque- 
hannah, after  running  two  hundred  miles.  The  whole  course  of  the 
Susquehannah,  from  Chesapeak  bay  to  the  head  of  the  north-east  branch, 
is  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles  ;  and,  including  all  its  branches,  it  waters  a 
tract  of  forty  thousand  square  miles.  Where  it  falls  into  the  sea  it  is  fully 
a  mile  broad ;  at  Harrisburg  it  is  nearly  of  the  same  breadth,  and  from 
three  to  five  feet  deep.  There  are  seven  falls  in  this  river,  which,  with  the 
numerous  islands  and  rocks,  render  it  navigable  only  for  a  few  miles  by 
large  vessels. 

The  River  Potomac  rises  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains, and  after  running  a  north-east  course  of  sixty  miles  to  Cumberland, 
is  joined  eighteen  miles  below,  by  a  branch  coming  from  the  south -west. 
Thence  fifty-four  miles  farther,  it  receives  the  waters  of  Licking  Creeky 
and  passes  the  north  mountain  into  a  fine  limestone  valley,  which  it  waters 
in  a  very  winding  course  of  forty-five  miles  in  a  south-east  direction.  Here 
it  receives  a  considerable  number  of  tributary  streams,  particularly  the 
Conecocheague  at  William  sport,  and  the  Shenandoah  at  the  extremity  of  the 
valley,  and  just  above  the  Blue  Ridge,  through  which  the  combined  stream 
has  effected  a  singularly  magnificent  passage.  About  thirty  miles  farther, 
it  descends  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  the  course  of  eight  or  ten  miles, 
to  the  level  of  tide- water,  which  it  meets  at  Georgetown.  It  is  here  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  wide  ;  but  expands  to  a  mile  opposite  Washington,  and 
enters  the  Chesapeak  bay  by  a  passage  seven  and  a  half  miles  broad. 
Thb  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Atlantic  rivers.  It  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  any  burden  to  Alexandria,  one  hundred  miles  distant ;  and 
from  thence,  for  ships  of  considerable  burden,  to  Georgetown.  A  lock 
navigation  has  been  constructed  round  the  first  falls,  of  which  there  are 
four  in  the  whole.  The  largest  of  these  falls  is  at  Matilda,  six  miles  above 
Georgetown,  where  the  stream,  nine  hundred  feet  broad,  after  flowing 
8 


58  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

through  a  valley  skirted  with  hills  wild  as  those  of  the  Rhone  in  Vivari, 
(says  VoJney,)  falls  at  once,  like  the  Niagara,  from  the  height  of  seventy- 
seven  feet,  into  a  deep  chasm  of  solid  micaceous  granite.     From  this  it 


Passage  of  the  Potomac  through  the  Blue  Ridge. 

escapes,  several  miles  farther  down,  by  a  widening  of  the  valley  in  the 
lower  country.  The  whole  course  of  the  Potomac  is  three  hundred  and 
forty  miles. 

York  River  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Mattapony  and  Pamunky. 
Beyond  the  junction,  the  Mattapony  is  navigable  for  seventy  miles  ;  and 
thirty  miles  higher  up  is  its  source  in  the  Blue  Mountains.  The  Pamunky 
is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  North  and  South  Anna  rivers,  which  rise 
in  the  north-west  about  fifty  miles  distant.  The  mouth  of  this  river  is 
three  miles  wide ;  and  at  high  tide  there  is  four  fathoms  water,  twenty-five 
miles  above  Yorktown,  where  it  is  a  mile  and  a  half  wide  in  the  wet 
season,  but  has  a  channel  of  only  seventy-five  fathoms  in  the  dry  season. 

James'  River  is  one  of  the  most  important  rivers  in  the  state  of  Virginia. 
It  rises  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  near  two  hundred  miles  to  the  west 
of  Richmond ;  and,  after  widening  and  contracting  alternately  in  a  very 
winding  course,  it  enters  Chesapeak  bay  fifteen  miles  west  of  Cape  Henry ; 
its  whole  length  being  three  hundred  miles.  Its  principal  tributary  streams 
are  the  Rivanna,  the  Appomatox,  the  Chickahomany,  the  Nansemond,  and 
the  Elizabeth,  on  which  last  is  situated  the  town  of  Norfolk.  This  river, 
anciently  called  the  Powhatan,  affords  harbor  for  vessels  of  any  burden,  in 
Hampton  Road,  seventy  miles  below  Richmond.  Vessels  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  tons  may  go  up  to  Warwick ;  and  those  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
to  within  a  mile  of  Richmond. 

The  Roanoake  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Dan  and  Staunton.  It 
runs  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles  south-east  till  it  enters  Albemarle 
sound.  Its  whole  course  is  two  hundred  miles.  It  is  navigable  by  sloops 
sixty  miles ;  the  low  lands  on  the  banks  are  subjected  to  annual  inun- 
dations. 

Cape  Fear  River  is  the  largest  in  North  Carolina.  It  rises  one  hundred 
miles  above  Fayetteville ;  and  thence  running  two  hundred  miles  eastward, 
fells  into  the  Atlantic  ocean  at  Cape  Fear,  where  it  is  three  miles  wide, 


fan 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPK^J  J  59 

and  eighteen  feet  deep  at  high  tide.  It  is  navigable  by  vessels  drawing  ten 
feet  water,  up  to  Wilmington,  a  little  below  the  confluence  of  its  two  prin- 
cipal streams. 

The  Great  Pedee  rises  in  the  Blue  Mountains,  on  the  borders  of  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia,  where  it  has  the  name  of  Yadkin  river.  Its  whole 
course  is  upwards  of  three  hundred  miles,  half  of  which  is  in  North  Caro- 
lina. It  is  navigable  by  ships  to  Georgetown  ;  and  for  smaller  vessels,  one 
hundred  miles  higher  up. 

The  Santee  is  the  largest  river  in  the  state  of  South  Carolina,  and  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Congaree  and  Wateree  rivers.  The  whole 
course  of  the  Santee,  including  that  of  the  Catawbaw  or  Wateree,  is  three 
hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  is  navigable  up  to  the  point  of  junction  by 
ships  of  burden. 

The  Savannah  River  which  forms  the  boundary  between  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia,  is  a  bold  and  deep  stream,  and  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Keowee  and  Tugeloo,  two  small  streams  issuing  from  the  Blue  Ridge, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  sea.  It  runs  in  a  straight  south-east 
course  all  the  way  to  its  mouth,  seventeen  miles  below  Savannah.  It  is 
navigable  for  ships  of  any  burden  to  within  three  miles  of  Savannah ;  for 
vessels  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  tons  to  Savannah ;  and  for  boats  of  one 
hundred  feet  keel,  to  Augusta,  above  which  the  rapids  commence  ;  after 
passing  them,  the  river  can  be  navigated  in  small  boats,  eighty  miles  higher, 
to  the  junction  of  the  tributary  rivers. 

III.   RIVERS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  AND  THE  GREAT  LAKES. 

The  waters  that  rise  on  the  western  declivities  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
flow  into  the  Columbia,  the  Multnomah  and  the  Lake  Bueneventura.  Co- 
lumbia or  Oregon  river  rises  within  a  mile  of  the  head-waters  of  the  Missouri. 
It  collects  its  tribute  for  a  wide  extent  along  the  western  dividing  ridges  of 
the  mountains,  and  on  emerging  from  them  becomes  at  once  a  broad  and 
deep  stream.  After  receiving  Clark's  and  Lewis'  rivers,  each  a  large 
stream,  from  the  east,  it  widens  to  nine  hundred  and  sixty  yards,  and  forms 
a  great  southern  bend  through  the  second  chain  of  mountains.  One  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six  miles  below,  are  the  great  falls,  where  the  river  descends 
in  one  rapid,  fifty-seven  feet.  Below  these  falls,  it  winds  first  to  the  north- 
west and  then  to  the  south-west,  and  passes  through  the  third  chain  of 
mountains,  where  it  is  again  compressed  to  the  width  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  yards.  Below  this  rapid,  at  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  from  the 
sea,  it  meets  the  tide,  beyond  which  it  has  a  broad  estuary  to  the  sea.  Sixty 
miles  below  the  rapids,  Multnomah,  a  very  large  and  unexplored  tributary, 
falls  in  from  the  north-east.  The  mouth  of  the  river  is  in  latitude  forty-six 
degrees  and  twenty-four  minutes,  and  the  tide  there  rises  eight  feet  and  a 
half.  The  Columbia  and  its  tributaries  abound  in  the  finest  salmon,  which 
is  said  to  form  the  principal  food  of  the  savages  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Seals  and  other  aquatic  animals  are  taken  in  this  river  in  great 
numbers,  and  the  skins  shipped  to  China  constitute  the  chief  article  of 
trade  from  this  great  river.  A  number  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Missouri 
interlock  with  the  waters  of  the  Columbia.  The  whole  course  of  the  river 
is  about  one  thousand  five  hundred  miles.  As  this  river  waters  an  immense 
territory  which  has  recently  become  a  subject  of  great  interest,  we  have 


60  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

subjoined,  in  a  note,  a  partial  account  of  its  navigation,  from  the  interesting 
work  of  Mr.  Ross  Cox.^ 

*  We  set  off  a  little  before  sunrise ;  and  about  an  hour  afterward  entered  the  first  lake 
formed  by  the  Columbia.  It  is  between  eleven  and  twelve  leagues  long,  and  about  one 
and  a  half  in  breadth ;  the  current  smooth  and  steady,  and  pretty  free  from  snags  or 
sunken  trees.  The  shores  are  bold  and  well  wooded  with  a  variety  of  timber  of  fine  size  ; 
and  in  the  distance  we  first  caught  a  view  of  the  most  western  chain  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains covered  with  snow.  A  head  wind,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  considerably 
retarded  our  progress  •  and  we  encamped  late,  near  the  upper  end  of  the  lake,  where  a 
few  Indians  visited  us.  They  appeared  to  be  very  poor,  and  brought  about  a  dozen 
beaver  skins  to  trade,  which  we  told  them  we  could  not  purchase,  as  we  were  obliged  to 
cross  the  mountains  ;  but  that  our  party,  going  downwards  in  the  autumn,  would  stop  a 
few  days  with  them,  and  trade  all  the  skins  they  had.  They  were  rather  disappointed  j 
but  a  little  tobacco,  and  some  trifling  presents,  sent  them  away  in  good  humor. 

Shortly  after  embarking  on  the  morning  of  the  18th,  we  left  the  lake,  and  entered 
that  part  of  the  river  called  the  straits,  which  separates  the  upper  from  the  lower  lake.  It 
is  only  a  few  miles  in  length,  and  quickly  brought  us  to  the  upper  lake,  which  is  not  so 
long  as  the  first.  The  high  hills  in  its  immediate  vicinity  were  covered  with  snow,  the 
chilling  influence  of  which  we  sensibly  experienced  by  the  cold  blasts  from  the  shore. 
Encamped  at  sunset  at  the  upper  end  of  the  lake,  on  a  fine  sandy  beach.  During  the 
day  we  struck  on  two  sand-banks,  and  were  slightly  injured  by  a  sunken  tree.  Saw  no 
Indians. 

19th.  About  two  miles  above  our  encampment  of  last  night,  the  Columbia  becomes 
very  narrow,  with  steep  and  thickly  wooded  banks,  covered  with  immense  quantities  of 
fallen  trees.  The  current  is  very  strong,  and,  owing  to  the  great  height  of  the  water,  the 
men  at  intervals  had  scarcely  any  beach  on  which  to  walk  in  dragging  up  the  canoes. 
Our  progress  was  consequently  slow  j  and  we  put  ashore  for  the  night  about  fifteen 
miles  above  the  lake. 

At  nine  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  20th  we  reached  the  second  Dallas,  or  narrows, 
which  are  formed  by  a  contraction  of  the  channel  of  the  river  into  a  very  small  compass. 
There  are  high  and  slippery  rocks  on  each  side,  which  make  it  a  work  of  great  danger 
and  difficulty  to  pass  them.  The  baggage  was  all  carried  by  the  men,  and  the  canoes 
were  towed  up  with  strong  lines,  after  being  in  great  danger  of  filling,  from  the  frightful 
whirlpools  close  along  the  shore.  The  weather  became  much  cooler  from  the  proximity 
of  the  mountains.  Several  patches  of  snow  were  observable  on  the  beach  during  the 
day,  and  towards  evening  some  rain  fell. 

From  dawn  of  day  until  noon  on  the  21st,  we  did  not  make  three  miles,  owing  to  the 
impetuosity  of  the  current,  the  shelving  banks,  and  the  extreme  weakness  of  our  men, 
several  of  whom  were  knocked  up.  We  were  detained  at  one  place  upwards  of  four 
hours  to  repair  our  shattered  canoes,  and  encamped  about  six  o'clock  on  a  low  gravelly 
point.     We  had  several  smart  showers  during  the  afternoon. 

22d.  About  two,  P.  M.  arrived  at  a  place  called  the  Upper  Dallas,  where  the  river  is 
again  confined  for  a  considerable  distance  between  a  line  of  high  slippery  rocks.  Got 
about  half  way  through  this  channel,  and  stopped  for  the  night  in  a  small  nook  formed 
by  the  rocks,  on  which  we  lay  scattered  and  exposed  to  severe  rain  during  the  night. 

We  rose  wet  and  unrefreshed  on  the  morning  of  the  23d,  and  in  five  hours  passed  the 
Dallas,  the  upper  part  of  which  consists  of  a  chain  of  whirlpools,  which  compelled  us  to 
carry  both  canoes  and  baggage  some  distance  over  the  rocks  ;  in  the  execution  of  which 
duty,  some  of  the  men  narrowly  escaped  with  their  lives.  Those  who  carried  our  canoe, 
from  mere  exhaustion  fell  several  times,  by  which  it  was  much  damaged ;  and  we  were 
detained  until  three,  P.  M.  to  get  it  repaired.  Encamped  at  dusk  on  a  sandy  beach,  for 
which  we  had  been  some  time  on  the  look-out.  The  rain  continued  during  the  evening 
and  the  night  to  pour  down  in  torrents. 

Our  progress  on  the  24th  was  equally  slow.  The  various  tributary  streams  which  we 
passed  on  this  and  the  last  two  days,  and  which  take  their  rise  from  the  surrounding 
mountains,  had  by  the  recent  rains  been  swollen  into  torrents,  the  waters  of  which,  as 
they  rushed  with  headlong  force  into  the  Columbia,  repeatedly  drove  us  back  with  irre- 
sistible strength,  and  at  times  we  were  in  danger  of  filling.  On  two  occasions,  where 
the  opposite  shore  of  the  Columbia  consisted  of  perpendicular  rocks,  we  were  obliged 
after  various  fruitless  attempts  to  pass  the  minor  streams,  to  unload  and  carry  the 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  61 

The  rivers  which  flow  into  the  great  lakes  are,  for  the  most  part,  small 
and  unimportant.  A  permanent  communication  between  their  waters  and 
those  of  the  Mississippi  might  be  formed  by  means  of  a  short  canal  from 
the  Fox  or  Chicago  rivers,  both  of  which  empty  into  Lake  Michigan. 
The  Fox  river  rises  near  the  Ouisconsin  branch  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
afterwards  flows  within  one  and  a  half  miles  of  its  channel,  separated 
from  it  only  by  a  short  portage  over  a  prairie.  During  the  season  of  high 
water,  the  intervening  ground  is  overflowed,  so  that  loaded  boats  may  pass 
over  it. 

Saganaw  River  is  a  large  and  deep  stream,  with  bold  shores,  and  nume- 
rous tributaries,  which  water  a  large  extent  of  very  delightful  and  fertile 
country.  The  banks  of  this  stream  are  inhabited  by  detached  bands  of 
Chippeway  and  Ottaway  Indians,  who  have  long  derived  an  easy  subsis- 
tence from  the  abundance  of  game  and  fish  to  be  found  in  their  neighbor- 
hood. The  Saganaw  empties  into  a  fine  bay  of  the  same  name,  which  is 
by  far  the  largest  of  the  numerous  inlets  which  indent  the  very  irregular 
snores  of  Lake  Huron. 

The  Gennessee  rises  in  Pennsylvania,  and  runs  north  across  the  west 
part  of  New  York  into  Lake  Ontario.  Five  miles  from  its  mouth,  at 
Rochester,  are  falls  of  ninety-six  and  seventy-five  feet  in  descent ;  above 
these  falls  the  stream  is  navigable  for  boats  nearly  seventy  miles,  where 
two  other  falls  occur,  of  sixty  and  ninety  feet,  one  of  which  is  formed  by 
the  slope  of  land  which  extends  from  Lewiston  on  Niagara  river.  Black 
River  receives  its  name  from  the  color  of  its  water.  It  rises  in  the  high- 
lands, north  of  the  Mohawk,  and  its  branches  interlock  with  those  of  the 
Hudson ;  it  pursues  a  northerly  course  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles, 
and  falls  into  Lake  Ontario,  near  its  outlet.  It  is  a  deep  but  sluggish 
stream,  and  the  navigation  is  interrupted  by  falls  ;  a  series  of  which,  called 
the  Long  Falls,  extend  fourteen  miles.  The  land  upon  this  stream  is 
generally  a  rich,  dark  colored  mould.  The  Oswegatchie  consists  of  two 
branches,  which  unite  four  miles  above  their  entrance  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence. The  east  branch  is  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  long,  and 
the  west  nearly  one  hundred ;  they  are  very  crooked  streams.  The 
Oswego  issues  from  Oneida  Lake,  and  runs  north-westerly  into  Lake  On- 
tario ;  it  is  about  forty  miles  long  and  is  a  rapid  stream  ;  its  navigation  is 
assisted  by  locks  and  canals.  The  Maumee  rises  in  the  north-eastern 
part  of  Indiana,  and  flows  through  the  north-western  part  of  Ohio  into 
Lake  Erie ;  it  is  broad  and  deep,  but  has  an  obstruction  from  shoals 
and  rapids  thirty-three  miles  above  its  mouth.  The  Sandusky  rises  in 
the  northern  part  of  Ohio,  and  flows  northerly  into  Lake  Erie ;  it  is  one 
hundred  miles  in  length,  and  is  navigable. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  RIVERS. 

The  beds  of  rivers  are  the  lowest  parts  of  great  chasms,  formed  by  the  same  revo- 
lutions which  produced  the  mountains.  Running  waters  unceasingly  wear  away  their 
beds  and  banks  in  places  where  their  declivity  is  very  rapid ;  they  hollow  out  and  deepen 
their  channels  in  mountains  composed  of  rocks  of  moderate  hardness  ;  they  draw  along 
stones,  and  form  accumulations  of  them  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course ;  and  thus 
their  beds  are  often  gradually  elevated  in  the  plains,  while  they  are  deepened  and 

canoes  and  baggage  some  distance  along  the  banks  until  we  reached  a  smooth  space  of 
current,  when  we  crossed,  and  by  that  means  surmounted  the  difficulties  of  their  respec- 
tive embouchures.  —Adventures  on  Columbia  River.  6 


62 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


depressed  in  the  mountains.  But  these  changes,  though  continually  going  on  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  could  only  give  form  to  the  banks  of  rivers;  they  in  no  wise  created 
the  banks  themselves.  Many  great  rivers  flow  with  an  almost  imperceptible  declivity. 
The  river  of  the  Amazons  has  only  ten  feet  and  a  half  declivity  upon  two  hundred 
leagues  of  its  course,  making  one  twenty-seventh  of  an  inch  for  every  thousand  feet. 
"When  a  river  is  obstructed  in  its  course  by  a  bank  of  solid  rocks,  and  finds  beneath 
them  a  stratum  of  softer  materials,  its  waters  wear  away  the  softer  substance,  and  thus 
open  for  themselves  a  subterraneous  passage,  more  or  less  long.  Such  are  the  causes 
which  have  formed  the  magnificent  Rock  Bridge  in  Virginia,  an  astonishing  vault 
uniting  two  mountains,  separated  by  a  ravine  two  hundred  and  seventy  feet  in  depth,  in 
which  the  Cedar  Creek  flows.  In  Louisiana,  trees,  or  rather  whole  forests,  have  been 
observed  to  fall  on  a  river,  covering  it  nearly  with  vegetable  earth ;  and  thus  giving 
rise  to  a  natural  bridge  which  for  leagues  has  hid  the  course  of  the  river. 

Rivers  in  running  into  the  sea  present  a  great  variety  of  interesting  phenomena ;  many 
form  sand-banks,  as  the  Senegal  and  the  Nile  ;  others,  like  the  Danube,  ran  with  such 
force  into  the  sea,  that  one  can  for  a  certain  space  distinguish  the  waters  of  the  river 
from  those  of  the  sea.  The  waters  of  the  little  river  Syre  in  Norway  are  discernable  for 
a  considerable  distance  in  the  sea.  It  is  only  by  a  very  large  mouth,  like  that  of  the 
Loire,  the  Elbe,  or  the  Plata,  that  a  river  can  peacefully  mingle  with  the  sea.  Rivers 
even  of  this  nature,  however,  sometimes  experience  the  superior  influence  of  the  sea, 
which  repels  the  waters  into  their  bed.  Thus  the  Seine  forms  at  its  mouth  a  bar  of 
considerable  extent ;  and  the  Garonne,  unable  to  discharge  with  sufficient  rapidity  the 
waters  which  it  accumulates  in  a  kind  of  gulf  between  Bordeaux  and  its  mouth,  exhibits 
this  aquatic  mountain,  stopped  by  the  flow  of  the  tide  rolling  backwards,  inundating 
the  banks,  and  stopping  vessels  in  their  progress  both  up  and  down.  This  phenome- 
non, termed  the  Mascaret,  is  only  the  collision  of  two  bodies  of  water  moving  in  oppo- 
site directions.  The  most  sublime  phenomenon  of  this  kind  which  presents  itself  is  that 
of  the  giant  of  rivers  Orellana,  called  the  river  of  the  Amazons.  Twice  a  day  it 
pours  out  its  imprisoned  waves  into  the  bosom  of  the  ocean.  A  liquid  mountain  is 
thus  raised  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet ;  it  frequently  meets  the  flowing 
tide  of  the  sea,  and  the  shock  of  these  two  bodies  of  water  is  so  dreadful  that  it  makes 
all  the  neighboring  islands  tremble ;  the  fishermen  and  navigators  fly  from  it  in  the 
utmost  terror.  The  next  day,  or  the  second  day  after  every  new  or  full  moon,  the  time 
when  the  tides  are  highest,  the  river  also  seems  to  redouble  its  power  and  energy  ;  its 
waters  and  those  of  the  ocean  rush  against  each  other  like  the  onset  of  two  armies. 
The  banks  are  inundated  with  their  foaming  waves  ;  the  rocks  drawn  along  like  light 
vessels,  dash  against  each  other,  almost  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  which  bears  them 
on.  Loud  roarings  echo  from  island  to  island.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Genius  of  the 
River  and  the  God  of  the  Ocean  contended  in  battle  for  the  empire  of  the  waves.  The 
Indians  call  this  phenomenon  Pororoca. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  THE  RIVERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


NORTH   AMERICA. 

EUROPE. 

Names. 

Length.      Names. 

Length.           Names. 

Length.      Names. 

Length. 

Missouri 

4,400 

Ohio 

1,350 

Volga 

2,040 

Elbe 

570 

Mississippi 

3,000 

Kansas 

1,200 

Danube 

1,710 

Loire 

540 

Arkansas 

2.100 

White  River 

1,200 

Don 

1,050 

Vistula 

500 

St.  Lawrence    2,000 

Tennessee 

1,100 

Dnieper 

1,080 

Dniester 

480 

Mackenzie 

2,000 

Alabama 

050 

Kemi 

780 

Tagus 

580 

Del  Norte 

2,000 

Savannah 

600 

Rhine 

670 

Dwina 

480 

Nelson 

1,500 

Potomac 

550 

AFRICA. 

Columbia 
Red  River 
Platte 

1,500 
1,500 
1,500 

Connecticut 

Hudson 

Delaware 

410 
324 
300 

Nile 
Senegal 

2,687 1  Orange 
950 1  Gambia 

900 
700 

ASIA. 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Yangtse 

Kian  3,300 

Burrampooter  2,040 

Maranon 

4,500 

Ucayale 

1,600 

Lena 

2,470 

Irrawaddy 

2,040 

La  Plata 

3,000 

St.  Francisco 

1,500 

Amour 

2,360 

Cambodia 

2,000 

Madeira 

2,500 

Paraguay 

1,400 

Obi 

2,260 

Euphrates 

1,820 

Orinoco 

1,800 

Xingu 

1,400 

Yenisei 

2,150 

Hoang  Ho 

2,900 

Tocantins 

1,800 

Topajos 

1,300 

Ganges 

2,040 

Meinam 

1,600 

63 


CHAPTER  V.— CATARACTS  AND  CASCADES. 

The  Falls  of  Niagara  have  been  very  frequently  and  minutely  described, 
though  it  must  be  acknowledged,  as  has  been  well  said  by  the  celebrated 
Audubon,  that  all  the  pictures  you  may  see,  all  the  descriptions  you  may 
read  of  these  mighty  falls,  can  only  produce  in  your  mind  the  faint  glimmer 
of  a  glow-worm  compared  with  the  overpowering  glory  of  the  meridian  sun'. 
'  What !'  said  he,  'have  I  come  here  to  mimic  nature  in  her  grandest  enter- 
prise, and  add  my  caricature  of  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world  to  those 
which  I  here  see  ?  No. — I  give  up  the  vain  attempt.  I  will  look  on  these 
mighty  cataracts,  and  imprint  them  where  they  alone  can  be  represented, — 
on  my  mind!'  The  following  very  full  and  accurate  description  by  Mr. 
Schoolcraft,  is  the  best  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 

'  On  the  first  of  May,  I  visited  the  celebrated  Falls  of  Niagara.^  Keep- 
ing the  American  shore,  the  road  lies  over  an  alluvial  country,  elevated 
from  ten  to  twenty  feet  above  the  water  of  the  river,  without  a  hill  or  a 
ledge  of  rocks,  and  with  scarce  an  undulation  of  surface,  to  indicate  the 
existence,  or  prepare  the  eye  for  the  stupendous  prospect  which  bursts, 
somewhat  unexpectedly,  into  view.  The  day  was  clear  and  warm,  with  a 
lijrht  breeze  blowing  down  the  river.  We  stopped  frequently  on  our  ap- 
eight,  and  even  five  miles,  could  not  aisungui^x-  .. 4^*fcMCa  nf  fifteen,  ten, 
ear  to  the  ground.  It  was  not  until  within  three  miles  of  the  prj  Jp^f 
where  the  road  runs  close  to  the  edge  of  the  river,  and  brings  the  rapids 
in  full  view,  that  we  could  distinctly  hear  the  sound,  which  then,  owing  to  a 
change  in  the  wind,  fell  so  heavily  upon  the  ear,  that  in  proceeding  a  short 
distance,  it  was  difficult  to  maintain  a  conversation  as  we  rode  along.  On 
reaching  the  Falls,  nothing  struck  me  with  more  surprise,  than  that  the 
Baron  La  Hontan,  who  visited  it  in  August,  1688,  should  have  fallen  into 
so  egregious  a  mistake,  as  to  the  height  of  the  perpendicular  pitch,  which 
he  represents  at  seven  or  eight  hundred  feet.  Nor  does  the  narrator  of  the 
discoveries  of  the  unfortunate  La  Salle,  Monsieur  Tonti,  approach  much 
nearer  the  truth,  when  he  states  it  at  six  hundred  feet.  Charlevoix,  whose 
work  is  characterized  by  more  accuracy,  learning,  and  research,  than  those 
who  had  preceded  him,  and  who  saw  the  Falls  in  1721,  makes,  on  the  con- 
trary, an  estimate  which  is  surprising  for  the  degree  of  accuracy  he  has 
attained.  "  For  my  own  part,"  he  says, "  after  examining  it  on  all  sides,  where 
it  could  be  viewed  to  the  greatest  advantage,  I  am  inclined  to  think  we 
cannot  allow  it  less  than  a  hundred  and  forty  or  fifty  feet."  The  latter, 
(one  hundred  and  fifty,)  is  precisely  what  the  Fall  on  the  Canadian  side  is 
now  estimated  at.  There  is  a  rapid  of  two  miles  in  extent  above,  and 
another  of  seven  miles,  extending  to  Lewiston,  below  the  Falls.  The 
breadth  across,  at  the  brink  of  the  Fall,  which  is  serrated  and  irregular,  is 

*  This  is  an  Iroquois  word,  said  to  signify  the  thunder  of  waters,  and  the  word  as  still 
pronounced  by  the  Senecas,  is  O-ni-dd-gdrdh,  being  strongly  accented  on  the  third  sylla- 
ble, while  the  interjection  0,  is  so  feebly  uttered,  that,  without  a  nice  attention,  it  may 
escape  notice 


64  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

estimated  at  four  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty  feet,  or  a  little  more 
than  three  fourths  of  a  mile.  The  Fall  on  the  American  shore  is  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-four  feet,  being  the  highest  known  perpendicular  pitch  of 
so  great  a  volume  of  water.  The  fall  of  the  rapid  above,  commencing  at 
Chippewa,  is  estimated  at  ninety  feet,  and  the  entire  fall  of  Niagara  river 
from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  a  distance  of  thirty-five  miles,  at  three 
hundred  feet.  Goat  Island,  which  divides  the  water  into  two  unequal  sheets, 
has  recently  been  called  Iris,  (in  allusion  to  the  perpetual  rainbows  by 
which  it  is  characterized)  by  the  commissioners  for  settling  the  boundaries 
of  the  United  States,  acting  under  the  treaty  of  Ghent. 

'  In  approaching  this  cataract  from  Lewiston,  the  elevated  and  rocky 
description  of  country  it  is  necessary  to  cross,  together  with  the  increased 
distance  at  which  the  roar  is  heard  in  that  direction,  must  serve  to  prepare 
the  mind  for  encountering  a  scene  which  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  on 
approaching  from  Buffalo ;  and  this  impression  unquestionably  continues  to 
exercise  an  effect  upon  the  beholder,  after  his  arrival  at  the  Falls.  The  first 
European  visiters  beheld  it  under  this  influence.  Following  the  path  of 
the  Couriers  de  Bois,  they  proceeded  from  Montreal  up  the  St.  Lawrence, 
to  Fort  Caderacqui,  and  around  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario,  to  the  alluvial 
tract  which  stretches  from  the  mouth  of  Niagara  river,  to  the  site  of  Lew- 
iston. Here  the  Ridge,  emphatically  so  called,  commences,  and  the  number 
of  elevations  which  it  is  necessary  to  ascend  in  crossing  it,  may,  without  a 
proper  consideration  of  the  intermediate  descents,  have  led  those  who  for- 
merly approached  that  wav  into  ezp*  tmeb  w  h&  TT^ntnn^ar.rl  tw^jWJ 
into.  •  Tt^r — ^  1U01  ot  ™e  Falls,  for  we  are  not  prepared  to  admit  the 
^™»V  °f  a  descent  without  artificial  stairs,  or  other  analogous  laborious- 
and  dangerous  works,  such,  as  at  that  remote  pcTIC,  must  have  been  looked 
upon  as  a  stupendous  undertaking;  and  could  not,  indeed,  have  been 
accomplished,  surrounded  as  the  French  then  were,  by  their  enemies,  th© 
jealous  and  ever  watchful  Iroquois.  The  descent  at  the  present  period, 
with  every  advantage  arising  from  the  labors  of  mechanical  ingenuity,, 
cannot  be  performed  without  feeling  some  degree  of  personal  solicitude. 

It  is  in  this  chasm  that  the  sound  of  the  water  falls  heaviest  upon  the  ear, 
and  that  the  mind  becomes  fully  impressed  with  the  appalling  majesty  of 
the  Fall.  Other  views  from  the  banks  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  from 
the  Island  of  Iris  in  its  centre,  are  more  beautiful  and  picturesque;  but  it 
is  here  that  the  tremulous  motion  of  the  earth,  the  clouds  of  irridescent 
spray,  the  broken  column  of  falling  water,  the  stunning  sound,  the  lofty 
banks  of  the  river,  and  the  wide  spreading  ruin  of  rocks,  imprint  a  character 
of  wonder  and  terror  upon  the  scene,  which  no  other  point  of  view  is  capa- 
ble of  producing.  The  spectator,  who,  on  alighting  at  Niagara,  walks 
hastily  to  the  brink,  feels  his  attention  imperceptibly  riveted  to  the  novel 
and  striking  phenomenon  before  him,  and  at  this  moment  is  apt  either  to, 
overrate  or  to  underrate  the  magnitude  of  the  Fall.  It  is  not  easy  to  erect 
a  standard  of  comparison ;  and  the  view  requires  to  be  studied,  in  order  to 
attain  a  just  conception  and  appreciation  of  its  grandeur  and  its  beauties. 
The  ear  is  at  first  stunned  by  the  incessant  roar,  and  the  eye  bewildered  in 
the  general  view.  In  proportion  as  these  become  familiarized,  we  seize 
upon  the  individual  features  of  the  landscape,  and  are  enabled  to  distinguish 
between  the  gay  and  the  sombre,  the  bold  and  the  picturesque,  the  harsJb 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


65 


and  the  mellow  traits,  which,  like  the  deep  contrasted  shades  of  some  high 
wrought  picture,  contribute  to  give  effect  to  the  scene. 

1  It  was  some  time  before  I  could  satisfy  myself  of  the  accuracy  of  the 
accredited  measurements  of  the  height  of  the  Fall,  and  not  until  after  I  had 
made  repeated  visits,  and  spent  a  considerable  time  in  the  abyss  below. 
There  appears  a  great  disproportion  between  the  height  and  the  width  of  the 
falling  sheet,  but  the  longer  I  remained,  the  more  magnificent  it  appeared 
to  me  ;  and  hence  it  is,  that  with  something  like  a  feeling  of  disappoint- 
ment, on  my  first  arrival,  I  left  the  Falls  after  a  visit  of  two  days,  with  an 
impression  of  the  scene  which  every  thing  I  had  previously  read,  had  failed 
to  create.  At  the  time  of  my  visit,  the  wind  drove  the  floating  ice  out  of 
Lake  Erie,  with  the  drift-wood  of  its  tributary  rivers,  and  these  were  con- 
stantly precipitated  over  the  Falls,  but  we  were  not  able  to  discover  any 
vestiges  of  them  in  the  eddies  below.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  sheet  of 
falling  water  on  the  American  side,  there  was  also  an  enormous  bank  of 
snow,  of  nearly  an  hundred  feet  in  height,  which  the  power  of  the  sun  had 
not  yet  been  fierce  enough  to  dissolve,  and  which,  by  giving  an  Icelandic 
character  to  the  landscape,  produced  a  fine  effect.  It  appeared  to  me  * 
owe  its  accumulation  to  the  falling  particles  of  frozen  spray. 

'  What  has  been  said  by  Goldsmith,  and  repeated  by   others,  respecti 
the  destructive  influence  of  the  rapids^  above  to  ducks  and  other  wa 
fowl,  is  only  an  effect  of  the  imagination.     So  far  from  being  the  case, 


«  Bridge  and  Rapids  above  the  Falls. 

wild  duck  is  often  seen  to  swim  down  the  rapid  to  the  brink  of  the  Falls, 
and  then  fly  out,  and  repeat  the  descent,  seeming  to  take  a  delight  in  the 
exercise.  Neither  are  small  land-birds  affected  on  flying  over  the  Falls,  in 
the  manner  that  has  been  stated.     I  observed  the  blue-bird  and  the  wren, 

*  The  grandeur  of  these  rapids  is  worthy  of  the  cataract  in  which  they  terminate. 
In  the  greater  branch,  the  river  comes  foaming  down  with  prodigious  impetuosity,  and 
presents  a  surface  of  agitated  billows,  dashing  wildly  through  the  rocks  and  islands. 
This  scene  of  commotion  continues  till  within  about  thirty  yards  of  the  Fall.  There 
the  great  body  of  the  stream  resumes  its  tranquility,  and  in  solemn  grandeur  descends 
into  the  cloudy  and  unfathomable  abyss.  Never  was  there  a  nobler  prelude  to  a  sub- 
lime catastrophe. — Colond  Hamilton. 

9  6* 


66  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

which  had  already  made  their  annual  visit  to  the  banks  of  the  Niagara, 
frequently  fly  within  one  or  two  feet  of  the  brink,  apparently  delighted 
with  the  gift  of  their  wings,  which  enabled  them  to  sport  over  such  fright* 
ful  precipices  without  danger.  We  are  certainly  not  well  pleased  to  find 
that  some  of  the  wonderful  stories  we  have  read  of  the  Falls,  during  boy- 
hood, do  not  turn  out  to  be  the  truth ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  a  little  attention 
is  only  necessary  to  discover  that  many  interesting  facts  and  particulars 
remain  unnoticed,  which  fully  compensate  for  others  that  have  been  over- 
strained or  misstated.  Among  these,  the  crystalline  appearances  disclosed 
among  the  prostrate  ruins,  and  the  geological  character  of  the  Fall  itself, 
are  not  the  least  interesting. 

'  The  scenes  where  nature  has  experienced  her  greatest  convulsions,  are 
always  the  most  favorable  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  internal  struc- 
ture of  the  earth.  The  peaks  of  the  highest  mountains,  and  the  depths  of 
the  lowest  ravines,  present  the  greatest  attractions  to  the  geologist.  Hence 
this  cataract,  which  has  worn  its  way  for  a  number  of  miles,  and  to  a  very 
great  depth,  through  the  stony  crust  of  the  earth,  is  no  less  interesting  for 
the  geological  facts  it  discloses,  than  for  the  magnificence  of  its  natural 
scenery.  The  chain  of  highlands,  called  the  Ridge,  originates  in  Upper 
Canada,  and  running  parallel  with  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  forms 
a  natural  terrace,  which  pervades  the  western  counties  of  New-York,  from 
north  to  south,  affording,  by  its  unbroken  chain,  and  the  horizontal  position 
of  its  strata,  the  advantages  of  a  natural  road,  and  terminates  in  an  unex- 
plored part  of  the  county  of  Oswego,  or  thereabout.  It  is  in  crossing  this 
ridge,  that  the  falls  of  the  Niagara,  of  the  Gennessee,  and  of  the  Oswego 
rivers,  all  running  into  Lake  Ontario,  are  produced  ;  together  with  those  of 
an  infinite  number  of  smaller  streams  and  brooks.  Through  this,  the 
Niagara  has  cut  its  way  for  a  distance  of  seven  miles,  and  to  a  depth  of 
more  than  two  hundred  feet,  disclosing  the  number,  order  of  stratification, 
and  mineral  character,  of  the  different  strata  of  secondary  rocks,  of  which 
it  is  composed. 

'  These  rocks,  (sandstone,  slate,  and  limestone,)  however  their  properties 
may  be  found  modified  by  future  discoveries,  will  probably  be  found,  with 
a  proper  allowance  for  local  formations  and  disturbances,  to  pervade  all 
that  section  of  country,  which  lies  between  the  Niagara  and  Seneca  rivers, 
between  lakes  Ontario  and  Seneca,  and  between  the  Alleghany  river  and 
the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  as  general  boundaries.  All  this  section  of 
country  appears  to  be  underlayed  by  a  stratum  of  red  sandstone,  such  as 
appears  at  the  Gennessee  Falls,  but  which  is  imbedded  at  various  depths, 
as  the  country  happens  to  be  elevated  above,  or  depressed  below  the  level  of 
the  Niagara  stratum,  in  which  no  inclination  is  visible.  No  order  of  strati- 
fication could  have  been  effected  by  nature,  which  would  have  afforded 
greater  facilities  to  the  wasting  effects  of  falling  water,  so  visible  as  these 
Falls.  The  slate  which  separates  the  calcareous  from  the  sandstone  rock, 
by  a  stratum  of  nearly  forty  feet  in  thickness,  is  continually  fretting  away, 
and  undermining  the  superincumbent  stratum  of  limestone,  which  is  thus 
precipitated  in  prodigious  masses  into  the  abyss  below.  The  most  con- 
siderable occurrence  of  this  kind,  that  has  recently  taken  place,  is  that  of 
the  Table  Rock,*  on  the  Canadian  shore,  which  fell  during  the  summer  of 

*  The  Table  Rock  was  a  favorite  point  of  view  for  many  years,  and  the  day  prece* 
ding  the  night  on  which  it  fell  with  tremendous  noise;  a  number  of  visitors  had  .;tood 
with  careless  security  upon  it. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  67 

ISIS,  disclosing  a  number  of  those  crystallized  substances,  which  have 
already  been  alluded  to.  By  these  means,  the  Falls,  which  are  supposed 
by  the  most  intelligent  visitors  to  have  been  anciently  seated  at  Lewiston, 
have  progressed  seven  miles  up  the  river,  cutting  a  trench  through  the 
solid  rock,  which  is  about  half  a  mile  in  width,  and  two  hundred  feet  in 
depth,  exclusive  of  what  is  hidden  by  the  water.  The  power,  capable 
of  effecting  such  a  wonderful  change,  still  exists,  and  may  be  supposed 
to  operate  with  undiminished  activity.  The  wasting  effects  of  the  water, 
and  the  yielding  nature  of  the  rocks,  remain  the  same,  and  manifest  the 
slow  process  of  a  change,  at  the  present  period,  as  to  position,  height, 
form,  division  of  column,  and  other  characters,  which  form  the  outlines  of 
the  great  scene ;  and  this  change  is  probably  sufficiently  rapid  in  its  opera- 
tion, if  minute  observations  were  taken,  to  imprint  a  different  character 
upon  the  falls,  at  the  close  of  every  century.' 

The  Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri  are  the  grandest  in  all  North  America, 
those  of  Niagara  excepted,  and  though  inferior  to  these  in  volume  of  water, 
depth  of  descent,  and  awful  grandeur,  yet  they  are  far  more  diversified  and 
beautiful.  These  Falls  are  within  sixty  geographical  miles  of  the  eastern- 
most range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Here  the  river,  two  hundred  and 
eighty  yards,  or  eight  hundred  and  forty  feet  wide,  is  pressed  in  by  a  per- 
pendicular cliff  on  the  left,  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  extending  for  a 
mile  up  the  river ;  on  the  right,  the  bluff,  or  high  steep  bank,  is  also  per- 
pendicular for  three  hundred  yards  above  the  falls.  For  ninety  or  one 
hundred  yards  from  the  left  cliff,  the  water  falls  in  one  smooth  even  sheet 
over  a  precipice  of  eighty-seven  feet  eight  inches,  according  to  Captain 
Lewis ;  but  ninety-eight  feet,  according  to  Cass,  and  Captain  Clarke. 
The  remaining  part  of  the  river  precipitates  itself  with  a  more  rapid  cur- 
rent ;  but  being  received  as  it  falls  by  the  irregular  and  projecting  rocks  be- 
low, forms  a  splendid  prospect  of  perfectly  white  foam,  two  hundred  yards 
in  length,  and  eighty  in  perpendicular  elevation.  This  spray  is  dissipat- 
ed into  a  thousand  different  shapes ;  sometimes  flying  up  in  columns  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  which  are  then  oppressed  by  larger  masses  of  the 
white  foam,  on  all  which  the  sun  impresses  the  brightest  colors  of  the 
rainbow.  As  it  rises  from  the  fall,  it  beats  with  fury  against  a  ledge  of 
rocks  extending  across  the  river,  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards  from  the 
precipice.  From  the  perpendicular  cliff  on  the  north,  to  the  distance  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  yards,  the  rocks  rise  only  a  few  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  water ;  and  when  the  river  is  high,  the  stream  finds  a  pas- 
sage across  them ;  but  between  the  southern  extremity  of  this  ledge  and 
the  perpendicular  cliff  on  the  south,  the  whole  body  of  water  runs  with 
great  rapidity.  At  the  distance  of  three  hundred  yards  is  a  second  abut- 
ment of  solid  perpendicular  rock,  sixty  feet  high,  projecting  at  right  angles 
from  the  small  plain  on  the  north  for  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  yards  in- 
to the  river.  Below  this,  the  Missouri  regains  its  usual  breadth  of  three 
hundred  yards,  but  there  is  a  continued  succession  of  rapids  and  cascades. 
At  the  second  grand  fall,  the  river,  four  hundred  yards  wide,  precipitates 
itself,  for  the  space  of  three  hundred  yards,  to  a  depth  of  nineteen  feet 
perpendicular,  and  so  irregularly,  that  Captain  Lewis  termed  it  the 
Crooked  Fall. 

Above  this  fall,  the  Missouri  bends  suddenly  to  the  northward,  where, 
four  hundred  and  seventy-three  yards  wide,  it  is  suddenly  stopped  by  one 


C8  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

shelving  rock,  which  without  a  single  niche,  and  with  an  edge  as  straight 
and  regular  as  if  it  had  been  formed  by  art,  stretches  itself  across  from  one 
side  of  the  river  to  the  other.  Over  this  the  Missouri  precipitates  itself  in 
one  even,  uninterrupted  sheet,  of  four  hundred  and  seventy-three  yards 
broad  to  the  perpendicular  depth  of  forty-seven  feet  eight  inches ;  whence, 
dashing  against  the  rocky  bottom,  it  rushes  rapidly  down,  leaving  behind 
it  a  spray  of  the  purest  foam  across  the  river.  At  the  distance  of  less 
than  half  a  mile,  another  of  a  similar  kind  is  presented.  Here  a  cascade 
stretches  across  the  whole  river,  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  with  a  descent  of 
fourteen  feet  seven  inches,  though  the  perpendicular  pitch  is  only  six  feet 
seven  inches.  For  the  space  of  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
seven  yards  above  this  cascade  the  river  descends  fifteen  feet.  Immediate- 
ly above  this,  one  of  the  largest  springs  in  America  falls  into  the  river. 
Its  water  is  cold,  of  the  most  perfect  clearness,  and  of  a  bluish  color, 
which  it  preserves,  even  for  half  a  mile  after  falling  into  the  Missouri,  not- 
withstanding its  rapidity.  This  fountain  rises  in  the  plain,  twenty-five 
yards  from  the  river,  on  the  south  side.  In  its  course  to  the  river,  it  fails 
over  some  steep,  irregular  rocks,  with  a  sudden  descent  of  eight  feet  perpen- 
dicular, in  one  part  of  its  progress.  The  water  boils  up  from  among  the 
rocks,  and  with  such  force  near  the  centre  that  the  surface  seems  higher 
than  the  earth  on  the  sides  of  the  fountain,  which  is  a  handsome  turf  of 
green  grass.  The  water  is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  not  being  impregnated 
with  lime  or  any  adventitious  substance.  For  the  space  of  a  mile  and 
one  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  yards  above  the  mouth  of  this 
spring,  the  descent  of  the  river  is  thirteen  feet  six  inches. 

During  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  this  river  is  remarkable  for  a  suc- 
cession of  rapids,  cascades,  and  cataracts,  and  in  a  course  of  about  three 
miles  it  has  a  descent  of  no  less  than  three  hundred  and  fifty-two  feet. 

On  the  Mississippi  River  are  several  sets  of  rapids.  One  called  Les  Ra- 
pides des  Moines,  is  eleven  miles  long,  and  consists  of  successive  ledges 
and  shoals,  extending  from  shore  to  shore  across  the  bed  of  the  river.  One 
hundred  miles  higher  up  is  another,  about  eighteen  miles  in  length,  and 
consisting  of  a  continued  chain  of  rocks,  over  which  the  water  flows  with 
turbulent  rapidity. 

About  thirty  miles  from  its  source,  the  Mississippi,  after  winding  through 
a  dismal  country,  covered  with  high  grass  meadows,  with  pine  swamps  in 
the  distance,  which  appear  to  cast  a  deeper  gloom  on  its  borders,  is  sudden- 
ly pent  up  in  a  channel  about  eighty  feet  wide,  where  it  has  a  descent  of 
twenty  feet  in  three  hundred  yards.  This  fall  is  called  Peckagama.  Im- 
mediately at  the  head  of  the  falls  is  the  first  island  noticed  in  the  river. 
It  is  small,  rocky,  covered  with  spruce  and  cedar,  and  divides  the  channel 
nearly  in  its  centre. 

St.  Anthony's  Falls  are  situated  on  the  Mississippi  river,  more  than  two 
thousand  miles  above  its  mouth.  Above  the  falls,  the  river  has  a  width  of 
five  or  six  hundred  yards.  Immediately  below,  it  contracts  to  a  width  of 
two  hundred  yards ;  and  there  is  a  strong  rapid  for  a  considerable  distance 
below.  This  beautiful  spot  in  the  Mississippi  is  not  without  a  tale  to  hal- 
low its  scenery,  and  heighten  the  interest,  which,  of  itself,  it  is  calculated 
to  produce.  In  the  narrative  of  Long's  Second  Expedition,  we  find  the 
following  romantic  story,  related  by  an  old  Indian,  whose  mother  was  an 
eye-witness  to  the  transaction : 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


69 


9  An  Indian  of  the  Dacota  nation  had  united  himself  early  in  life  to  a 
youthful  female,  whose  name  was  Ampota  Sapa,  which  signifies  the  Dark 
Day;  with  her  he  lived  happily  for  several  years,  apparently  enjoying  eve- 
ry  comfort  which  the  savage  life  can  afford.  Their  union  had  been  bles- 
sed with  two  children,  on  whom  both  parents  doated  with  that  depth  of 


feeling  which  is  unknown  to  such  as  have  other  treasures  besides  those 
that  spring  from  nature.  The  man  had  acquired  a  reputation  as  a  hunter, 
which  drew  around  him  many  families,  who  were  happy  to  place  them- 
selves under  his  protection,  and  avail  themselTGS  of  Such  part  of  his  chase 
as  he  needed  not  for  the  maintenance  of  his  family.  Desirous  of  strength* 
ening  their  interest  with  him,  some  of  them  invited  him  to  form  a  connec- 
tion with  their  family,  observing,  at  the  same  time,  that  a  man  of  his  talent 
and  importance  required  more  than  one  woman  to  wait  upon  the  nume- 
rous  guests  whom  his  reputation  would  induce  to  visit  his  lodge.  They  as* 
sured  him  that  he  would  soon  be  acknowledged  as  a  chief,  and  that,  in  this 
case,  a  second  wife  was  indispensable. 

1  Fired  with  the  ambition  of  obtaining  high  honors,  he  resolved  to  in* 
crease  his  importance  by  an  union  with  the  daughter  of  an  influential  man 
of  his  tribe.  He  had  accordingly  taken  a  second  wife  without  ever  having 
mentioned  the  subject  to  his  former  companion ;  being  desirous  to  intro- 
duce his  bride  into  his  lodge  in  the  manner  which  should  be  least  offen- 
sive  to  the  mother  of  his  children,  for  whom  he  still  retained  much  regard, 
he  introduced  the  subject  in  these  words  :  "You  know,"  said  he,  "  that  I 
can  love  no  woman  so  fondly  as  I  doat  upon  you.  With  regret  have  I  seen 
you  of  late  subjected  to  toils  which  must  be  oppressive  to  you,  and  from 
which  I  would  gladly  relieve  you,  yet  I  know  no  other  way  of  doing  so, 
than  by  associating  with  you  in  the  household  duties,  one  who  shall  relieve 
you  from  the  trouble  of  entertaining  the  numerous  guests,  whom  my  grow- 
ing importance  in  the  nation  collects  around  me.  I  have,  therefore,  re- 
solved upon  taking  another  wife,  but  she  shall  always  be  subject  to  your 
control,  as  she  will  always  rank  in  my  affections  second  to  you." 

♦  With  the  utmost  anxiety,  and  the  deepest  concern,  did  his  companion 


70  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

listen  to  this  unexpected  proposal.  She  expostulated  in  the  kindest  terms, 
entreated  him  with  all  the  arguments  which  undisguised  love  and  the 
purest  conjugal  affections  could  suggest.  She  replied  to  all  the  objections 
which  his  duplicity  led  him  to  raise.  Desirous  of  winning  her  from  her 
opposition,  the  Indian  still  concealed  the  secret  of  his  union  with  another, 
while  she  redoubled  all  her  care  to  convince  him  that  she  was  equal  to  the 
task  imposed  upon  her.  When  he  again  spoke  on  the  subject,  she  pleaded 
all  the  endearments  of  their  past  life ;  she  spoke  of  his  former  fondness 
for  her,  of  his  regard  for  her  happiness  and  that  of  their  mutual  offspring; 
she  bade  him  beware  of  the  consequences  of  this  fatal  purpose  of  his. 
Finding  her  bent  upon  withholding  her  consent  to  this  plan,  he  informed 
her  that  all  opposition  on  her  part  was  unnecessary,  as  he  had  already  se- 
lected another  partner,  and  that  if  she  could  not  receive  his  new  wife  as 
a  friend,  she  must  receive  her  as  a  necessary  incumbrance,  for  he  had  re- 
solved that  she  should  be  an  inmate  in  his  house. 

1  Distressed  at  this  information,  she  watched  her  opportunity,  stole 
away  from  the  cabin  with  her  infants,  and  fled  to  a  distance  where  her 
father  was.  With  him  she  remained  until  a  party  of  Indians  with  whom  he 
lived,  went  up  the  Mississippi  on  a  winter  hunt.  In  the  spring,  as  they 
were  returning  with  their  canoes  loaded  with  peltries,  they  encamped  near 
the  Falls.  In  the  morning  as  they  left  it,  she  lingered  near  the  spot,  then 
launched  her  light  canoe,  entered  into  it  with  her  children,  and  paddled 
tiuvm  the  otroam,  oinging  her  death-song.  Too  late  did  her  friends  per- 
she  was  heard  to  sing  V  a  dele^v^c/the  past  pleasures  wnic'n  sne  nau 
entoyed,  while  she  was  the  undivided  object  of  her  husband's  affection 
finally  her  voice  was  drowned  in  the  sound  of  the  cataract ;  the  current 
3  down  her  frail  bark  with  an  inconceivable  rapidity ;  it  came  to  the 
Xe  of  the  precipice,  was  seen  for  a  moment  enveloped  in  spray,  but  never 
afterwards  was  a  trace  of  the  canoe  or  its  passengers  seen.  Yet  it  is 
stated  by  the  Indians,  that  often  in  the  morning  a  voice  has  been  heard  to 
sine:  a  doleful  ditty  along  the  edge  of  the  fall,  and  that  it  dwells  ever  on 
the  inconstancy  of  her  husband.  Nay,  some  assert  that  her  spirit  has 
been  seen  wandering  near  the  spot  with  her  children  wrapped  to  her  bosom 
Such  are  the  tales  or  traditions  which  the  Indians  treasure  up,  and 
which  they  relate  to  the  voyager,  forcing  a  tear  from  the  eyes  of  the  most 

There  are  many  other  falls  in  the  United  States,  which  have  been  the 
subject  of  no  extended  descriptions,  but  which  would  excite  admiration 
in  any  quarter  of  the  world.  In  New  York,  the  Great  Falls  of  the 
Genesee,  about  half  a  mile  below  Rochester,  are  ninety  feet  perpendicu- 
lar, and  a  few  rods  above  is  another  of  five  feet,  surmounted  by  a  rapid. 
On  the  same  river  are  several  other  falls.  Trenton  Falls  are  on  West 
Canada  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Mohawk,  fourteen  miles  north  of  Utica; 
they  consist  of  several  grand  and  beautiful  cascades,  some  of  them  forty 
feet  in  descent.  The  river  here  passes  through  a  rocky  chasm  four  miles 
in  length,  presenting  the  greatest  variety  of  cascades  and  rapids,  boiling 
pools  and  eddies.  The  rock  is  a  dark  limestone,  and  contains  abundance 
of  petrified  marine  shells.  Glen's  Falls  are  upon  the  Hudson,  eighteen 
miles  above  Saratoga,  and  are  a  grand  rapid,  falling  sixty-seven  feet  in  a 
course  of  one  hundred  and  seventy  yards.     Jessufs  Falls  and  Hadley  kalte 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  71 

are  beautiful  cataracts  on  the  same  stream,  a  few  miles  above.  Claverack 
Falls  are  upon  a  stream  near  the  city  of  Hudson ;  they  descend  down  a 
precipice  of  dark  rocks  into  a  deep  chasm  shaded  with  forest  trees.  The 
cataracts  near  Ithaca  comprise  four  hundred  and  thirty-eight  feet  of  descent 
in  a  mile ;  the  fall  of  the  Cohoes  on  the  Mohawk  is  seventy  feet. 

At  Bellows  Falls,  five  miles  from  the  town  of  Walpole,  on  the  Connec- 
ticut, the  whole  descent  of  the  river,  in  the  space  of  half  a  mile,  is  forty-four 
feet ;  and  it  includes  several  pitches,  one  below  another,  at  the  highest  of 
which  a  large  rock  divides  the  stream  into  two  channels,  each  about  ninety 
feet  wide.  When  the  water  is  low,  the  eastern  channel  is  dry,  being  crossed 
by  a  solid  rock,  and  the  whole  stream  falls  into  the  western  channel,  where, 
being  contracted  to  the  breadth  of  sixteen  feet,  it  flows  with  astonishing 
force  and  rapidity.  A  bridge  has  been  built  over  these  falls,  from  which 
an  advantageous  view  is  had  of  their  interesting  and  romantic  scenery. 
Some  years  ago  a  canal,  over  half  a  mile  long,  was  dug  through  the  rocks 
around  the  falls,  for  the  passage  of  flat-bottomed  boats  and  rafts.  Not- 
withstanding the  velocity  of  the  current,  salmon  used  to  pass  up  the  fall 
in  great  numbers.  Amoskeag  Falls,  in  the  Merrimack,  consist  of  three  suc- 
cessive pitches,  falling  nearly  fifty  feet.  The  Housatonic  Falls,  in  the 
north-west  part  of  Connecticut,  are  the  finest  in  New  England. 


Source  Of  Passaic  Falls. 

The  Passaic  Falls,  in  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  twenty-two  miles  north- 
west of  New  York,  are  highly  picturesque  and  beautiful.  The 
river  Passaic  rises  in  the  northern  part  of  New  Jersey,  and  after  a 
circuitous  course,  falls  into  Newark  Bay.  At  the  town  of  Paterson,  about 
twenty  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  the  Great  Fall,  where  the  river,  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  wide,  and  running  with  a  very  swift  current, 
reaches  a  deep  chasm,  or  cleft,  which  crosses  the  channel,  and  falls  perpen- 
dicularly about  seventy  feet,  in  one  entire  sheet.  One  end  of  the  cleft  is 
closed  up,  and  the  water  rushes  out  at  the  other  with  incredible  rapidity, 
in  an  acute  angle  to  its  former  direction,  and  is  received  into  a  large  basin. 
It  thence  takes  a  winding  course  through  the  rocks,  and  spreads  again  into 
a  very  considerable  channel.  The  cleft  is  from  four  to  twelve  feet  in 
breadth,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  produced  by  an  earthquake.    When 


72  book:  op  the  united  states. 

this  cataract  was  visited  by  a  late  British  traveller,  the  spray  refracted  two 
beautiful  rainbows,  primary  and  secondary,  which  greatly  assisted  in  pro- 
ducing as  fine  a  scene  as  imagination  can  conceive.  It  was  also 
heightened  by  the  effect  of  another  fall,  of  less  magnificence,  about  ninety 
feet  above. 

The  spirit  of  utility,  in  its  stern  disregard  of  the  picturesque,  has  diverted 
the  current  of  the  Passaic  into  so  many  channels  for  the  supply  of  manu- 
factories, that  the  cascade  is  now  an  object  of  interest  only  during  the  wet 
season. 

The  Potomac,  which  forms  the  boundary  between  the  states  of  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  is  navigable  to  the  city  of  Washington ;  above  which  it 
is  obstructed  by  several  falls,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are  Little  Falls, 
three  miles  above  Washington,  with  a  descent  of  thirty-seven  feet :  Great 
Falls,  eight  and  a  half  miles  further  up,  with  a  descent  of  seventy-six  feet ; 
which  have  been  made  navigable  by  means  of  five  locks :  Seneca  Falls, 
six  miles  above,  descending  ten  feet :  Shenandoah  Falls,  sixty  miles 
higher  up  the  river,  where  the  Potomac  breaks  through  the  Blue  Ridge  at 
Harper's  Ferry :  Houre's  Falls,  five  miles  above  the  Shenandoah. 

In  addition  to  the  cataracts  above  enumerated,  we  may  notice  the  Falling 
Spring,  in  Bath  county,  Virginia,  which  forms  a  beautiful  cascade,  stream- 
ing from  a  perpendicular  precipice,  two  hundred  feet  high  ;  and  the  Tuccoa 
Fall,  in  Franklin  county,  Georgia,  which,  though  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
that  can  be  conceived,  is  scarcely  yet  known  to  geographers.  It  is  one 
hundred  and  eighty-seven  feet  in  height,  and  the  water  is  propelled  over  a 
perpendicular  rock.  When  the  stream  is  full,  it  pours  over  the  steep  in 
one  expansive  magnificent  sheet,  amid  clouds  of  spray,  on  which  the  pris- 
matic colors  are  reflected  with  a  most  enchanting  effect. 

The  cascades  of  the  Catskill  Mountains  are  very  romantic  and  beautiful. 
The  Kaaterskill  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  branches,  one  rising  in  two 
lakes,  about  one  and  a  half  miles  east  of  the  western  cascade,  the  other 
about  half  the  distance  in  a  northerly  direction.  The  best  view  of  the 
western  fall  is  from  below,  the  foliage  above  being  so  thick  as  in  a  great 
measure  to  obscure  it.  Below  the  fall  the  banks  of  the  stream,  which  are 
nearly  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  rise  almost  perpendicularly  from  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  following  description  is  from  the  pen  of  Mr. 
H.  E.  Dwight. 

1  The  rocks  on  each  side  of  the  stream  project  so  as  partially  to  eclipse 
the  sides  of  the  fall.  They  have  fallen  from  time  to  time,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  form  seventeen  natural  steps,  rising  one  above  another.  We 
stationed  ourselves  on  these  steps,  to  enjoy  the  scenery  around  us.  Before 
us  the  stream  fell  in  a  beautiful  sheet,  exhibiting  its  transparent  waters, 
when,  striking  the  inclined  plane,  it  rushed  down  with  headlong  fury, 
bearing  on  its  surface  a  foam  of  silvery  whiteness.  On  the  right  and 
left,  the  banks  rose  over  our  heads  in  silent  grandeur,  as  if  on  the  point  of 
detaching  their  projecting  masses  into  the  ravine  where  we  were  standing 
while  below  us,  the  water  was  visible  for  about  thirty  rods,  descending  in 
the  form  of  a  rapid,  when,  bending  around  the  point  of  a  projection  of  the 
mountain,  it  disappeared  from  our  view.  The  spray  was  so  thick  as  to 
make  a  dense  cloud,  on  which  the  sun,  shining  with  great  brilliancy,  and 
being  nearly  vertical,  imprinted  a  perfect  rainbow.  This  bow,  which  was 
not  more  than  eight  feet  in  diameter,  formed  a  circle   around  us   slightly 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  73 

elliptical,  near  the  centre  of  which  we  stood.  As  we  approached  the  fall, 
the  spray  thickened,  the  splendor  of  the  colors  increased,  and  the  shrubs, 
the  rocks,  and  the  water,  were  tinged  with  its  choicest  hues.  To  complete 
the  view,  a  small  rivulet,  caused  by  the  late  rains,  fell  about  two  hundred 
feet,  in  the  form  of  a  cascade,  down  the  precipice,  on  the  southern  bank  of 
the  stream,  displaying  its  crystal  waters  through  the  green  foliage  which 
adorned  it.  We  remained  here  enjoying  the  prospect  for  some  minutes, 
when,  drenched  with  spray,  we  reluctantly  bade  it  adieu,  with  all  those 
emotions  which  the  sublimity  and  beauty  of  such  a  scene  would  naturally 
awaken. 


Catskill  Falls. 

*  I  visited  the  eastern  cascade  immediately  after  viewing  the  western 
fall  on  the  Kaaterskill,  when  the  column  of  water  was  swollen  to  eight  or 
ten  times  its  common  size,  and  shall  describe  it,  as  it  then  appeared.  The 
rock  over  which  the  water  descends,  projects  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
cascade  forms  part  of  a  parabolic  curve.  After  striking  a  rock  below,  it 
runs  down  an  inclined  plane  a  few  rods  in  length,  when  it  rushes  over 
another  precipice  of  one  hundred  feet.  The  column  of  water  remained 
entire  for  two  thirds  the  descent,  and  its  surface  was  covered  with  ^  rich 
sparkling  foam,  which,  as  it  fell,  presented  to  the  eye  a  brilliant  emanation. 
Here  it  was  broken,  and  formed  a  continued  succession  of  showers.  Large 
globules  of  water,  of  a  soft,  pearly  lustre,  enriched  with  a  prismatic  reflec- 
tion, shot  off  in  tangents  to  the  curve  of  the  cascade,  and  being  drawn  by 
the  attraction  of  gravitation,  united  again  with  the  stream.  The  sun, 
shining  through  a  clear  atmosphere,  imprinted  on  it  his  glittering  rays, 
appearing  like  a  moving  column  of  transparent  snow.  The  spray,  rising 
to  the  height  of  several  hundred  feet,  was  continually  agitated  by  a  strong 
wind,  which  gave  birth  to  a  number  of  rainbows.  They  were  elevated 
one  above  the  other,  and  increased  in  brilliancy  towards  the  base  of  the 
cascade,  where,  as  well  as  at  the  lower  fall,  an  iris  spread  its  arch  of  glory, 
tinging  the  rocks  and  foliage  with  its  brightest  colors. 

1  The  ground  below  these  cascades  continued  descending  at  an  angle  of 
fort}T-five  degrees,  forming  a  hollow  like  an  inverted  cone,  of  one  thousand 
10  7 


74:  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

feet  in  depth.  This  was  lined  with  lofty  trees,  whose  verdant  tops,  vary- 
ing from  the  dark  hemlock  to  the  light  maple,  were  bending  with  the 
wind.  Through  this  waving  forest  the  cascade  appeared  at  various  dis- 
tances, sparkling  with  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  forming  a  fine  contrast  to 
the  sombre  rocks  which  surrounded  it.  From  this  cavity,  at  the  distance  of 
several  miles,  a  peak  rose  to  an  elevation  of  two  thousand  feet,  while  the 
mountains  on  the  right  and  left,  impressed  their  bold  outlines  on  the  sky 
beyond  them. 

4  The  best  view  of  this  scene,  is  a  few  rods  from  the  base  of  the  lower 
fall.  These  cascades  are  both  of  them  in  a  direct  line,  and  by  standing  in 
this  position  can  be  united  in  one.  By  raising  your  eyes,  a  fall  of  four 
hundred  feet  appears  precipitated  from  the  precipices  above,  apparently 
ready  to  overwhelm  you,  while  the  rocks  above  overhang  the  abyss  in 
Wild  sublimity,  threatening  you  with  destruction. 

'The  appearance  of  the  upper  cascade,  in  the  middle  of  winter,  is  very 
interesting.  The  rock  over  which  the  stream  descends,  projects  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  icicles,  which  form  in  that  season,  meet  with  no  interrup- 
tion in  their  descent  towards  the  base  of  the  fall.  The  water,  which  strikes 
the  rocks  below,  begins  to  congeal  and  rise  (between  the  column  of  water 
and  the  rock)  towards  the  icicles  above.  These  project  towards  the  base, 
increasing  in  magnitude  from  day  to  day,  while  the  column  from  below 
is  greatly  enlarged  by  the  water  and  the  spray,  which,  immediately  con- 
gealing, in  a  short  time  surround  the  stream.  A  column  of  ice,  resemb- 
ling a  rude  cone,  of  between  two  and  three  hundred  feet,  is  thus  formed, 
through  the  centre  of  which  the  stream  pours  its  current,  dwindled,  by  the 
congelation  of  its  waters,  to  one  tenth  its  common  size.  When  illumined 
by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  it  presents  a  transparent  column  glowing  with  bril- 
liancy, reflecting  and  refracting  its  rays  in  such  a  manner  as  to  present  all 
the  colors  of  the  prism.  It  remains  some  weeks,  a  striking  example  of  the 
power  of  hoary  frost,  when,  partly  dissolved  by  the  genial  warmth  of 
spring,  it  falls,  scattering  its  thousand  fragments  on  the  rocks  around  it.' 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CATARACTS  AND  CASCADES. 

Rivers  which  descend  from  primitive  mountains  into  the  secondary  lands  often  form 
cascades  and  cataracts.  Such  are  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  of  the  Ganges,  and  some  other 
great  rivers,  .which,  according  to  Desmarets,  evidently  mark  the  limits  of  the  ancient 
land.  Cataracts  are  also  formed  by  lakes,  and  of  this  description  are  the  Falls  of  Nia- 
gara ;  but  the  most  picturesque  falls  are  those  of  rapid  rivers,  bordered  by  trees  and  pre- 
cipitous rocks.  Sometimes  we  see  a  body  of  water,  which,  before  it  arrives  at  the 
bottom,  is  broken  and  dissipated  into  showers,  like  the  Staubach  ;  sometimes  it  forms 
a  watery  arch,  projected  from  a  rampart  of  rock,  under  which  the  traveller  may  pass 
dry  shod,  as  the  Falling  Spring  of  Virginia  ;  in  one  place,  in  a  granite  district,  we  see 
the  Trolhetta,  and  the  Rhine  not  far  from  its  source,  urge  on  their  foaming  billows 
amongst  the  pointed  rocks ;  in  another,  amidst  lands  of  calcareous  formation,  we  see 
the  Czettina,  and  the  Kerka,  rolling  down  from  terrace  to  terrace,  and  presenting  some- 
times a  sheet  and  sometimes  a  wall  of  water.  Some  magnificent  cascades  have  been 
formed,  at  least  in  part,  by  the  hands  of  man :  the  cascades  of  Velino,  near  Terni,  have 
been  attributed  to  Pope  Clement  VIII. ;  other  cataracts,  like  those  of  Tunguska  in  Sibe- 
ria, have  gradually  lost  their  elevation  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  rocks,  and  have  now 
tmly  a  rapid  descent.  The  Falls  of  Staubach  are  the  highest  ever  known,  being  nine 
hundred  feet  according  to  trigonometrical  measurement. 


75 


CHAPTER  VI.— LAKES. 

Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world,  being 
four  hundred  miles  in  length,  one  hundred  at  its  greatest  breadth,  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  moderate  computation,  over  twelve  hundred  miles  in 
circumference.  Its  shores  are  rocky  and  uneven,  and  it  has  a  rocky  bot- 
tom. Its  waters  are  pure  and  transparent,  and  it  has  been  remarked,  that, 
although  during  the  summer,  the  waters  on  its  surface  be  warm,  neverthe- 
less, by  letting  a  cup  down  about  a  fathom,  water  may  be  taken  up  nearly 
as  cold  as  ice.  In  abounds  in  fish,  particularly  sturgeon  and  long  trout, 
many  of  which  are  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds  weight,  and  constitute  the 
principal  food  of  the  Algonquin  Indians  on  its  borders.  This  lake  has 
five  large  islands,^  one  of  which,  called  Isle  Royal,  is  not  less  than  a  hun- 
dred miles  in  length,  and  in  some  places  forty  in  breadth.  More  than  forty 
rivers  discharge  themselves  into  it,  the  two  largest  called  the  Nipegon  and 
the  Michipicooton,  from  the  north  and  north-east  sides.  A  small  river  which 
runs  into  it,  not  far  from  the  Nipegon,  falls  from  the  top  of  a  mountain 
more  than  six  hundred  feet  perpendicular;  appearing  at  a  distance,  to  use 
Mr.  Carver's  homely  comparison,  like  a  white  garter  suspended  in  the  air. 
On  the  banks  of  one  of  the  rivers  which  fall  into  its  south  side,  virgin 

*  One  of  these,  the  Island  of  Yellow  Sands,  derives  its  chief  interest  from  the  tradi- 
tions and  fanciful  tales  which  the  Indians  relate  concerning  its  mineral  treasures,  and 
their  supernatural  guardians.  They  pretend  that  its  shores  are  covered  with  a  heavy 
shining  yellow  sand,  which  they  would  persuade  us  is  gold,  but  that  the  guardian  spirit  of 
the  island  will  not  permit  any  of  it  to  be  carried  away.  To  enforce  his  commands,  he 
has  drawn  together  upon  it,  myriads  of  eagles,  hawks,  and  other  birds  of  prey,  who  by 
their  cries  warn  him  of  any  intrusions  upon  the  domain,  and  assist  with  their  claws  and 
beaks  to  expel  the  enemy.  He  has  also  called  from  the  depths  of  the  lake,  large  serpents 
of  the  most  hideous  forms,  who  lie  thickly  coiled  upon  the  golden  sands,  and  hiss  defi- 
ance to  the  steps  of  the  invader.  A  great  many  years  ago,  it  is  pretended,  that  some 
people  of  their  nation  were  driven,  by  stress  of  weather,  to  take  shelter  upon  the  en- 
chanted island,  and  being  struck  with  the  beautiful  and  glittering  appearance  of  the 
treasure,  they  put  a  large  quantity  of  it  into  their  canoes,  and  attempted  to  carry  it  off, 
but  a  gigantic  spirit  strode  into  the  water,  and,  in  a  voice  of  thunder,  commanded  them 
to  bring  it  back.  Terrified  with  his  amazing  size,  and  threatening  aspect,  they  obeyed, 
and  were  afterwards  suffered  to  depart  without  molestation,  but  they  have  never  since 
attempted  to  land  upon  it. 

1  Listen,  white  man — go  not  there, 

Unseen  spirits  stalk  the  air ; 

Ravenous  birds  their  influence  lend, 

Snakes  defy — and  kites  defend. 

There  the  star-eyed  panther  prowls, 

And  the  wolf  in  hunger  howls ; 

There  the  speckled  adder  breeds, 

And  the  famished  eagle  feeds  ; 

Spirits  keep  them — fiends  incite, 

They  are  eager  for  the  fight, 

And  are  thirsting  night  and  day, 

On  the  human  heart  to  prey ; 

Touch  not  then  the  guarded  lands 

Of  the  Isle  of  Yellow  Sands.'— Journal  of  Travels. 


76  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

copper  has  been  found.  The  storms  which  occur  on  this  lake  are  felt 
as  severely  as  on  the  Atlantic,  the  waves  run  equally  high,  and  the  naviga- 
tion is  perhaps  more  dangerous.^  When  the  wind  blows  from  the  east, 
the  waters  are  driven  against  the  high  rocks  of  the  northern  and  western 
shores,  where  they  form  a  thick  vapor  resembling  rain ;  and  this  action  of 
the  wind  creates  an  irregular  ebb  and  flow.  This  never  exceeds  ten  or 
twelve  inches ;  but  the  strong  traces  of  the  water  on  the  rocks  of  the  shore 
show,  that,  at  no  very  remote  period,  they  were  elevated  six  feet  above  the 
present  level.  Mackenzie  states,  that  some  years  ago  the  waters  suddenly 
withdrew  near  the  Great  Portage;  then  rushed  back  with  great  velocity 
above  the  common  mark ;  and,  after  rising  and  falling  during  several  hours, 
they  settled  at  their  usual  level. 

Notwithstanding  its  being  fed  by  so  many  rivers,  Lake  Superior  has  but 
one  outlet  by  the  Straits  of  St.  Mary.  At  the  upper  end  of  these  straits, 
there  is  a  rapid  which  cannot  be  ascended,  but  has  sometimes  been  descend 
ed,  although  the  descent  requires  both  skill  and  caution,  and  perhaps  not  a 
little  good  fortune.  A  canal  has  been  cut  by  the  North- West  Company, 
along  the  northern  banks,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  their  commerce,  and 
they  have  here  a  considerable  establishment;  but  their  chief  fort  and  store- 
houses are  situated  at  Kamenestiquia,  on  the  banks  of  a  river  which  flows 
into  Lake  Superior,  on  the  north-west  side,  and  affords  an  easy  communica- 
tion with  the  interior.  The  Strait  of  St.  Mary,  it  is  supposed,  does  not  dis- 
charge one  tenth  of  the  waters  which  the  lake  receives  from  its  numerous 
rivers;  part  of  the  remainder  escapes  by  evaporation,  but  how  the  whole  is 
discharged  is  yet  a  secret.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  an  exact  cal- 
culation has  hitherto  been  made,  either  of  the  quantity  discharged  or  the 
quantity  received.  This  lake  lies  between  forty-six  and  fifty  degrees  north 
latitude,  and  eighty-four  and  ninety-three  degrees  west  longitude. 

Lake  Huron,  into  which  you  enter  by  the  Straits  of  St.  Mary,  is  next  in 
magnitude  to  Lake  Superior.  It  lies  between  forty-three  and  forty-six  de- 
grees north  latitude,  and  between  eighty  and  eighty-five  degrees  west  longi- 
tude; in  shape  it  is  nearly  triangular,  and  its  circumference  is  about  a  thou- 
sand miles.  On  the  Canada  side  of  this  lake  is  an  island  one  hundred  miles 
in  length,  and  no  more  than  eight  in  breadth ;  it  is  called  Manataulin,  sig- 
nifying a  place  of  spirits,  and  is  considered  as  sacred  by  the  native  Indians. 
About  the  middle  of  the  south-west  side  of  the  lake  is  Saginaw  Bay, 
about  eighty  miles  in  length,  and  twenty  broad ;  Thunder  Bay,  so  called 

*  Charlevoix  observes, f  when  a  storm  is  about  to  rise  on  Lake  Superior,  you  are  ad- 
vertised of  it  two  or  three  days  previous.  At  first  you  perceive  a  gentle  murmuring  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  which  lasts  the  whole  day  without  increasing  in  any  sensible 
manner  ;  the  day  after,  the  lake  is  covered  with  pretty  large  waves,  but  without  break* 
ing  all  that  day,  so  that  you  may  proceed  without  fear,  and  even  make  good  way, 
if  the  wind  is  favorable ;  but  on  the  third  day,  when  you  are  the  least  thinking  of 
it,  the  lake  becomes  all  on  fire,  the  ocean  in  its  greatest  rage  is  not  more  tost,  in  which 
case  you  must  take  care  to  be  near  shelter,  to  save  yourself.  This  you  are  always  sure 
to  find  on  the  north  shore,  whereas  on  the  south  you  are  obliged  to  secure  yourself  the 
second  day  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  water  side.'  Although  we  are  not  pre- 
pared to  corroborate  this  remark,  yet  something  of  the  kind  has  this  day  been  witnessed, 
for  notwithstanding  the  prevalence  of  a  calm  during  the  whole  day,  with  the  exception 
of  about  two  hours  in  the  morning,  when  the  wind  was  however  light,  the  lake  towards 
evening  has  been  in  a  perfect  rage,  and  we  effected  a  landing  with  greater  hazard  than 
has  yet  been  encountered.  At  the  same  time  scarce  a  breath  of  air  was  stirring,  and 
the  atmosphere  was  beautifullv  clear. — Schoolcraft. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  77 

from  the  continual  thunder  heard  there,  lies  about  half  way  between  Sag- 
inaw Bay  and  the  north-west  corner  of  the  lake :  it  is  about  nine  miles 
across  either  way.  The  fish  are  the  same  as  in  Lake  Superior.  The 
promontory  that  separates  this  lake  from  Lake  Michigan  is  a  vast  plain, 
more  than  one  hundred  miles  long,  and  varying  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  in 
breadth.  At  the  north-east  corner,  this  lake  communicates  with  Lake  Mi- 
chigan by  the  Straits  of  Michilimackinac.  It  is  very  remarkable,  that  al- 
though there  is  no  daily  flood  or  ebb  to  be  perceived  in  the  waters  of  these 
straits,  yet  from  an  exact  attention  to  their  state,  a  periodical  alteration  in 
them  has  been  discovered.  It  has  been  observed  that  they  rise  by  gradual, 
but  almost  imperceptible  degrees,  till  in  seven  years  and  a  half  they  had 
reached  the  height  of  about  three  feet;  and  in  the  same  space  of  time  they 
gradually  fell  to  their  former  state ;  so  that  in  fifteen  years  they  had  com- 
pleted this  revolution.     This,  however,  is  not  well  established.^ 

hake  Michigan,  formerly  called  hake  Illinois,  and  hake  Dauphin,  ex- 
tends from  the  western  angle  of  Lake  Huron  in  a  southerly  direction,  and 
is  separated  from  Lake  Superior  by  the  tongue  of  land  which  is  described 
above.  It  lies  wholly  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States,  between 
the  parallels  of  forty-two  and  forty-six  degrees.  Its  waters  are  said  to  be 
unfathomable.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Michigan  is  Chicago 
Creek,  by  which,  in  the  rainy  season,  the  head-waters  of  the  Illinois  com- 
municate with  the  lake ;  but  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  creek  does  not  ad- 
mit boats  drawing  above  two  feet  of  water.  A  number  of  streams  flow 
into  the  lake,  on  both  the  western  and  the  eastern  sides.  It  abounds,  like 
the  others,  with  excellent  fish. 

1  Lake  Michigan,'  says  Mr.  Schoolcraft,  'from  its  great  depth  of  water,  its 
bleak  and  unguarded  snores — and  its  singular  length  and  direction,  which  is 
about  four  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south,  appears  to  be  peculiarly  ex- 
posed to  the  influence  of  the  currents  of  the  atmosphere,  to  whose  agency 
we  may  attribute,  at  least  in  part,  the  appearances  of  a  tide,  which  are 
more  striking  upon  the  shores  of  this,  than  of  any  of  the  other  great  lakes. 
The  meteorological  observations  which  have  been  made,  in  the  Transalle- 
ghanian  states,  indicate  the  winds  to  prevail,  either  north  or  south,  through 
the  valley  of  the  Mississippi ;  but  seldom  across  it,  so  that  the  surface  of 
this  lake  would  be  constantly  exposed  to  agitation,  from  the  atmosphere. 
These  winds  would  almost  incessantly  operate,  to  drive  the  waters  through 
the  narrow  strait  of  Michilimackinac,  either  into  Lake  Huron  or  Lake  Mi- 
chigan, until,  by  their  natural  tendency  to  an  equilibrium,  the  waters  thus 
pent,  would  react,  after  attaining  a  certain  height,  against  the  current  of 
the  most  powerful  winds,  and  thus  keep  up  an  alternate  flux  and  reflux, 
which  would  always  appear  more  sensibly  in  the  extremities  and  bays  of 
the  two  lakes ;  and  with  something  like  regularity,  as  to  the  periods  of  os- 
cillation ;  the  velocity  of  the  water,  however,  being  governed  by  the  vary- 
ing degrees  of  the  force  of  the  winds.' 

*  There  is  reason  to  conclude,  that  a  well  conducted  series  of  experiments  will  prove 
that  there  are  no  regular  tides  in  the  lakes,  at  least  that  they  do  not  ebb  and  flow  twice 
in  twenty-four  hours  like  those  of  the  ocean  ;  that  the  oscillary  motion  of  the  waters  is 
not  attributable  to  planetary  attraction  ;  that  it  is  very  variable  as  to  the  periods  of  its 
flux  and  reflux,  depending  upon  the  levels  of  the  several  lakes,  their  length,  depth,  di- 
rection and  conformation — upon  the  prevalent  winds  and  temperatures,  and  upon  othe\ 
extraneous  causes,  which  are  in  some  measure  variable  in  their  nature,  and  unsteady  \A 
their  operations. — Schooler afu 

7* 


78 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Lake  St.  Clair  lies  about  half  way  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie,  and 
is  about  ninety  miles  in  circumference.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the 
three  great  lakes,  Superior,  Michigan,  and  Huron,  and  discharges  them 
through  the  river  or  strait  called  Detroit,  into  Lake  Erie.  It  is  of  a  circu- 
lar form,  and  navigable  for  large  vessels,  except  a  bar  of  sand  toward  the 
middle,  which  prevents  loaded  vessels  from  passing. 

Lake  Erie  is  situated  between  forty-one  and  forty-three  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  between  seventy-nine  and  eighty-three  degrees  west  longi- 
tude. It  is  two  hundred  and  eighty  miles  long;  opposite  Cleveland,  in  the 
state  of  Ohio,  it  is  about  sixty  miles  broad,  to  the  eastward  it  is  above 
seventy.  The  average  breadth  is  from  fifty  to  sixty  miles  ;  and  its  medium 
depth  from  forty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet.  The  water  is  pure  and 
wholesome,  and  abounds  with  fish ;  such  as  sturgeon,  white-fish,  trout, 
and  perch.  The  lake  does  not  freeze  in  the  middle,  but  is  frequently 
frozen  on  both  sides;  and  sometimes  in  winter,  when  the  wind  is  variable, 
the  ice  exhibits  a  singular  phenomenon ;  a  south  wind  blows  it  all  to  the 
Canada  shore,  and  a  north  wind  again  dislodges  it,  and  brings  it  back  to 
the  American  side.  There  are  a  number  of  islands  in  the  west  end  of 
the  lake,  containing  from  eight  hundred  to  two  thousand  acres  of  land,  and 
the  scenery  amongst  them  is  charming ;  but  a)l  these  islands  are  so  infest- 
ed with  snakes,  that  in  the  height  of  summer  it  is  really  dangerous  to  land. 
This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as  the  fine  timber  which  grows  upon  them 
indicates  that  the  soil  must  be  uncommonly  fertile.  But,  in  defiance  of 
the  snakes,  many  of  the  islands  are  rapidly  settling,  and  are  found  to  be 
very  healthy  and  agreeable  places  of  residence.  This  and  the  other  lake? 
are  navigated  by  vessels  of  from  seventy  to  eighty  tons,  which  carry 
goods  and  provisions  as  far  as  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  and  bring  back 
furs  and  peltry.  The  navigation  is  good  through  the  whole  distance, 
except  in  Lake  St.  Clair,  where  the  water  is  shallow,  and  vessels  are  some- 
times obliged  to  lighten. 

Lake  Ontario  is  situated  between  forty-three  and  forty-four  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  between  seventy-six  and  eighty  degrees  west  longitude. 
It  is  about  two  hundred  miles  in  length  and  forty  in  width  ;  its  form  nearly 
oval,  and  its  circumference  about  six  hundred  miles.  It  abounds  with  fish 
of  an  excellent  flavor,  among  which  are  the  Oswego  bass,  weighing  three 
or  four  pounds.  Near  the  south-east  part  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Oswe- 
go river,  and  on  the  north-east  it  discharges  itself  into  the  St.  Law  ^nce. 
It  is  never  entirely  closed  by  ice,  and  is  computed  from  some  soundings  to 
he  five  hundred  feet  deep.  The  Ridge  Road,  or  Alluvial  Way,  is  a  re- 
markable ridge  extending  along  the  south  shore  of  this  lake,  from  Roches- 
ter on  the  Gennessee  to  Lewiston  on  the  river  Niagara,  eighty-seven  miles. 
It  is  composed  of  common  beach  sand  and  gravel  stones  worn  smooth,  and 
these  are  intermixed  with  small  shells.  Its  general  width  is  from  four  to 
eight  rods,  and  it  is  raised  in  the  middle  with  a  handsome  crowning  arch, 
from  six  to  ten  feet.  Its  general  surface  preserves  a  very  uniform  Jevel, 
being  raised  to  meet  the  unevenness  of  the  ground  which  it  covers.  At  the 
rivers  Gennessee  and  Niagara,  its  elevation  is  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
or  thirty  feet ;  and  this  is  its  elevation  above  Lake  Ontario,  from  which 
it  is  distant  between  six  and  ten  miles.  There  seems  to  be  no  way  of 
accounting  for  this  ridge,  without  supposing  that  the  surface  of  Lake 
Ontario  was  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  higher  at  some  former  period  than 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  79 

it  is  at  present.  There  is  a  similar  ridge  for  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Erie. 

Lake  Champlain  lies  between  the  states  of  New  York  and  Vermont,  and 
communicates  with  Lower  Canada  by  the  river  Sorelle,  which  falls  into  the 
St.  Lawrence  forty-five  miles  below  Montreal.  It  is  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  miles  in  length,  and  of  various  breadths  :  for  the  first  thirty 
miles,  that  is,  from  South  river  to  Crown  Point,  it  is  nowhere  above  two 
miles  wide  ;  beyond  this,  for  the  distance  of  twelve  miles,  it  is  five  or  six 
miles  across,  it  then  narrows,  and  again  at  the  end  of  a  few  miles  expands. 
That  part  called  the  Broad  Lake,  commences  about  twenty-five  miles  north 
of  Crown  Point,  and  is  eighteen  miles  across  in  the  widest  part.  Here 
the  lake  is  interspersed  with  a  great  number  of  islands,  the  largest  of 
which,  named  South  Hero,  is  fifteen  miles  in  length,  and  averages  four  in 
breadth.  The  soil  of  this  island  is  very  fertile,  and  more  than  seven  hun- 
dred people  are  settled  upon  it.  The  Broad  Lake  is  nearly  fifty  miles  in 
length,  and  gradually  narrows  till  it  terminates  in  the  river  Sorelle.  Lake 
Champlain,  except  at  the  narrow  parts  at  either  end,  is  in  general  very 
deep  ;  in  many  places  sixty  and  seventy,  and  in  some  even  a  hundred 
fathoms.  The  scenery  along  various  parts  of  the  lake  is  extremely  beau- 
tiful, the  shores  being  highly  ornamented  with  hanging  woods  and  rocks, 
and  the  mountains  on  the  western  side  rise  up  in  ranges,  one  behind  the 
other,  in  the  most  magnificent  manner. 

Remains  of  Forts  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  important  positions 
during  the  old  French  wars,  are  found  at  two  great  bends  of  this  lake. 
On  the  11th  of  September,  1814,  Commodore  McDonough,  commander 
of  the  American  fleet,  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  British  fleet  in 
Cumberland  Bay,  directly  in  front  of  the  town  of  Plattsburg. 

This  lake  opens  a  ready  communication  between  New  York  and  the 
country  bordering  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  Through  the  town  of  White- 
hall, which  stands  at  the  head  of  the  lake,  a  considerable  trade  is  carried 
on  across  Champlain  with  Lower  Canada.  On  the  British  end  of  the 
lake,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  Whitehall,  stands  the  garrison 
town  of  St.  John's. 

Lake  George,  which  discharges  itself  into  Lake  Champlain,  is  the  most 
beautiful  sheet  of  water  in  the  whole  country.  It  is  thirty-six  miles  long, 
and  from  two  to  four  broad.  It  is  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state 
of  New- York.  Its  waters  are  deep  and  remarkably  transparent,  and  from 
their  extreme  limpidness,  the  French  gave  them  the  name  of  the  Lake  of 
the  Holy  Sacrament.  The  shores  consist  of  abrupt  and  shelving  points, 
and  are  bounded  by  two  long  ranges  of  mountains,^  sometimes  rising  boldly 

#  The  mountains  are  all  primitive :  they  form  a  double  barrier,  between  which  the 
lake,  scarcely  a  mile  wide,  but  occasionally  expanded  into  a  large  bay,  winds  its  way. 
They  are  steep  and  precipitous  to  the  very  water's  edge.  They  are  still  clothed  with 
grand  trees,  and  possessed  by  wild  animals— deer,  rattlesnakes  and  bears.  They  give, 
in  some  places,  the  most  distinct  and  astonishing  echoes,  returning  every  flexion  of  the 
voice  with  the  most  faithful  response.  We  saw  them  hung  with  the  solemn  drapery  of 
thunder  clouds,  dashed  by  squalls  of  wind  and  rain,  and  soon  after  decorated  with  rain- 
bows, whose  arches  did  not  surpass  the  mountain  ridges,  while  they  terminated  in  the 
lake,  and  attended  our  little  skiff  for  many  miles.  The  setting  sun  also  gilded  the  moun- 
tains and  the  clouds  that  hovered  over  them,  and  the  little  islands,  which  in  great  num- 
bers rise  out  of  the  lake,  and  present  green  patches  of  shrubbery  and  trees  apparently 
springing  from  the  water,  and  often  resembling,  by  their  minuteness  and  delicacy,  the 
elumps  of  a  park,  or  even  the  artificial  groups  of  a  green-house.    Tine  as  is  the  scenery 


80  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

from  the  water,  and  at  others  ascending  with  a  gentle  and  graceful  sweep, 
exhibiting  naked  and  weather-beaten  cliffs  and  wild  forests,  intermixed  with 
fine  cultivated  fields,  lawns  and  pastures.  The  village  of  Caldwell  stands 
on  the  south-eastern  side  of  the  lake,  and  is  much  visited  by  travellers  who 
come  to  enjoy  the  fine  scenery  in  the  neighborhood.  A  steam-boat  plies 
upon  the  lake  in  summer. 

The  islands  of  the  lake  are  said  to  be  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  in 
number.  They  are  of  every  form  and  size,  and  contribute  greatly  to  the 
romantic  beauty  of  its  surface.  Some  of  them  are  covered  with  trees, 
others  are  thinly  wooded,  and  others  are  abrupt  and  craggy  rocks.  Dia- 
mond Island  abounds  in  crystals  of  quartz.  Long  Island  contains  one 
hundred  acres,  and  is  under  cultivation.  At  a  place  called  the  Narrows, 
the  lake  is  contracted,  and  its  surface  is  covered  with  a  most  beautiful  clus- 
ter of  islands  which  extends  for  several  miles.  Some  of  them  are  covered 
with  trees,  some  show  little  lawns  or  spots  of  grass,  heaps  of  barren  rocks, 
or  gently  sloping  shores  ;  and  most  of  them  are  ornamented  with  pines- 
hemlocks,  and  other  tall  trees,  solitary  or  in  groups,  and  disposed  with  the 
most  charming  variety.  Sometimes  an  island  will  be  found  just  large  enough 
to  support  a  few  fine  trees,  or  perhaps  a  single  one,  while  the  next  may 
appear  like  a  solid  mass  of  bushes  and  wild  flowers ;  near  at  hand,  per- 
haps, is  a  third,  with  a  dark  grove  of  pines,  and  a  decaying  old  trunk  in 
front  of  it ;  and  thus,  through  every  interval  between  the  islands,  as  you 
pass  along,  another  and  another  labyrinth  is  opened  to  view,  among  little 
isolated  spots  of  ground,  divided  by  narrow  channels,  from  which  it  seems 
impossible  for  a  man  who  has  entered  them  ever  to  find  his  way  out.  Some 
of  the  islands  look  almost  like  ships  with  their  masts  ;  and  many  have  an 
air  of  lightness,  as  if  they  were  sailing  upon  the  lake. 

After  passing  the  Narrows,  the  lake  widens  again,  and  the  retrospect  is 
for  several  miles  through  that  passage  with  ranges  of  rounded  mountain 
summits  appearing  at  a  great  distance  between  them.  The  Jake  contains 
abundance  of  the  finest  perch,  bass,  and  other  fish ;  trout  are  found  in  a 
stream  flowing  into  the  southern  part.  Near  the  southern  shore,  are  the 
ruins  of  Fort  William  Henry  and  Fort  George,  celebrated  in  the  early  wars 
of  the  French. 

The  state  of  New-York  contains  a  vast  number  of  small  lakes.  There 
is  scarcely  a  stream  in  the  northern  part  of  this  state,  but  that  has  its 
source  in  one  of  these,  or  runs  through  several  in  its  progress,  whether  to 

at  the  southern  end  of  the  lake,  arid  in  all  the  wider  parts  of  it,  within  the  compass  of  the 
first  twelve  miles  from  Fort  George,  its  grandeur  is  very  much  augmented,  after  passing 
Tongue  Mountain  and  entering  the  narrow  part,  where  the  mountains  close  in  upon  you 
on  both  sides,  and  present  an  endless  diversity  of  grand  and  beautiful  scenery.  It  is  a 
pleasing  reflection,  that  even  after  this  part  of  the  United  States  shall  have  become  as 
populous  as  England  or  Holland,  this  lake  will  still  retain  the  fine  peculiarities  of  its 
scenery ;  for  they  are  too  bold,  too  wild,  and  too  untractable,  ever  to  be  materially  soften- 
ed and  spoiled  by  the  hand  of  man. 

The  deer  are  still  hunted  with  success  upon  the  borders  of  this  lake.  The  hounds 
drive  them  from  the  recesses  of  the  mountains,  when  they  take  refuge  in  the  water,  and 
the  huntsmen,  easily  overtaking  them  in  an  element  not  their  own,  seize  them  by  the 
horns,  knock  them  on  the  head,  and  dragging  their  necks  over  the  side  of  the  boat,  cut 
their  throats.  There  is  a  celebrated  mountain  about  fourteen  miles  from  Ticonderoga, 
called  Buck  Mountain,  from  the  fact  that  a  buck,  pursued  by  the  dogs,  leaped  from  its 
summit,  overhanging  the  lake  in  the  form  of  a  precipice,  and  was  literally  impaled 
alive  upon  a  sharp  pointed  tree,  which  projected  below. — Journal  of  Science. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  81 

the  great  lakes  or  to  Hudson's  river.  Seneca  Lake,  in  the  western  part  of 
the  state,  is  about  thirty-five  miles  in  length,  from  two  to  four  in  breadth, 
and  of  great  depth.  The  water  of  this  lake  has  a  gradual  periodical  riso 
and  fall,  once  in  several  years,  the  cause  of  which  has  never  been  ascer- 
tained. The  view  from  the  height  of  land  between  Seneca  and  the  adjacent 
lakes  is  extensive  and  agreeable.  Cayuga  Lake  is  thirty-eight  miles  long 
from  north  to  south,  and  from  one  to  four  miles  wide ;  in  some  places  the 
shore  of  this  lake  is  precipitous,  but  in  general  it  is  a  gentle  declivity  from 
the  surrounding  country  to  the  water.  The  waters  are  somewhat  shallow, 
but  sufficient  for  navigation.  Several  steam-boats  ply  upon  them,  and  are 
often  crowded  by  water  parties  in  the  fine  season.  A  bridge  of  a  mile  in 
length  crosses  the  north  end  of  the  lake. 

Oneida  Lake  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  twenty  miles  long  and  four 
broad.  It  is  famous  for  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  its  fish.  '  I 
made  a  small  excursion  along  the  border  of  this  lake,'  says  Mr.  Schultz, 
'  and  although  the  shore  was  low,  yet  I  found  a  firm,  dry,  white,  sandy 
beach  to  walk  upon  ;  some  other  parts  of  it,  however,  I  was  informed,  were 
low  and  swampy.  I  was  much  amused  in  the  evening  by  a  singular  illu- 
mination upon  the  lake,  which  I  was  at  first  wholly  unable  to  account  for. 
The  water  at  this  part  of  the  lake,  it  seems,  is  very  shallow  for  nearly  half 
a  mile  from  the  shore,  and  being  perfectly  transparent,  and  the  bottom  a 
white  sand,  the  smallest  object  maybe  readily  distinguished.  The  Indians 
have  a  method  of  taking  salmon  and  other  fish  by  means  of  an  iron  frame 
fixed  in  the  bow  of  the  canoe,  projecting  forward  three  or  four  feet,  and 
elevated  about  five  ;  upon  this  they  kindle  a  bright  fire  of  pine  knots,  ancft 
while  one  person  sits  in  the  stern  with  a  paddle  to  impel  the  boat  forward* 
another  stands  in  the  bow  with  a  sharp  spear  ready  to  strike  the  fish  who 
play  about  the  light.  Ten  or  twelve  of  these  canoes  moving  about  irregu- 
larly on  the  lake,  on  a  fine  calm  evening,  with  the  reflection  of  their 
lights,  like  so  many  lines  of  fire,  extending  from  each  object  to  a  centre  on 
which  you  stand,  afford  a  most  pleasing  prospect,  and  far  exceeds  in  my 
opinion  the  most  brilliant  display  of  artificial  fireworks.' 

Among  the  smaller  lakes  of  New  York  are  Onondago,  Skeneatiles, 
Oivasco,  Canandaigua,  Otsego,  Caniadebago,  Oswegatchie,  Cross,  Hem- 
lock, Hanyaga,  Cancsus,  Crooked,  and  Chatauque.  The  latter  is  the  most 
western  of  all  these  lakes,  near  the  north-east  extremity  of  Lake  Erie; 
it  is  only  eight  miles  distant  from  its  shore,  and  the  descent  to  Lake  Erie 
is  by  an  easy  slope.  From  this  small  lake  issues  one  of  the  branches  of 
the  Alleghany  river,  called  Conewango,  which  is  navigable  for  small  craft 
in  all  its  extent. 

New  Hampshire  contains  several  fine  lakes,  the  largest  of  which  is 
Winnipiseogee,  situated  east  of  the  centre  of  the  state,  and  towards  the 
west  side  of  Strafford  county.  It  is  a  picturesque  sheet  of  water,  of 
irregular  form,  twenty-two  miles  in  length,  and  varying  in  breadth  from 
one  to  ten  miles.  Several  long  capes  stretch  into  it  from  both  sides, 
almost  dividing  it  into  several  parts.  From  the  southern  extremity  of  this 
lake  to  the  north-west  corner,  there  is  good  navigation  in  the  summer,  and 
generally  a  good  road  in  the  winter ;  the  lake  is  frozen  about  three  months 
in  the  year,  and  many  sleighs  and  teams,  from  the  surrounding  towns, 
cross  it  on  the  ice. 

Dr.  D wight  has  described  this  lake,  as  it  appears  from  the  top  of  Red 


82  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATE& 

Mountain,  with  his  usual  felicity.  '  Immediately  at  the  foot  of  the  height 
on  which  we  stood,  and  in  the  bottom  of  the  immense  valley  below,  spread 
south-eastward  the  waters  of  the  Winnipiseogee  in  complete  view ;  except 
that  one  or  two  of  its  arms  were  partially  concealed  by  intervening  penin- 
sulas. A  finer  object  of  the  same  nature  was  perhaps  never  seen.  The 
lakes,  which  I  had  visited  in  my  northern  and  western  excursions,  were  all 
of  them  undivided  masses,  bordered  by  shores  comparatively  straight.  This 
was,  centrally,  a  vast  column,  if  I  may  be  allowed  the  term,  twenty-three 


Winnipiseogee  Lake. 

miles  in  length,  and  from  six  to  eight  in  breadth,  shooting  out  with  inimi- 
table beauty  a  succession  of  arms,  some  of  them  not  inferior  in  length  to 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  lake.  These  were  fashioned  with  every  elegance 
of  figure,  bordered  with  the  most  beautiful  winding  shores,  and  studded 
with  a  multitude  of  islands.  Their  relative  positions,  also,  could  scarcely 
be  more  happy. 

'  Many  of  the  islands  are  large,  exquisitely  fashioned,  and  arranged  in  a 
manner  not  less  singular  than  pleasing.  As  they  met  the  eye,  when  sur- 
veyed from  this  summit,  they  were  set  in  groups  on  both  sides  the  great 
channel,  and  left  this  vast  field  of  water  unoccupied  between  them.  Their 
length  was  universally  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  lake  ;  and  they  ap- 
peared as  if  several  chains  of  hills  originally  crossing  the  country  in  that 
direction,  had,  by  some  convulsion,  been  merged  in  the  water  so  low,  that 
no  part  of  them  was  left  visible,  except  the  oblong  segments  of  their  sum- 
mits. Of  those,  which,  by  their  size  and  situation,  were  most  conspicuous, 
I  counted  forty-five,  without  attempting  to  enumerate  the  smaller  ones,  or 
such  as  were  obscured.  The  points,  which  intrude  into  this  lake,  are 
widely  different  from  those  of  Lake  George  ;  bold,  masculine  bluffs,  imping- 
ing directly  upon  the  water.  These,  in  several  instances,  were  spacious 
peninsulas,  fitted  to  become  rich  and  delightful  residences  of  man,  often 
elevated  into  handsome  hills,  and  sloping  gracefully  into  the  lake.' 

Umbagog  Lake  is  situated  partly  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  state,  and 
is  next  in  size  to  Winnipiseogee;  it  lies  chiefly  in  Maine.  The  others  of 
New  Hampshire  are  Ossipee,  Sanapee,  Squam,  and  Neivfound. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  S3 

There  are  several  large,  and  a  vast  number  of  small  lakes  in  the  state  of 
Maine.  Moosehead  Lake,  the  largest  in  New  England,  is  the  source  of 
the  east  branch  of  the  Kennebeck,  and  is  fifty  miles  in  length  by  ten  or 
fifteen  in  breadth.  Sebago  Lake,  in  Cumberland  county,  is  twelve  miles 
long.  Chesuncook  Lake  is  twenty  miles  long  and  three  broad.  In  Ver- 
mont, besides  Lake  Champlain,  which  separates  this  state  from  New  York 
on  the  west,  there  are  other  lakes  of  minor  importance,  deserving  of 
notice.  Lake  Mempkremagog,  thirty-five  miles  in  length  and  three  wide,  lies 
chiefly  in  Canada,  and  communicates  with  the  St.  Lawrence  by  the  river  St. 
Francis.  Willoughby  Lake,  six  miles  long  and  one  wide,  discharges  its 
waters  into  Memphremagog  by  the  river  Barton.  This  lake  furnishes  fish 
resembling  bass,  of  an  excellent  flavor,'  weighing  from  ten  to  thirty  pounds. 

A  number  of  small  lakes  occur  towards  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi. 
Lake  Pepin  is  an  expansion  of  this  mighty  river,  about  one  hundred  miles 
below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  It  has  been  very  fully  and  beautifully 
described  by  Mr.  Schoolcraft. 

1  It  is  twenty-four  miles  in  length,  with  a  width  of  from  two  to  four  miles, 
and  is  indented  with  several  bays,  and  prominent  points,  which  serve  to 
enhance  the  beauty  of  the  prospect.  On  the  east  shore,  there  is  a  lofty 
range  of  limestone  bluffs,  which  are  much  broken  and  crumbled,  some- 
times run  into  pyramidal  peaks,  and  often  present  a  character  of  the 
utmost  sublimity.  On  the  west,  there  is  a  high  level  prairie,  covered  with 
the  most  luxuriant  growth  of  grass,  and  nearly  destitute  of  forest  trees. 
From  this  plain  several  conical  hills  ascend,  which,  at  a  distance,  present 
the  appearance  of  vast  artificial  mounds  or  pyramids,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
reconcile  their  appearance  with  the  general  order  of  nature,  by  any  other 
hypothesis.  This  lake  is  beautifully  circumscribed  by  a  broad  beach  of 
clean  washed  gravel,  which  often  extends  from  the  foot  of  the  surrounding 
highlands,  three  or  four  hundred  yards  into  the  lake,  forming  gravelly  points, 
upon  which  there  is  a  delightful  walk,  and  scalloping  out  the  margin  of 
the  lake  with  the  most  pleasing  irregularity.  In  walking  along  these,  the 
eye  is  attracted  by  the  various  colors  of  the  mineral  gems,  which  are  pro- 
miscuously scattered  among  the  water-worn  debris  of  granitic  and  other 
rocks,  and  the  cornelian,  agate,  and  chalcedony,  are  met  with  at  every  step. 
The  size  of  these  gems  is  often  as  large  as  the  egg  of  the  partridge,  and  the 
transparency  and  beauty  of  color  is  only  excelled  by  the  choicest  oriental 
specimens.  There  is  no  perceptible  current  in  the  lake,  during  calm 
weather,  and  the  water  partakes  so  little  of  the  turbid  character  of  the 
lower  Mississippi,  that  objects  can  be  distinctly  seen  through  it,  at  the  depth 
of  eight  or  ten  feet. 

'  In  passing  though  Lake  Pepin,  our  interpreter  pointed  out  to  us  a  high 
precipice,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  lake,  from  which  an  Indian  girl,  of  the 
Sioux  nation,  had,  many  years  ago,  precipitated  herself  in  a  fit  of  disap- 
pointed love.  She  had  given  her  heart,  it  appears,  to  a  young  chief  of 
her  own  tribe,  who  was  very  much  attached  to  her,  but  the  alliance  was 
opposed  by  her  parents,  who  wished  her  to  marry  an  old  chief,  renowned 
for  his  wisdom  and  his  influence  in  the  nation.  As  the  union  was  insist- 
ed upon,  and  no  other  way  appearing  to  avoid  it,  she  determined  to  sacri- 
fice her  life  in  preference  to  a  violation  of  a  former  vow,  and  while  the 
preparations  for  the  marriage  feast  were  going  forward,  left  her  father's 
cabin,  without  exciting  suspicion,  and  before  she  could  be  overtaken  threw 


84  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

herself  from  an  awful  precipice,  and  was  instantly  dashed  to  a  thousand 
pieces.  Such  an  instance  of  sentiment  is  rarely  to  be  met  with  among 
barbarians,  and  should  redeem  the  name  of  this  noble-minded  girl  from 
oblivion.     It  was  Oola-Ita.' 

Cassina  or  Red  Cedar  Lake  derives  some  importance  from  having  been 
designated  as  the  true  source  of  the  Mississippi  river.  It  is  about  eight 
miles  long  and  six  in  breadth,  and  presents  a  beautiful  sheet  of  transparent 
water.  On  its  banks  are  elm,  maple,  and  pine  trees,  fields  of  Indian  rice, 
rushes  and  reeds ;  in  other  places  there  is  an  open  beach  of  clean  pebbles. 
Pike,  carp>  trout  and  cat-fish  are  caught  in  its  waters.  Towards  its  western 
extremity  is  an  island  covered  with  trees,  from  which  it  derives  its  name, 
though  no  red  cedar  is  found  around  its  shores. 

Turtle  Lake,  Little  Winnepeg  Lake,  Leech  Lake,  Swan  Lake,  Sandy 
Lake,  Muddy  Lake,  Lake  Peckagama,  and  White  Fish  Lake,  are  all  near 
the  source  of  the  Mississippi.  A  narrow  belt  of  high  land  separates  Turtle 
Lake,  the  most  northern  source  of  the  Mississippi,  from  Red  river  Lake, 
one  of  the  sources  of  the  Red  river  which  runs  into  Hudson's  Bay.  Otter 
Tail  Lake  is  the  most  southern  source  of  Red  river ;  and  from  thence  is  a 
portage  of  only  half  a  mile  to  a  branch  of  Raven  river,  which  falls  into  the 
Mississippi.  The  whole  tract  of  high  country,  at  the  sources  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Red  river,  is  full  of  marshes,  morasses,  and  small  lakes,  whose 
waters  afford  never  failing  supplies  to  these  streams. 

The  Lake  of  the  Woods  is  of  a  circular  figure,  with  a  cluster  of  islands 
in  the  centre.  The  navigating  course  through  the  lake,  is  seventy-five 
miles ;  but,  in  direct  distance,  it  is  not  above  two-thirds  of  that  extent  in 
diameter.  Its  scenery  is  wild  and  romantic  in  a  high  degree.  Its  surface 
is  covered  with  islands.  From  this  lake  there  is  a  long  succession  of  small 
lakes,  and  numerous  portages,  to  the  north-west  end  of  Lake  Superior,  the 
chief  of  which  is  Rainy  Lake.  Two  small  lakes,  Lake  Riddle,  which  gives 
rise  to  the  Big  Horn  river,  and  Lake  Eustis,  which  is  the  source  of  the 
Jaune,  or  Yellow  Stone  river,  are  situated  amongst  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
in  west  longitude  one  hundred  and  twelve  degrees,  and  north  latitude  forty- 
two  degrees. 

In  the  state  of  Louisiana  are  the  lakes  of  Maurepas  and  Pontchartrain. 
The  first  of  these  is  of  a  circular  figure,  twelve  feet  deep,  and  fourteen 
miles  in  diameter.  In  the  time  of  high  floods,  it  has  a  communication 
with  the  Mississippi,  by  means  of  the  river  Amite,  or  Ibberville ;  and  this 
inundation,  which  lasts  only  four  months  annually,  occasions  what  is  erro- 
neously called  the  island  of  New  Orleans,  to  be  then  an  island  in  fact,  for 
at  no  other  time  is  it  environed  with  water,  the  city  of  New  Orleans  being 
situated  on  a  peninsula.^     Lake  Maurepas  communicates  with  Lake  Pont- 

p  *  From  Lake  Maurepas,  to  Fort  Bute,  or  Manshac,  on  the  Mississippi,  is  sixty  com- 
4  puted  miles,  following  the  course  of  the  Amite  ;  and  Manshac  is  one  hundred  and  one 
miles  above  New  Orleans,  by  the  windings  of  the  Mississippi.  From  Manshac  to  the  Amite, 
there  is  a  natural  canal  of  twenty-one  miles,  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  four  feet 
water,  when  the  Mississippi  is  high  ;  thence  the  Amite  is  navigable  all  the  way  to  Mau- 
repas and  Pontchartrain  lakes,  and  thence  to  the  sea.  This  natural  canal,  which  is  dry 
for  ten  months  in  the  year,  is  very  absurdly  termed  the  river  Ibberville,  for  in  the  dry 
months,  the  surface  of  the  Mississippi  is  twenty-four  feet  lower  than  the  bed  of  this 
natural  canal.  The  river  Amite  itself,  even  from  where  the  Ibberville  joins  in  the  inun- 
dations, is  not  navigable  above  four  months  annually,  for  the  first  ten  miles ;  but 
three  miles  farther  down,  it  has  from  two  to  six  feet  water  ;  and  all  the  remaining  part 
«f  its  course  to  Lake  Maurepas,  there  is  from  two  to  four  fathoms  water. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  85 

chartrain,  by  a  stream  seven  miles  long,  and  three  hundred  yards  wide, 
and  divided"  by  an  island  extending  from  the  lake  to  within  a  mile  of  Pont- 
chartrain,  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  southern  is  the  safest  and 
deepest.  -Lake  Pontchartrain  is  nearly  of  a  circular  form,  forty  miles  in  its 
greatest  length,  and  thirty  miles  in  its  greatest  breadth,  and  eighteen  feet 
deep.  From  this  lake  to  the  sea  is  ten  miles,  by  a  passage  called  the 
Regolets,  four  hundred  yards  wide,  and  lined  with  marshes  on  each  side. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi  are  the  lakes  of  Great  and  Little 
Barataria.  The  Catahoola  Lake,  sixteen  miles  long,  and  four  broad,  is  the 
source  of  a  stream  of  the  same  name,  which,  uniting  with  the  Washita  and 
Bayou  Tenza  rivers,  form  the  Black  river.  This  lake,  during  the  dry 
months,  is  covered  with  the  most  luxuriant  herbage ;  and  is  then  the  resi- 
dence of  immense  herds  of  deer,  and  water-fowl,  which  feed  on  the  grass 
and  grain.  The  other  lakes  of  Louisiana  are  Calcasin,  Borgne,  and  Bis- 
tineau. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  LAKES. 

Extensive  accumulations  of  water,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  land,  and  having 
no  direct  communication  with  the  ocean,  or  with  any  sea,  are  called  lakes.  Lakes  are 
of  four  distinct  kinds.  The  first  class  comprehends  those  which  have  no  issue,  and 
which  do  not  receive  any  running  water.  These  are  generally  very  small,  and  do 
not  merit  much  attention.  The  second  class  comprises  those  lakes  which  have  an  out- 
let, but  which  do  not  receive  any  running  water.  These  lakes  are  fed  by  a  multitude 
of  springs 5  they  are  naturally  on  great  elevations,  and  are  sometimes  the  sources  of 
great  rivers.  The  third  class  of  lakes  is  very  numerous,  consisting  of  all  such  as  receive 
and  discharge  streams  of  water.  Each  of  the  lakes  of  this  class  may  be  looked  upon  as 
forming  a  basin  for  receiving  the  neighboring  waters  ;  they  have  in  general  only  one 
opening,  which  almost  always  takes  its  name  from  the  principal  river  which  flows  into 
it.  These  lakes  have  often  sources  of  their  own,  either  near  the  borders,  or  in  their 
bottom.  The  great  lakes  of  North  America  are  of  this  class,  which  in  point  of  extent 
resemble  seas,  but  which,  by  the  flow  of  a  continual  stream  of  fresh  river  water,  preserve 
their  clearness  and  sweetness.  The  fourth  class  of  lakes  present  phenomena  much 
more  difficult  to  explain.  We  mean  those  lakes  which  receive  streams  of  water  and 
often  great  rivers,  without  having  any  visible  outlet.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  is 
the  Caspian  Sea ;  Asia  contains  a  great  many  others  besides.  South  America  contains 
the  Lake  Titicaca,  which  has  no  efflux,  though  it  is  the  receiver  of  another  lake.  These 
collections  of  water  appear  to  belong  to  the  interior  of  great  continents  ;  they  are  placed 
on  elevated  plains,  which  have  no  sensible  declivity  towards  the  sea,  and  thus  afford 
no  outlet.  "With  respect  to  those  situated  in  a  hot  climate,  evaporation  is  sufficient  to 
carry  off  their  excess  of  water. 

The  physical  phenomena  which  certain  lakes  present,  have  always  excited  the  asto- 
nishment of  the  multitude.  Those  of  the  periodical  lakes  wee  the  most  common.  In  Eu- 
rope these  are  nothing  but  pools,  but  between  the  tropics  these  pools  sometimes  cover 
spaces  of  several  hundred  leagues  in  length  and  breadth.  Such  are  the  famous  lakes  of 
Xarages  and  Paria,  inscribed  on  maps  of  America,  and  expunged  from  them  by  turns  ; 
it  is  probable  that  Africa  contains  a  great  many  of  this  description.  The  depth  of  lakes 
varies  infinitely,  and  cannot  form  a  subject  of  general  physical  geography.  The  popular 
opinion,  however,  that  there  are  lakes  without  a  bottom,  is  erroneous.  Those  which 
have  been  considered  as  such,  owe  this  character  solely  to  the  existence  of  currents 
which  carry  along  with  them  the  lead  attached  to  the  sounding  line.  The  waters  of 
lakes,  being  derived  from  springs  and  rivers,  partake  of  their  different  qualities.  There 
are  some  lakes,  whose  waters  are  extremely  limpid,  such  as  the  lake  of  Geneva,  and 
that  of  Wetter  in  Sweden ;  in  the  latter,  a  farthing  may  be  perceived  at  the  bottom  of 
the  lake,  at  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  depth  ;  but  the  lakes  whose  waters  are  motion- 
less, saline,  or  bituminous,  may  be  looked  upon  as  equally  unwholesome  with  those  of 
marshes. 

8 


86 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  THE  MOST  CELEBRATED  LAKES. 


WESTERN  HEMISPHERE. 


Lake  Superior, 
Lake  Michigan,    . 
Lake  Huron, 
Lake  Erie,  .    .    . 
Lake  Ontario,     . 
Great  Slave  Lake, 
Great  Bear  Lake,  , 


Surface. 


Lake  Tchad,  Africa, 
Lake  Ladoga,  Russia, 
Lake  Onega,  Russia, 


Square  miles. 

.     .     22,400 

12,600 

,     .     15,800 

.     .    4,800 

.       4,450 

.     .  12,000 

,     .       4,000 


Winnepeg  Lake, 
Lake  Maracaibo,  . 
Athabasca  Lake,  . 
Lake  Titicaca, 
Lake  St.  George,  , 
Lake  Champlain,  . 
Lake  of  the  Woods, 


Surface. 


EASTERN   HEMISPHERE. 


Square  miles. 

.     .      11,600 

.     .    5,200 

.     .      3,300 

Wetter  Lake,  Sweden, 945 


Lake  of  Constance,  Switzerland, 


456 


Square  miles. 

.  .  7,200 
.     .       6,000 

.  .  3,200 
.     .       5,400 

.  .  340 
.     .     .    350 

.     .    1,600 


Square  miles. 
Geneva  Lake,  Switzerland,  .  .  .  400 
Loch  Lomond,  Scotland,  ....  27 
Windermere  Lake,  England,  .  .  ,  .11 
Killarney  Lake,  Ireland,       ...  14 

Loch  Leven,  Scotland,       .    .        .    k    6 


87 


CHAPTER  VII.— SPRINGS. 

I.  SALT  SPRINGS. 

In  the  United  States,  salt  springs  are  very  numerous.  They  sometimes 
flow  naturally,  but  are  generally  formed  by  sinking  wells  in  those  places 
where  salt  is  known  to  exist,  as  in  marshes,  salt  licks,  and  other  similar 
places.  The  country  on  the  Arkansas  river  furnishes  some  salt ;  it  differs 
however,  from  most  other  places  in  the  United  States,  by  existing  in  pools, 
and  forming  incrustations  on  the  soil  of  plains  and  prairies.  There  is  no 
salt  obtained  in  Arkansas  by  boring,  the  usual  mode  of  procuring  it  in 
other  localities.  There  are  numerous  salt  springs  in  Missouri ;  the  work- 
ing of  many  of  them,  however,  has  been  suspended  or  relinquished,  on 
account  of  the  reduced  price  of  salt.  Large  quantities  of  the  article  are 
still  made  at  Boon's  Lick,  and  near  St.  Genevieve  and  Herculaneum. 

Salt  springs  are  worked  at  Sciota ;  the  quantity  yielded,  however,  is 
comparatively  small.  There  are  no  salt-works  on  the  Tennessee  river; 
but  on  the  Holston,  one  of  its  tributaries,  are  extensive  salt  springs,  situat- 
ed near  Abingdon,  Virginia,  and  known  by  the  name  of  King's  and  Pres- 
ton's salt-works.  These  springs  yield  a  considerable  quantity  of  salt. 
Preston's  works  have  been  rendered  less  productive,  by  being  diluted  by  a 
spring  of  fresh  water  flowing  into  the  midst  of  the  salt. 

Salt  springs  are  very  numerous  in  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Virginia. 
Springs  holding  salt  in  solution  are  common  in  various  parts  of  the  bitu- 
minous coal  region  of  Pennsylvania.  They  are  generally  weak  near  the 
surface,  but  deep  springs,  disclosed  by  boring,  are  often  strong.  One  of 
these,  which  contains  as  much  salt  as  the  ordinary  water  of  Salina,  was 
discovered  by  boring,  about  twenty  miles  from  Montrose,  bordering  on  the 
state  of  New-York.  The  most  considerable  saline  springs  are  on  the 
banks  of  the  Conemaugh  and  Kiskeminitas,  about  thirty  miles  east  of  Pitts- 
burg. These  rivers  for  many  miles  wind  through  rocky  ravines,  border- 
ed by  hills  of  three  and  four  hundred  feet  in  height,  that  rise  with  steep 
acclivities,  presenting  mural  precipices  of  grey  sand-stone,  in  places  jutting 
over  the  road  and  torrent.  Large  quantities  of  salt  are  made  at  these 
springs. 

In  the  town  of  Salina,  in  the  state  of  New- York,  about  one  hundred 
and  thirty  miles  west  of  Albany,  are  situated  the  most  extensive  works  in 
the  United  States  for  the  manufacture  of  salt  from  natural  brine.  The 
indications  of  that  substance  along  the  margin  of  Onondaga  Lake  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  similar  to  those  found  on  the  salt  licks,  so  common  in 
the  interior  of  the  country,  and  the  knowledge  of  their  existence  was  de- 
rived from  the  aborigines. 

'  One  of  the  earliest  settlers  in  the  county  of  Onondaga,'  says  a  writer 
in  Silliman's  Journal,  '  has  informed  me,  that  to  procure  salt  for  his  fami- 
ly, about  forty  years  since,  he,  with  an  Indian  guide  in  a  canoe,  descended 
a  small  river  that  discharges  into  the  lake  at  its  south-eastern  termination, 
along  the  shore  of  which  he  passed,  a  short  distance  to  the  right,  and,  as- 
cending a  rivulet  (now  Mud  Creek)  a  few  rods,  arrived  at  the  spring  or 


88  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

natural  discharge  of  salt  water,  which  was  obtained  by  lowering  to  the 
bottom,  then  four  or  five  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  fresh  water  of  the 
lake,  an  iron  vessel,  which,  filling  instantly  with  the  heavier  fluid,  was 
drawn  up  and  the  brine  poured  out.  In  this  way,  he  got  enough  to  make 
on  the  spot,  by  boiling,  and  without  any  separation  of  the  earthy  impuri- 
ties that  were  held  with  the  salt  in  solution,  a  small  quantity  of  brownish 
colored  and  very  impure  salt.  Since  that  time  other  springs  have  been 
discovered  at  various  and  almost  opposite  points  on  the  shores  of  the  lake, 
and  many  wells  have  been  sunk  to  procure  brine  for  the  manufactories  at 
the  villages  of  Liverpool,  Salina,  Syracuse,  and  Geddesburg.  The  wells 
did  not  exceed  eighteen  feet  in  depth,  and  in  the  strength  of  the  water 
which  they  respectively  afforded  there  was  great  difference,  which  varied 
much  with  the  seasons,  with  this  remarkable  circumstance,  that  it  some- 
times diminished  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent.,  and  in  some  instances,  one 
third,  as  the  adjoining  lands,  on  the  advance  of  summer,  became  drained; 
and  the  lake,  which  in  the  spring  overflowed  the  wells,  had  subsided  six 
or  eight  feet.'  The  salt  springs  of  Salina  are  found  on  the  margin  of  an 
extensive  marsh.* 

II.  MINERAL  SPRINGS. 
The  mineral  springs  in  the  state  of  New  York,  in  excellence  and  variety, 
are  unsurpassed  in  any  part  of  the  world.  The  most  famous  are  called  by 
the  general  name  of  the  Saratoga  and  Ballston  Springs,  and  are  embraced 
in  an  extent  of  about  twelve  miles  in  the  county  of  Saratoga.  The  first 
spring  discovered  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ballston  stands  on  a  flat.  It 
formerly  flowed  out  of  a  common  barrel,  sunk  around  it,  without  any  other 
protection  from  the  invasion  of  cattle,  who  often  slacked  their  thirst  in  its 
fountain.  Afterwards  the  liberality  of  the  citizens  was  displayed  in  a 
marble  curb  and  flagging,  and  a  handsome  iron  railing.  The  curb  and 
flagging  were  finally  removed,  leaving  the  railing,  which  still  serves  the 
purposes  of  ornament  and  protection.     The  spring  flows  now,  probably 

•  Every  fact  which  tends  to  disclose  that  hidden  operation  of  nature,  by  which  the 
salt  springs  of  the  west  are  produced,  is  interesting  to  the  geologist.  I  took  a  speci- 
men of  the  rock,  called  water  limestone,  from  a  hill  adjoining  Nine-mile  Creek,  a  few 
miles  west  of  the  Onondaga  salt  springs.  If  this  specimen  be  pulverized  and  examined 
ever  so  minutely,  it  presents  nothing  to  the  senses  resembling  common  salt  (muriate  of 
soda.)  I  do  not  mean  that  the  elementary  constituents  cannot  be  found  in  it,  but  I  do 
not  propose  here  to  have  any  reference  to  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  rock.  On  exposing 
a  fresh  fracture  of  a  specimen  from  this  rock,  for  two  or  three  weeks  in  a  damp  cellar ,, 
it  shoots  out  crystals  of  common  salt,  sufficient  to  cover  the  whole  surface.  It  may  be 
proper  to  state,  that  I  have  made  the  trial  only  in  very  cold  weather  ;  during  which 
time  a  fire  was  sometimes  made  in  the  cellar  room.  I  do  not  know,  however,  that  these 
circumstances  had  any  influence  on  the  result.  This  proves  conclusively,  that  one 
rock  at  least,  reposing  over  the  floor  of  the  salt  springs,  contains  in  itself  the  materials 
for  the  spontaneous  manufacture  of  salt.  I  say  the  floor,  because  I  have  ascertained 
that  all  the  salt  springs  along  the  canal  route  from  Lenox  to  Montezuma,  axe  supported 
on  the  same  continuous  rock. 

It  has  long  been  a  prevailing  theory,  that  a  vast  mine  of  salt  exists  in  the  vicinity  of 
these  springs,  which  is  continually  dissolving,  and  thus  yields  the  supply  of  salt  water. 
Much  time  and  money  has  been  spent  without  success,  in  boring  to  great  depths,  wiih 
expectation  of  discovering  this  mass  of  rock  salt.  But  if  such  rocks  as  that  of  Nine- 
mile  Creek  be  found  of  sufficient  extent,  the  origin  of  the  salt  water  of  the  west  will 
find  a  more  satisfactory  solution.  And  there  may  be  many  kinds  of  rocks,  beside  the 
water  limestone,  which  contain  the  elementary  constituents  of  common  salt. — Silliman't 
Journal 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  89 

from  the  place  where  it  originally  issued,  some  feet  below  the  surround- 
ing surface,  which  has  been  elevated  by  additions  of  earth,  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  road  in  which  it  stands. 

Near  this  spring,  in  boring  about  six  or  eight  years  ago,  an  excellent 
mineral  fountain  was  discovered  at  a  considerable  depth  beneath  the  surface. 
Its  qualities  are  said  to  be  superior  to  those  of  the  spring  already  mention- 
ed, and,  by  many,  its  waters  are  preferred  to  any  other  in  the  village. 

The  United  States'  Spring  is  situated  at  the  east  end  of  the  village. 
Near  this  fountain,  a  large  and  commodious  bathing-house  has  been  erect- 
ed; to  which,  not  only  the  waters  of  this,  but  of  a  number  of  other  adjacent 
springs,  are  tributary,  for  the  purpose  of  bathing.  Between  the  springs 
already  mentioned,  there  was  discovered  in  the  summer  of  1817,  a  mineral 
spring,  called  the  Washington  Fountain.  This  latter  spring  rose  on  the 
margin  of  the  creek  in  front  of  the  factory  building ;  it  flowed  through  a 
curb  twenty-eight  feet  in  length,  sunk  to  the  depth  of  twenty-three  feet,  and 
was  liberated  at  the  top  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  jet  d'eau  ;  but  the  spring 
disappeared  in  1821.  Numerous  attempts  have  since  been  made  to  recover 
it,  but  they  have  proved  fruitless.  The  principal  ingredients  of  these  waters 
consist  of  muriate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  lime,  carbonate 
of  magnesia,  and  carbonate  of  iron ;  all  of  which,  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree, enter  into  the  composition  of  the  waters,  both  here  and  at  Saratoga. 

The  justly  celebrated  springs  of  Saratoga  are  about  six  miles  north-east 
of  Ballston  Spa.  They  are  situated  on  the  border  of  a  valley,  which 
bounds  the  village  on  the  east,  and  form  the  continuation  of  a  series  of 
springs  which  first  appear  in  Ballston  about  twelve  miles  to  the  south,  and 
extend  easterly  in  a  semicircular  line  to  the  Quaker  village.  In  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  are  about  a  dozen  springs,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
are  the  Congress,  the  High  Rock,  the  Flat  Rock,  the  Hamilton,  the  Wash- 
ington, the  Columbian  and  the  President.  A  cluster,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Ten  Springs,    is  found  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  to  the  eastward. 

The  Congress  Spring  is  situated  at  the  south  end  of  the  village.  It 
was  first  discovered  about  thirty  years  since,  issuing  from  a  crevice  in  the 
rock,  a  few  feet  from  its  present  location.  Here  it  flowed  for  a  number  of 
years,  until  an  attempt  to  improve  the  surface  around  it  produced  an  acci- 
dental obstruction  of  its  waters,  which  afterwards  made  their  appearance 
at  the  place  where  they  now  flow.  It  is  inclosed  by  a  tube  sunk  into  the 
earth  to  the  distance  of  twelve  or  fourteen  feet,  which  secures  it  from  the 
water  of  the  stream,  adjoining  to  which  it  is  situated.  Besides  a  hand- 
some inclosure  and  platform  for  promenading,  the  proprietor  has  thrown 
an  awning  over  the  spring  for  the  convenience  of  visitors. 

The  High  Rock  is  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley,  skirting  the 
east  side  of  the  village,  about  half  a  mile  north  of  the  Congress.  The  rock 
inclosing  this  spring  is  in  the  shape  of  a  cone,  nine  feet  in  diameter  at  its 
base,  and  five  feet  in  height.  It  seems  to  have  been  formed  by  a  concre- 
tion of  particles  thrown  up  by  the  water,  which  formerly  flowed  over  its 
summit,  through  an  aperture  of  about  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  regularly 
diverging  from  the  top  of  the  cone  to  its  base.  This  spring  was  visited  in 
the  year  1767  by  Sir  William  Johnson,  but  was  known  long  before  by  the 
Indians,  who  were  first  led  to  it,  either  by  accident  or  by  the  frequent 
footsteps  of  beasts,  attracted  thither  by  the  saline  properties  of  the  water. 
A  building  was  erected  near  the  spot  previous  to  the  revolutionary  war, 
12  8* 


90  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

afterwards  abandoned,  and  again  resumed ;  since  which,  the  usefulness  of 
the  water  has,  from  time  to  time,  occasioned  frequent  settlements  within  its 
vicinity.  The  water  now  rises  within  two  feet  of  the  summit,  and  a  com- 
mon notion  prevails  that  it  has  found  a  passage  through  a  fissure  of  the 
rock,  occasioned  by  the  fall  of  a  tree  ;  since  which  event,  it  has  ceased  to 
flow  over  its  brink. 

Between  the  Red  spring  in  the  upper  village,  and  the  Washington  in 
the  south  part  of  the  lower  village,  are  situated  most  of  the  other  mineral 
springs  in  which  this  place  abounds.  At  three  of  the  principal  springs, 
the  Hamilton,  Monroe  and  Washington,  large  and  convenient  bathing- 
houses  have  been  erected,  which  are  the  constant  resort  for  pleasure  as  well 
as  health,  during  the  warm  season. 

The  mineral  waters,  both  at  Ballston  and  Saratoga,  are  supposed  to  be 
the  product  of  the  same  great  laboratory,  and  they  all  possess  nearly  the 
same  properties,  varying  only  as  to  the  quantity  of  the  different  articles 
held  in  solution.  They  are  denominated  acidulous  saline  and  acidulous 
chalybeate.  Of  the  former,  are  the  Congress,  (which  holds  the  first  rank,) 
the  Hamilton,  High  Rock,  and  President,  at  Saratoga ;  and  of  the  latter, 
are  the  Columbian,  Flat  Rock,  and  Washington,  at  Saratoga,  and  the  Old 
Spring  and  United  States,  at  Ballston.  The  waters  contain  muriate  of 
soda,  hydriodate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  lime,  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  and  some  of  them  a  minute  quantity  of  silica 
alumina.  Large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  gas  are  also  contained  in  the 
waters,  giving  to  them  a  sparkling  and  lively  appearance.  The  Congress-, 
in  particular,  the  moment  it  is  dipped,  contains  nearly  one  half  more  than  its 
bulk  of  gas ;  a  quantity  unprecedented  in  any  natural  waters  elsewhere 
discovered. 

Doctor  Steel,  in  his  geological  report  of  the  county  of  Saratoga,  pub- 
lished a  few  years  since,  remarks,  that  '  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  all 
these  wells  is  about  the  same,  ranging  from  forty-eight  to  fifty-two  degrees 
on  Fahrenheit's  scale  ;  and  they  suffer  no  sensible  alteration  from  any  va- 
riation in  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  ;  neither  do  the  variations  of 
the  seasons  appear  to  have  much  effect  on  the  quantity  of  water  produced. 

'  The  waters  are  remarkably  limpid,  and  when  first  dipped  sparkle  with 
all  the  life  of  good  champaigne.  The  saline  waters  bear  bottling  very 
well,  particularly  the  Congress,  immense  quantities  of  which  are  put  up 
in  this  way  and  transported  to  various  parts  of  the  world ;  not,  however, 
without  a  considerable  loss  of  its  gaseous  property,  which  renders  its  taste 
much  more  insipid  than  when  drank  at  the  well.  The  chalybeate  water 
is  likewise  put  up  in  bottles  for  transportation,  but  a  very  trifling  loss  of  its 
gas  produces  an  immediate  precipitation  of  its  iron  ;  and  hence  this  water 
when  it  has  been  bottled  for  some  time,  frequently  becomes  turbid,  and 
finally  loses  every  trace  of  iron;  this  substance  fixing  itself  to  the  walls  of 
the  bottle. 

'  The  most  prominent  and  perceptible  effects  of  these  waters,  when 
taken  into  the  stomach,  are  cathartic,  diuretic,  and  tonic.  They  are 
much  used  in  a  great  variety  of  complaints  ;  but  the  diseases  in  which  they 
are  most  efficacious,  are,  jaundice  and  bilious  affections  generally,  dyspep- 
sia, habitual  costiveness'  hypochondriacal  complaints,  depraved  appetite, 
calculous  and  nephritic  complaints,  phagedenic  or  ill-conditioned  ulcers, 
cutaneous  eruptions,  chronic  rheumatism,  some  species  or  states  of  gout, 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  91 

some  species  of  dropsy,  scrofula,  paralysis,  scorbutic  affections  and  old 
scorbutic  ulcers,  amenorrhea,  dysmenorrhea,  and  chlorosis.  In  phthisis,  and 
indeed  all  other  pulmonary  affections  arising  from  primary  diseases  of  the 
lungs,  the  waters  are  manifestly  injurious,  and  evidently  tend  to  increase 
the  violence  of  the  disease. 

1  Much  interest  has  been  excited  on  the  subject  of  the  source  of  these 
singular  waters  ;  but  no  researches  have  as  yet  unfolded  the  mystery. 
The  large  proportion  of  common  salt  found  among  their  constituent  pro- 
perties, may  be  accounted  for  without  much  difficulty ;  all  the  salt  springs 
of  Europe,  as  well  as  those  of  America,  being  found  in  geological  situa- 
tions exactly  corresponding  to  these.  But  the  production  of  the  unexampled 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  medium  through  which  the  other  articles 
are  held  in  solution,  is  yet,  and  probably  will  remain,  a  subject  of  mere 
speculation.  The  low  and  regular  temperature  of  the  water  seems  to 
forbid  the  idea,  that  it  is  the  effect  of  subterranean  heat,  as  many  have 
supposed,  and  the  total  absence  of  any  mineral  acid,  excepting  the  muria- 
tic, which  is  combined  with  soda,  does  away  the  possibility  of  its  being 
the  effect  of  any  combination  of  that  kind.  Its  production  is  therefore 
truly  unaccountable.'^ 

At  Albany,  in  the  summer  of  1826,  in  boring  for  pure  water  for  a  brew- 
ery, a  mineral  spring  was  accidentally  opened.  The  sensible  qualities  of 
this  water  have  a  great  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Congress  Spring  at  Sa- 
ratoga, but  those  who  are  acquainted  with  it,  think  it  by  no  means  so  sti- 

*  The  following  letter,  from  the  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce,  bears  date  the  8th 
of  August,  1833.  ■  The  number  of  visitors  here  at  the  present  time  is  great  beyond  all 
former  example,  and  far  exceeds  the  limits  of  comfortable  accommodations.  Every 
house  is  full,  and  every  thing  which  can  answer  the  purposes  of  a  bed,  is  occupied. 
Many  are  fain  to  secure  a  lodging  in  the  railway  cars.  The  number  is  estimated  at 
three  thousand,  and  embraces  age  and  infancy,  belles  and  matrons,  invalids  and  dandies, 
from  every  quarter  of  the  Union.  The  public  houses  are  reaping  a  good  harvest ;  they 
have  already  had  a  double  season,  and  made  ample  amends  lor  the  dull  business  of  the 
last  year.  Ballston  is  also  crowded,  contrary  to  the  expectations  of  its  inhabitants,  who 
apprehended  that  the  rail-road  to  Saratoga  would  not  leave  them  a  single  visitor.  The 
rail-road,  for  the  whole  route  from  Albany  to  Saratoga,  has  proved  to  be  capital  stock. 
More  than  five  hundred  persons  are  daily  transported  on  the  Saratoga  and  Schenectady 
rail-road.  It  is  said,  that  in  the  last  three  days,  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  seventeen 
hundred  dollars  were  received  from  it.  As  the  entire  stock  of  the  Company  is  but  two 
hundred  and  seventy  thousand  dollars,  it  must  yield,  at  this  rate,  an  enormous  dividend. 
The  road  is  to  be  continued  to  Whitehall,  crossing  the  Hudson  at  Sandy  Hill,  above 
the  bridge.  In  anticipation  of  the  great  increase  of  company  which  the  facilities  of 
travelling  will  hereafter  bring  to  the  Saratoga  fountains,  extensive  arrangements  are 
making  for  accommodations  of  increased  space  and  elegance.  A  large  and  splendid 
hotel  is  to  be  erected  on  the  hill  immediately  south  of  Congress  Springs,  a  fine  situation, 
shaded  with  forest  trees,  through  which  extensive  and  beautiful  walks  are  to  be  made. 
At  the  north  end  of  the  village,  some  handsome  hotels  are  to  be  built.  A  number  of 
pretty  cottages  are,  it  is  also  stated,  to  be  erected  in  the  vicinity,  as  summer  residences, 
by  some  wealthy  citizens  of  Albany  and  New  York.  "We  may  well  imagine,  therefore, 
that  some  few  years  hence,  the  little  village  will  present  all  the  pomp,  bustle  and  osten- 
tation of  a  city ;  and  then,  I  fear,  it  will  cease  to  be,  what  it  now  is,  a  quiet  and  rural 
retreat.  There  is  now,  indeed,  more  of  the  ostentation  of  wealth  and  fashion,  and  more  of 
of  city-like  amusements  and  habits,  than  is  consistent  with  the  object  of  rural  retirement 
and  healthful  recreation.  Besides  the  balls,  which  take  place  twice  a  week,  and  extend 
to  a  late  hour  of  the  night,  there  is  a  theatre  which  is  open  almost  every  evening.  All  the 
itinerant  showmen  and  minstrels  also  find  their  way  hither.  Those  who  are  disposed  to 
attend  church,  have  occasional  opportunities  to  hear  some  of  our  most  celebrated  divine* 
from  different  parts  of  the  Union.' 


02  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

mulating.  Its  temperature  is  uniformly  from  fifty-one  to  fifty-two  degrees 
of  Fahrenheit,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year;  its  specific  gravity,  when  taken 
with  great  care,  and  after  repeated  trials,  was  found  to  be  as  one  thousand 
and  ten  to  one  thousand.  The  taste  of  the  water  is  purely  saline,  some- 
what pungent,  and  not  at  all  disagreeable;  it  has  no  sensible  chalybeate 
taste,  and  no  perceptible  smell,  which  could  lead  to  the  suspicion  of  its 
holding  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  in  solution. 

New  Lebanon  Spring  is  situated  in  Columbia  county,  New-York,  about 
twenty-four  miles  south-east  of  Albany.  It  is  a  very  remarkable  fountain, 
issuing  from  a  high  hill.  The  water  boils  up  in  a  space  of  ten  feet  wide 
by  three  and  a  half  deep,  and  is  so  perfectly  clear  that  the  smallest  objects 
may  be  seen  at  the  bottom  of  the  spring.  Much  gas  issues  from  the  peb- 
bles and  sand,  and  keeps  the  water  in  constant  and  pleasing  agitation. 
The  fountain  is  very  copious,  and  more  than  eighteen  barrels  of  water  are 
discharged  in  a  minute.  This  supply  is  not  only  sufficient  to  furnish  the 
baths  abundantly,  but  turns  the  wheels  of  several  mills.  The  quantity  of 
water  does  not  perceptibly  vary  at  any  season ;  its  temperature  is  uniform- 
ly seventy-three  degrees  of  Fahrenheit.  The  water  is  without  taste  or 
odor,  is  very  soft,  is  used  for  all  culinary  and  domestic  purposes,  and  dif- 
fers but  little  from  pure  mountain  water,  except  in  its  remarkable  tempera- 
ture. It  is  found  very  useful  in  salt  rheums,  and  other  cutaneous  affections ; 
it  augments  the  appetite,  and  sometimes  acts  as  a  cathartic.  For  those 
who  wish  to  enjoy  fine  rural  scenery,  bold,  picturesque,  and  beautiful,  and 
such  advantages  to  health  as  this  copious  fountain  presents,  nothing  can 
be  better  in  its  kind  than  New  Lebanon. 

The  Bedford  Springs  rise  near  a  romantic  and  frequented  village  of 
that  name,  situated  among  the  mountains  in  the  southern  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. They  rise  from  a  limestone  rock  at  the  base  of  a  hill.  The  water 
is  pleasant  and  cold,  and  without  any  perceptible  odor;  the  iron,  lime,  and 
magnesia,  with  which  it  is  impregnated,  render  it  useful  in  chronic  and 
cutaneous  disorders.  Mineral  springs  abound  among  the  mountains  in  the 
central  parts  of  Virginia.  The  Yellow  Springs,  near  the  falls  of  the  Little 
Miami,  in  Ohio,  are  esteemed  for  their  medicinal  properties ;  the  water  is 
a  strong  chalybeate.  The  country  about  them  possesses  much  attraction 
in  point  of  scenery,  and  is  unusually  salubrious. 

Florida  is  remarkable  for  the  large  number  of  its  springs ;  a  substratum 
of  soft  and  cavernous  stone  appearing  to  extend  over  the  whole  country, 
admitting  the  courses  of  subterraneous  brooks,  which  burst  out  at  frequent 
intervals  in  the  form  of  springs.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the 
fountain  of  Walkulla  river,  twelve  miles  from  Tallahassee.  It  is  so  large 
as  to  be  navigable  by  boats  directly  below  its  sources.  About  a  mile  from 
its  head-waters  the  channel  becomes  choked  with  weeds,  but  suddenly 
breaks  on  our  view  in  the  shape  of  a  circular  lake,  that  has  been  sounded 
with  a  line  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms.  It  is  clear  as  crystal,  and 
has  the  cerulean  tinge  which  mark  the  waters  of  the  gulf.  This  hue  is  at- 
tributed to  the  presence  of  the  sulphuret  of  lime. 

'  To  a  person  placed  in  a  skiff,'  says  Mr.  Flint,  '  in  the  centre  of  this 
splendid  fountaki  basin,  the  appearance  of  the  mild  azure  vault  above,  and 
the  transparent  depth  below,  on  which  the  floating  clouds  and  the  blue  con- 
cave above  are  painted,  and  repeated  with  an  indescribable  softness,  create 
a  kind  of  pleasing  dizziness,  and  a  novel  train  of  sensations,  among  which 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  93 

the  most  distinguishable  is  a  feeling,  as  if  suspended  between  two  firma- 
ments. The  impression  only  ceases,  when  the  boat  approaches  the  edge 
of  the  basin  near  enough  to  enable  you  to  perceive  the  outlines  of  the 
neighboring  trees  pictured  on  the  margin  of  the  basin.  It  has  been  assert- 
ed, that  limestone  water,  in  its  utmost  purity,  has  less  refractive  powers  for 
light,  than  freestone  water.  The  water  of  this  vast  spring,  even  in  this 
sultry  climate,  has  a  coldness  almost  like  ice-water.  The  water,  probably 
from  the  pressure  of  the  sulphuret  of  lime,  is  slightly  nauseous  to  the 
taste.  Beautiful  hammock  lands  rise  from  the  northern  acclivity  of  this 
basin.  It  was  the  site  of  the  English  factory  in  former  days.  Here 
resided  the  famous  Ambrister.  The  force,  which  throws  up  this  vast  mass 
of  waters  from  its  subterranean  fountains,  may  be  imagined,  when  we  see 
this  pellucid  water  swelling  up  from  the  depths,  as  though  it  were  a  caul- 
dron of  boiling  water.  It  is  twelve  miles  from  St.  Marks,  and  twenty  from 
the  ocean.' 

III.    BURNING  SPRINGS. 

Burning  springs,  or  springs  of  water  charged  with  inflammable  gas,  are 
found  in  many  places  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  of  New-York,  chiefly 
near  Canandaigua  Lake.  Their  positions  are  known  by  little  hillocks  of  a 
dark  bituminous  mould,  through  which  an  inflammable  gas  escapes  to  the 
surface.     The  following  description  is  taken  from  a  Canandaigua  Journal. 

*  These  springs  are  found  in  Bristol,  Middlesex,  and  Canandaigua.  The 
former  are  situated  in  a  ravine  on  the  west  side  of  Bristol  Hollow,  about 
half  a  mile  from  the  north  Presbyterian  meeting-house.  The  ravine  is 
formed  in  clay  slate,  and  a  small  brook  runs  through  it.  The  gas  rises 
through  fissures  of  the  slate,  from  both  the  margin  and  the  bed  of  the  brook. 
Where  it  rises  through  the  water,  it  is  formed  into  bubbles,  and  flashes 
only  when  the  flame  is  applied ;  but  where  it  rises  directly  from  the  rock> 
it  burns  with  a  steady  and  beautiful  flame,  which  continues  until  extin- 
guished by  storms,  or  by  design. 

'  The  springs  in  Middlesex  are  situated  from  one  to  two  miles  south-west- 
erly from  the  village  of  Rushville,  along  a  tract  of  nearly  a  mile  in  length, 
partly  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley  called  Federal  Hollow,  and  partly  at  an 
elevation  of  forty  or  fifty  feet  on  the  south  side  of  it. 

'  The  latter  have  been  discovered  within  a  few  years,  in  a  field  which  had 
been  long  cleared,  and  are  very  numerous.  Their  places  are  known  by 
little  hillocks  of  a  few  feet  in  diameter,  and  a  few  inches  high,  formed  of  a 
dark  bituminous  mould,  which  seems  principally  to  have  been  deposited  by 
the  gas,  and  through  which  it  finds  its  way  to  the  surface,  in  one  or  more 
currents.  These  currents  of  gas  may  be  set  on  fire,  and  will  burn  with  a 
steady  flame.  In  winter  they  form  openings  through  the  snow,  and  being 
set  on  fire,  exhibit  the  novel  and  interesting  phenomenon  of  a  steady  and 
lively  flame  in  contact  with  nothing  but  snow.  In  very  cold  weather,  it  is 
said,  tubes  of  ice  are  formed  round  these  currents  of  gas,  (probably  from  the 
freezing  of  the  water  contained  in  it,)  which  sometimes  rises  to  the  height 
of  two  or  three  feet,  the  gas  issuing  from  their  tops ;  the  whole,  when 
lighted  in  a  still  evening,  presenting  an  appearance  even  more  beautiful 
than  the  former. 

1  Experiments  made  with  the  gas  seem  to  prove,  that  it  consists  principally 
of  a  mixture  of  the  light  and  heavy  carburetted  hydrogen  gases,  the  former 


94  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

having  greatly  the  preponderance  ;  and  that  it  contains  a  small  proportion 
of  carbonic  acid  gas.  It  seems  also  to  hold  a  little  oily  or  bituminous  mat- 
ter in  solution.  It  burns  with  a  lambent,  yellowish  flame,  scarcely  inclining 
to  red,  with  small  scintillations  of  a  bright  red  at  its  base.  It  has  the  odor 
of  pitcoal.  It  produces  no  smoke,  but  deposits,  while  burning,  a  small 
quantity  of  bituminous  lampblack.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  hillocks, 
through  whi.h  the  gas  rises,  are  totally  destitute  of  vegetation.  Whether 
the  gas  is  directly  deleterious  to  vegetable  life,  or  indirectly,  by  interrupting 
the  contact  of  the  air  of  the  atmosphere,  it  is  certain  that  no  plant  can  sus- 
tain life  within  the  circle  of  its  influence. 

'  It  is  well  known  that  this  gas  is  found  abundantly  in  coal  mines  ;  and 
being  accidentally  set  on  fire,  mixed  as  it  is  in  those  mines  with  the  air  of 
the  atmosphere,  has  many  times  caused  terrible  and  destructive  explo- 
sions. The  writer  cannot  learn  that  it  has  ever  been  known  to  be  generated 
in  the  earth,  except  in  the  presence  of  coal ;  and  hence  the  inference  is 
strong  that  it  proceeds  from  coal.' 

There  is  a  burning  spring  much  resorted  to  by  travellers,  at  the  distance 
of  about  two  miles  from  Niagara  Falls.  At  Dunkirk,  on  Lake  Erie,  there 
are  marshy  spots  which  emit  gas,  that  has  been  used  for  lighting  some  of 
the  houses  in  the  village. 

IV.   WARM  AND  HOT  SPRINGS. 

The  Warm  Springs  of  Arkansas  territory  are  among  the  most  interest- 
ing curiosities  of  the  country.  They  are  in  great  numbers.  One  of  them 
emits  a  vast  quantity  of  water.  The  ordinary  temperature  is  that  of  boiling 
water.  When  the  season  is  dry,  and  the  volume  of  water  emitted  some- 
what diminished,  the  temperature  of  the  water  increases.  The  waters  are 
remarkably  limpid  and  pure ;  and  are  used  by  the  people,  who  resort  there 
for  health,  for  culinary  purposes.  They  have  been  analyzed,  and  exhibit 
no  mineral  properties  beyond  common  spring  water.  Their  efficacy  then, 
for  they  are  undoubtedly  efficacious  to  many  invalids,  that  resort  there, 
results  from  the  shade  of  adjacent  mountains,  and  from  the  cool  and  oxy- 
genated mountain  breeze ;  the  conveniences  of  warm  and  tepid  bathing ; 
the  novelty  of  fresh  and  mountain  scenery ;  and  the  necessity  of  tempe- 
rance, imposed  by  the  poverty  of  the  country,  and  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
supplies.  The  cases  in  which  the  waters  are  supposed  to  be  efficacious, 
are  those  of  rheumatic  affection,  general  debility,  dyspepsia,  and  cutaneous 
complaints.  The  common  supposition,  that  they  are  injurious  in  pulmonary 
complaints,  seems  to  be  wholly  unfounded.  It  is  a  great  and  increasing 
resort  for  invalids  from  the  lower  country,  Arkansas,  and  the  different 
adjoining  regions.  During  the  spring  floods  of  the  Washita,  a  steam-boat 
can  approach  within  thirty  miles  of  them.  At  no  great  distance  from  them 
is  a  strong  sulphur  spring,  remarkable  for  its  coldness.  In  the  wild  and 
mountain  scenery  of  this  lonely  region,  there  is  much  of  grandeur  and 
novelty,  to  fix  the  curiosity  of  the  lover  of  nature. 

The  Warm  Springs  near  Green  Valley,  in  Virginia,  are  used  for  bathing, 
and  are  esteemed  valuable  in  rheumatic  complaints.  The  temperature  of 
these  springs  is  about  ninety-six  degrees,  and  sufficient  water  issues  from 
them  to  turn  a  mill.  The  Bath,  or  Hot  Spring,  is  about  five  miles  distant. 
The  stream  is  small,  but  the  temperature  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  95 

Warm  Springs,  being  one  hundred  and  twelve  degrees.  These  springs 
flow  into  the  Jackson,  a  source  of  the  James  river. 

The  Warm  Springs  of  Buncome  county,  in  North  Carolina,  are  found 
upon  the  margin  of  a  river  called  the  French  Broad,  about  thirty-two  miles 
from  Ashville,  and  five  and  a  half  miles  from  the  Tennessee  line.  Several 
springs  have  already  been  discovered,  at  various  distances  from  each  other, 
within  the  extent  of  a  mile.  They  are  generally  so  near  the  bank,  that 
in  moderate  freshets  the  river  enters  them,  and  it  is  said  that  at  a  particular 
spot  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  about  ten  yards  from  the  usual  bank,  there 
is  a  constant  jet  of  warm  water.  The  depth  of  the  river  varies  from  ten 
to  fifteen  feet,  and  in  some  places  it  is  even  shoaler.  The  supply  of  water 
in  all  of  them  is  very  abundant. 

'  The  original  proprietor  of  these  springs,'  says  a  writer  in  the  Journal  of 
Science, '  informed  me,  that  he  supposed  the  first  discovery  of  them  to  have 
been  made  about  forty  years  since,  at  which  time  this  part  of  the  country 
was  altogether  uninhabited,  and  the  persons  who  resorted  to  the  waters, 
had  to  encamp  in  their  vicinity.  He  has  been  personally  acquainted  with 
them,  for  upwards  of  twenty  years,  and  made  the  first  and  lowest  estab- 
lishment for  bathing,  near  to  a  ferry,  which  is  opposite  to  his  residence. 
Mr.  Nelson  further  states,  that  he  has  known  sundry  cases  of  palsy,  rheu- 
matism, and  cutaneous  affections,  &c.  greatly  benefited  by  the  internal  and 
external  use  of  the  waters.  The  large  establishment,  and  the  one  that  is 
now  principally  visited,  is  seated  about  half  a  mile  higher  up  the  river,  and 
has  at  the  present  time  two  large  baths,  whose  temperature  at  the  boils  of 
the  springs  is  one  hundred  and  four  degrees  of  Fahrenheit ;  but  at  the  sur- 
face the  temperature  of  the  old  bath,  which  is  very  near  to  the  river,  is 
one  hundred  degrees,  while  that  of  the  new,  which  is  higher  up  the  bank, 
is  but  ninety-four  degrees.  I  was  informed  that  this  temperature  was  much 
increased  when  there  was  a  considerable  swell  in  the  river,  but  I  had  no 
opportunity  of  witnessing  the  fact. 

'A  smaller  stream  of  water,  which  is  usually  limpid  and  shallow,  comes 
into  the  French  Broad  on  its  southern  side,  and  separates  the  first  bathing 
establishment  from  that  which  is  now  used.  The  stream  affords  the  con- 
veniences of  a  saw,  and  grist-mill,  within  a  very  short  distance  of  the 
establishment,  and  without  the  necessity  of  a  mill-pond.  The  whole  are 
situated  in  a  beautiful  and  romantic  spot  upon  a  large  flat,  contiguous  to 
the  water,  and  embosomed  in  lofty  mountains,  among  which  the  river  winds, 
while  the  valley  in  this  spot  appears  not  to  exceed  a  mile  in  width,  and  is 
much  narrower  in  all  others,  both  above  and  below. 

'  These  mountains  seem  to  consist  principally  of  rocks,  of  which  a  con- 
siderable proportion  in  the  immediate  vicinity  are  compact  limestone,  both 
blue  and  gray.  About  six  miles  above  the  springs  there  is  said  to  be 
a  vein  of  the  sulphate  of  barytes,  a  specimen  of  which  was  given  me  ;  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  ferry  below,  there  is  a  cavern  of  limestone,  which  may 
be  penetrated  with  convenience  for  thirty  yards,  and  from  the  roof  of  which 
stalactites  are  pendant.  Near  to  this  cave  there  is  another,  containing  a 
large  quantity  of  yellow  ochre. 

'  There  are  said  to  be  mines  of  cobalt,  copper,  and  iron  in  the  neighboring 
mountains,  but  these  are  lofty  and  not  very  accessible.  I  found  that  there 
was,  from  the  local  circumstances  of  the  establishment,  considerable  humi- 
dity during  the  mornings  and  evenings,  and  a  pretty  high  temperature  for 


96  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

several  hours  of  the  day.  There  were  also  sudden  and  frequent  thunder 
showers,  but  these  were  generally  of  short  duration.  These  meteorological 
observations  will  perhaps  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  this  watering-place 
would  not  be  advisable  for  persons  laboring  under  pulmonic  or  dropsical 
affections,  and  I  did  not  learn  that  any  such  had  been  benefited  by  their 
residence. 

'  Persons  using  these  waters,  are  in  the  habit  of  drinking  from  three  to 
four  quarts  in  a  day,  and  also  of  bathing  twice.  They  generally  remain  in 
the  bath  from  a  hatf  hour  to  an  hour,  and  find  it  so  pleasant  they  are  loth 
to  leave  it.  It  was  stated  to  me  by  a  very  respectable  gentleman,  who  has 
resorted  to  this  watering-place  for  several  summers  past,  that  after  drinking 
the  water  freely  for  several  days,  it  generally  had  a  brisk  cathartic  effect 
for  a  day  or  two,  and  after  that  produced  no  sensible  result.  This  gentle- 
man is  afflicted  with  chronic  rheumatism,  and  has  always  obtained  decided 
relief  from  the  long  continued  use  of  the  waters,  both  internally  and  exter- 
nally. Upon  the  record  book  of  the  establishment  there  are  sundry  inte- 
resting cases  of  benefit,  imparted  to  persons  laboring  under  rheumatism, 
palsy,  or  loss  of  motion  from  other  causes.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that 
long  continued  bathing  in  water  of  such  an  elevated  and  constant  tempera- 
ture, must  produce  some  effect  in  such  cases  as  have  been  alluded  to, 
independent  of  the  mineral  ingredients,  and,  conjoined  with  them,  it  will 
probably  be  more  efficacious.  The  healthy,  cheap,  and  plentiful  country, 
in  which  the  Buncome  Springs  are  situated,  the  novel  and  mountainous 
scenery  and  variety  of  company,  present  many  attractions  to  the  invalid, 
the  idler,  and  the  curious.' 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  SPRINGS. 

The  most  common  ingredient  of  mineral  and  medicinal  springs,  is  iron  under  a  variety 
of  forms.  But  they  also  often  contain  magnesia,  glauber  salt,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and 
other  substances,  which,  from  their  combinations,  give  great  diversity  to  the  waters. 
Springs  impregnated  with  sulphur  are  also  common  in  the  vicinity  of  volcanoes,  and  in 
countries  subject  to  earthquakes.  They  are  usually  warm,  and  the  heat  is  sometimes 
accompanied  by  a  violent  ebullition  which  frequently  projects  the  water  to  a  great  height. 
Iceland,  the  Azores,  and  various  other  places,  afford  striking  examples  of  this  kind. 
The  celebrated  fountain  called  the  Geyser,  in  the  first  of  these  islands,  often  propels  its 
contents  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet,  and  sometimes  to  double  that  height. 

There  are  also  springs  which  are  inflammable  without  being  hot.  This  generally 
arises  from  a  quantity  of  inflammable  gas,  or  oily  matter,  which  floats  on  the  surface 
of  the  water ;  as  in  the  instance  of  a  brook  in  the  vicinity  of  Bergerac,  in  the  south  of 
France,  the  surface  of  which  may  be  set  on  fire  by  a  lighted  straw.  Others,  being 
mixed  with  bitumen,  which  often  floats  on  the  surface,  will  easily  take  fire,  as  at  Baku, 
and  other  places  in  Persia. 

The  waters  of  some  springs  and  lakes  have  a  petrifying,  and  others -an  incrusting 
quality.  The  former  is  impregnated  with  extremely  fine  silicious  particles,  which  pene- 
trate the  pores  of  the  substances  immersed  in  them,  and  change  their  nature.  This 
property  is  possessed  by  Lough  Neagh.  The  Danube  and  the  Pregel  have  also  the 
same  quality,  but  in  a  less  degree.  The  waters  which  possess  the  incrusting  property 
operate  in  a  more  rapid  and  manifest  manner,  by  depositing  the  earthy  particles  they 
hold  in  solution,  on  the  surfaces  of  bodies  submitted  to  their  action.  This  effect  is  pro- 
duced by  both  hot  and  cold  springs,  particularly  by  the  former.  The  matter  deposited 
is  usually  calcareous,  but  in  the  instance  of  the  Great  Geyser  it  is  silicious. 

Waters  holding  salt  in  solution,  or  muriated  waters,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  are 
perhaps  the  most  common  of  all ;  but  they  are  rarely  found  in  a  state  of  purity.  Among 
the  Uralian  and  Carpathian  mountains,  they  are  frequent,  and  in  general  in  the  zone 
comprised  between  the  parallels  fifty  and  thirty  north  latitude.  More  to  the  north  they 
ere  rarely  found  ;  farther  toward  the  south  crystallized  salt  is  abundant  in  certain  re» 
gions,  as  in  the  great  desert  of  Africa ;  but  we  find  only  a  few  salt  springs  there. 


97 


CHAPTER  VIIL— CAVERNS. 

The  most  celebrated  cave  in  the  United  States,  is  that  in  Rockingharr. 
■county,  Virginia,  known  by  the  name  of  Madison's  Cave.  It  is  in  the  hear' 
of  a  mountain,  about  two  hundred  feet  high,  which  is  so  steep  on  one  side 
that  a  person  standing  on  the  top,  might  easily  throw  a  pebble  into  the  rive* 
which  flows  round  the  base ;  the  opposite  side  of  it  is,  however,  very  easy 
of  ascent,  and  on  this  side  the  path  leading  to  the  cavern  runs,  excepting 
for  the  last  twenty  yards,  when  it  suddenly  turns  along  the  steep  part  of 
the  mountain,  which  is  extremely  rugged,  and  covered  with  immense  rocks 
and  trees  from  top  to  bottom.  The  mouth  of  the  cavern,  on  this  steep  side, 
about  two  thirds  of  the  way  up,  is  guarded  by  a  huge  pendant  stone, 
which  seems  ready  to  fall  every  instant ;  it  is  impossible  to  stoop  under  it 
and  not  reflect  with  a  degree  of  awe,  that,  were  it  to  drop,  nothing  could 
save  you  from  perishing  within  the  dreary  walls  of  that  mansion  to  which 
it  affords  an  entrance.  The  description  which  follows,  is  from  the  Travels 
of  Mr.  Weld. 

'  Preparatory  to  entering,  the  guide,  whom  I  had  procured  from  a  neigh- 
boring house,  lighted  the  ends  of  three  or  four  splinters  of  pitch  pine,  a 
large  bundle  of  which  he  had  brought  with  him  :  they  burn  out  very  fast, 
but  while  they  last  are  most  excellent  torches.  The  fire  he  brought  along 
with  him,  by  the  means  of  a  bit  of  green  hickory  wood,  which,  when  once 
lighted,  will  burn  slowly  without  any  blaze,  till  the  whole  is  consumed. 

'  The  first  apartment  you  enter  is  about  twenty-five  feet  high,  and  fifteen 
broad,  and  extends  a.  considerable  way  to  the  right  and  left,  the  floor  ascend- 
ing toward  the  former;  here  it  is  very  moist,  from  the  quantity  of  water 
continually  trickling  from  the  roof.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  which  stood 
at  sixty-seven  degrees  in  the  air,  fell  to  sixty-one  degrees  in  this  room.  A 
few  yards  to  the  left,  on  the  side  opposite  to  you  on  entering,  a  passage 
presents  itself,  which  leads  to  a  sort  of  anti-chamber,  from  whence  you  pro- 
ceed to  the  sound  room,  so  named  from  the  prodigious  reverberation  of  the 
sound  of  a  voice  or  musical  instrument  on  the  inside.  This  room  is  about 
twenty  feet  square ;  it  is  arched  at  the  top,  and  the  sides  of  it  as  well  as  of  the 
apartment  which  you  first  enter,  are  beautifully  ornamented  with  stalactites. 
Returning  from  hence  into  the  anti-chamber,  and  afterwards  taking  two  or 
three  turns  to  the  right  and  left,  you  enter  a  long  passage  about  thirteen 
feet  wide,  and,  perhaps,  about  fifteen  feet  in  height,  perpendicularly ;  but 
if  it  was  measured  from  the  floor  to  the  highest  part  of  the  roof  obliquely, 
the  distance  would  be  found  much  greater,  as  the  walls  on  both  sides  slope 
1  very  considerably,  and  finally  meet  at  the  top. 

'This  passage  descends  very  rapidly,  and  is,  I  should  suppose,  about 
sixty  yards  long.  Towards  the  end  it  narrows  considerably,  and  terminates 
in  a  pool  of  clear  water,  about  three  or  four  feet  deep.  How  far  this  pool 
extends,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  A  canoe  was  once  brought  down  by  a 
party  for  the  purpose  of  examination,  but  they  said,  that  after  proceeding 
a  little  way  the  canoe  would  not  float,  and  they  were  forced  to  return. 
Their  fears  most  probably  led  them  to  fancy  so.  I  fired  a  pistol  with  a 
feall  over  the  water,  but  the  report  was  echoed  from  the  after  part  of  the 
13  9 


98  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

cavern,  and  not  from  the  part  beyond  the  water,  so  that  I  should  not  sup- 
pose the  passage  extended  much  farther  than  could  be  traced  with  the 
eye.  The  walls  of  this  passage  consist  of  a  solid  rock  of  limestone  on  each 
side,  which  appears  to  have  been  separated  by  some  convulsion.  The  floor  is 
of  a  deep  sandy  earth,  and  it  has  repeatedly  been  dug  up  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  salt-petre,  with  which  the  earth  is  strongly  impregnated.  The  earth, 
after  being  dug  up,  is  mixed  with  water,  and  when  the  grosser  particles  fall  to 
the  bottom,  the  water  is  drawn  off  and  evaporated;  from  the  residue  the 
salt-petre  is  procured.  There  are  many  other  caverns  in  this  neighborhood; 
and  also  farther  to  the  westward  in  Virginia ;  from  all  of  them  great  quan- 
tities of  salt-petre  are  thus  obtained.  The  gunpowder  made  with  it,  in  the 
back  country  forms  a  principal  article  of  commerce,  and  is  sent  to  Philadel- 
phia in  exchange  for  European  manufactures.  , 

'  About  two  thirds  of  the  way  down  this  long  passage  just  described,  is  a 
large  aperture  in  the  wall  on  the  right,  leading  to  another  apartment,  the 
bottom  of  which  is  about  ten  feet  below  the  floor  of  the  passage,  and  it  is 
no  easy  matter  to  get  down  into  it,  as  the  sides  are  very  steep  and  extremely 
slippery.  This  is  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  room  in  the  whole  cavern ; 
it  is  somewhat  of  an  oval  form,  about  sixty  feet  in  length,  thirty  in  breadth, 
and  in  some  parts  nearly  fifty  feet  high.  The  petrifactions  formed  by  the 
Water  dropping  from  above  are  most  beautiful,  and  hang  down  from  the 
ceiling  in  the  form  of  elegant  drapery,  the  folds  of  which  are  similar  to 
what  those  of  large  blankets  or  carpets  would  be,  if  suspended  by  one  cor- 
ner in  a  lofty  room.  If  struck  with  a  stick,  a  deep  hollow  sound  is  produced, 
which  echoes  through  the  vaults  of  the  cavern. 

1  In  other  parts  of  this  room  the  petrifactions  have  commenced  at  the 
bottom,  and  formed  in  pillars  of  different  heights ;  some  of  them  reach 
nearly  to  the  roof.  If  you  go  to  a  remote  part  of  this  apartment,  and 
leave  a  person  with  a  lighted  torch  moving  about  amidst  these  pillars,  a 
thousand  imaginary  forms  present  themselves,  and  you  might  almost  fancy 
yourself  in  the  infernal  regions,  with  spectres  and  monsters  on  every  side. 
The  floor  of  this  room  slopes  down  gradually  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
and  terminates  in  a  pool  of  water,  which  appears  to  be  on  a  level  with  that 
at  the  end  of  the  long  passage ;  from  their  situation,  it  is  most  probable 
that  they  communicate  together.  The  thermometer  which  I  had  with  me 
stood  in  the  remotest  part  of  this  chamber,  at  fifty-five  degrees.  From 
hence  we  returned  to  the  mouth  of  the  cavern,  and  on  coming  to  the  light 
it  appeared  as  if  we  had  really  been  in  the  infernal  regions,  for  our  faces, 
hands,  and  clothes  were  covered  with  soot  from  the  smoke  of  the  pine 
torches  which  are  so  often  carried  in.  The  smoke  from  the  pitch-pine  is 
particularly  thick  and  heavy.  Before  this  cave  was  much  visited,  and  the 
Walls  blackened  with  smoke,  its  beauty,  I  was  told  by  some  of  the  old 
inhabitants,  was  great  indeed  ;  for  the  petrifactions  on  the  roof  and  walls 
are  all  of  a  dead  white  kind.' 

Wyer's  Cave  is  situated  in  the  same  county  with  the  preceding,  and  is 
equally  remarkable.  Its  entrance  is  narrow  and  difficult,  and  when  first 
discovered  was  impeded  by  perpendicular  columns  of  stalactites,  which  have 
since  been  removed.  After  advancing  at  first  in  a  horizontal  course,  we 
descend  into  an  echoing  cavern,  by  a  ladder  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  length. 
Over  our  heads  hang  silvery  white  stalactites,  while  we  are  surrounded  by 
pillars  of  stalagmites,  and  rugged  walls  incrusted  with  a  beautiful  brown 


hi 


9  7  " 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  99 

spar.  The  floor  is  composed  of  ledges  of  rocks,  and  presents  rather  an 
uneven  pathway. 

Advancing  through  a  narrow  passage  in  the  rocks,  we  enter  still  other 
apartments,  resembling  the  first  in  the  beauty  of  their  formations,  but  of 
different  shape  and  extent.  The  sparry  incrustations  assume  a  thousand 
fantastic  figures,  sparkling  with  light,  and  more  like  the  wonders  of  fairy 
land,  than  the  original  productions  of  nature.  This  cave  is  a  mile  and  a 
half  in  extent,  varying  in  perpendicular  height  from  three  to  forty  feet,  and 
in  breadth  from  two  to  thirty.  Its  dividing  branches  are  numerous.  Blue 
limestone  is  the  base  of  the  whole  cave  ;  every  where  covered  with  incrus- 
tations of  carbonates.  In  some  places  the  uneven  sides  of  the  rocks  are 
quite  covered  with  white  crystals  of  the  carbonate  of  lime,  and  appear  like 
banks  of  salt.  Sometimes  the  pavement  sparkles  as  a  floor  of  diamonds ; 
and  again  the  pathway  is  pebbled,  and  resembles  the  deserted  bed  of  a 
river.  It  is  impossible  to  convey  any  idea  of  the  number  and  variety  of 
shapes  which  the  stalactites  assume ;  resembling  every  thing  in  nature, 
and  in  the  worlds  of  imagination,  they  are  still  unlike  every  thing  but 
themselves. 

.  The  Nicojack  Cave  is  situated  in  the  Cherokee  country,  at  Nicojack, 
the  north-western  angle  in  the  map  of  Georgia.  We  believe  it  was  first 
fully  described  by  the  Rev.  E.  Cornelius.  It  is  twenty  miles  south-west  of 
the  Look-Out  Mountain,  and  half  a  mile  from  the  south  bank  of  the  Ten- 
nessee river.  The  Raccoon  Mountain,  in  which  it  is  situated,  here  fronts 
to  the  north-east.  Immense  layers  of  horizontal  limestone  form  n  precipice 
of  considerable  height.  In  this  precipice  the  cave  commences ;  noi  however 
with  an  opening  of  a  few  feet,  as  is  common;  but  with  a  mouth  fifty  feet 
high,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty  wide.  Its  roof  is  formed  by  a  solid  and 
regular  layer  of  limestone,  having  no  support  but  the  sides  of  the  cave,  and 
as  level  as  the  floor  of  a  house.  The  entrance  is  partly  obstructed  by  piles 
of  fallen  rocks,  which  appear  to  have  been  dislodged  by  some  great  convul- 
sion. From  its  entrance,  the  cave  consists  chiefly  of  one  grand  excavation 
through  the  rocks,  preserving  for  a  great  distance  the  same  dimensions  as 
at  its  mouth. 

What  is  more  remarkable  than  all,  it  forms  for  the  whole  distance  it  has 
yet  been  explored,  a  walled  and  vaulted  passage  for  a  stream  of  cool  and 
limpid  water,  which,  where  it  leaves  the  cave,  is  six  feet  deep  and  sixty 
feet  wide.  A  few  years  since,  Col.  James  Ore,  of  Tennessee,  commencing 
early  in  the  morning,  followed  the  course  of  this  creek  in  a  canoe,  for  three 
miles.  He  then  came  to  a  fall  of  water,  and  was  obliged  to  return,  without 
making  any  further  discovery.  Whether  he  penetrated  three  miles  of  the 
cave  or  not,  it  is  a  fact  he  did  not  return  till  the  evening,  having  been 
busily  engaged  in  his  subterranean  voyage  for  twelve  hours.  He  stated 
that  the  course  of  the  cave,  after  proceeding  some  way  to  the  south-west, 
became  south ;  and  south-east  by  south,  the  remaining  distance. 

There  is  a  remarkable  cave  or  grotto,  situated  on  a  bluff  of  limestone,  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Holston  river,  in  East  Tennessee,  which  has  been 
well  described  by  Mr.  Kain,  in  an  article  in  Silliman's  Journal.  The  bluff 
is  perhaps  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  fifty  wide.  The  grotto  is  a  large 
natural  excavation  of  the  rock,  sixty  feet  high  and  thirty  feet  wide.  It  is 
very  irregular,  and  to  the  very  top  bears  marks  of  the  attrition  of  waves. 
The  river  to  have  been  so  high,  must  have  covered  tba  valley  through 


100  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

which  it  now  winds  its  quiet  way.  The  excavation  gradually  diminishes 
in  size  as  you  proceed  backward,  till  one  hundred  feet  from  the  entrance 
it  terminates.  A  remarkable  projection  of  the  rock  divides  the  back  part 
into  two  stories. 

This  grotto,  whose  walls  are  hung  with  ivy,  and  the  bluiT  crowned  with 
cedars,  and  surrounded  by  an  aged  forest,  on  which  the  vine  clambers  most 
luxuriantly,  viewed  from  the  river  which  winds  slowly  around  it,  and 
reflects  its  image,  is  more  than  beautiful:  it  is  even  venerable.  But  what 
renders  it  most  interesting  to  many  visitors,  is  a  number  of  rude  paintings, 
which  were,  as  tradition  reports,  left  on  it  by  the  Cherokee  Indians.  These 
Indians  are  known  to  have  made  this  cave  a  resting  place  as  they  passed 
up  and  down  the  river  Holston.  These  paintings  are  still  distinct,  though 
they  have  faded  somewhat  within  my  remembrance.  They  consist  of  rep- 
resentations of  the  sun  and  moon,  of  a  man,  of  birds,  fishes,  &c.  They  are 
all  of  red  paint,  and  resemble,  in  this  respect,  the  paintings  on  Paint  Rock, 
near  the  warm  springs. 

Mammoth  Cave  is  situated  near  the  Green  river  in  Kentucky,  the 
entrance  to  which  is  by  a  pit  forty  feet  deep,  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty  in  circumference.  At  the  bottom  of  this  pit  is  the  mouth  of 
the  cave,  which  is  open  to  the  north,  and  is  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height, 
and  thirty  in  width,  for  upwards  of  forty  rods,  when  it  becomes  not  more 
than  ten  feet  wide  and  five  feet  high.  "  However,"  says  Dr.  Wood,  "  this 
continues  but  a  short  distance,  when  it  expands  to  thirty  or  forty  feet  in 
width,  and  is  about  twenty  feet  in  height,  for  about  one  mile,  until  you 
come  to  the  first  hopper,  where  salt-petre  is  manufactured.  Thence  it  is 
about  forty  feet  in  width,  and  eighty  in  height,  till  you  arrive  at  the  second 
hopper  two  miles  from  the  mouth.  The  loose  limestone  has  been  laid  up 
into  handsome  walls  on  either  side,  almost  the  whole  distance  from  the 
entrance  to  the  second  hopper.  The  road  is  hard,  and  as  smooth  as  a  flag 
pavement.  The  walls  of  the  cavern  are  perpendicular  in  every  passage 
that  I  traversed  ;  the  arches  are  regular  in  every  part,  and  have  bid  defi- 
ance even  to  earthquakes.  As  you  advance  into  the  cave,  the  avenue  leads 
from  the  second  hopper  west  one  mile,  then  south-west  to  the  chief  city, 
which  is  six  miles  distant  from  the  entrance.  This  avenue  is  from  sixty 
to  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  about  the  same  broad,  the  whole  distance 
from  the  second  hopper,  until  you  come  to  the  cross-roads  or  chief  city ; 
and  is  nearly  upon  a  level,  the  floor  or  bottom  being  covered  with  loose 
limestone  and  salt-petre  earth.  When  I  reached  the  immense  area,  (chief 
city,)  containing  upward  of  eight  acres,  without  a  single  pillar  to  support 
the  arch,  which  is  entire  over  the  whole,  I  was  struck  dumb  with  astonish- 
ment, and  can  give  but  a  very  faint  idea  of  its  splendor.  Nothing 
under  heaven  can  be  more  sublime  and  grand  than  this  place,  covered  with 
one  solid  arch,  at  least  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  to  all  appearance 
entire.  After  entering  the  chief  city,  I  perceived  five  avenues  leading  out 
of  it,  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  width,  and  from  forty  to  eighty 
in  height.  The  walls  (all  of  stone)  are  arched,  being  from  forty  to  eighty 
feet  of  perpendicular  height,  before  the  arch  commences. 

•  The  next  avenue  which  I  traversed,  after  cutting  arrows  on  the  stones 
under  our  feet,  pointing  to  the  mouth  of  the  cave,  was  one  that  led  us  in  a 
southerly  direction  for  more  than  two  miles.  We  then  left  it,  and  took 
another  that  led  us  east,  then  north,  more  than  two  miles  farther ;  and  a.i 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  101 

last,  in  our  windings,  were  brought  out  by  another  avenue  into  the  chief 
city  again,  after  having  traversed  more  than  five  miles  through  different 
avenues.  We  rested  ourselves  for  a  few  minutes  on  some  limestone  strata 
near  the  centre  of  this  gloomy  area,  and  having  refreshed  ourselves,  and 
trimmed  our  lamps,  again  took  our  departure  through  an  avenue  almost  due 
north,  and  parallel  with  the  avenue  leading  from  the  chief  city  to  the 
mouth  of  the  cave,  which  we  continued  for  more  than  two  miles,  when  we 
entered  the  second  city.  This  is  covered  with  one  arch  nearly  two  hundred 
feet  high  in  the  centre,  and  very  similar  to  the  chief  city,  except  in  the 
number  of  avenues  leading  from  it,  this  having  but  two.  We  passed 
through  it  over  a  very  considerable  rise  in  the  centre,  and  descended 
through  an  avenue  bearing  to  the  east  about  three  hundred  rods,  when  we 
came  upon  a  third  area,  about  one  hundred  feet  square  and  fifty  in  height, 
which  had  a  pure  and  delightful  stream  of  water,  issuing  from  the  side  of 
the  wall,  about  thirty  feet  high,  and  which  fell  upon  some  broken  stones, 
and  was  afterwards  entirely  lost  to  our  view.  After  passing  this  beautiful 
sheet  of  water  a  few  yards,  we  came  to  the  end  of  this  passage. 

'  We  then  returned  about  one  hundred  yards,  and  entered  an  avenue  (over 
a  considerable  mass  of  stone)  to  our  right,  which  led  us  south,  through  an 
uncommonly  black  avenue,  something  more  than  a  mile,  when  we  ascend- 
ed a  very  steep  eminence,  about  sixty  yards,  which  carried  us  within  the 
walls  of  a  fourth  city,  which  is  not  inferior  to  the  second  city,  having  an 
arch  that  covers  at  least  six  acres.  In  this  last  avenue,  the  farther  end  of 
which  must  be  at  least  four  miles  from  the  chief  city,  and  ten  from  the 
mouth  of  the  cave,  are  twenty  large  piles  of  saltpetre  earth  on  one  side  of 
the  avenue,  and  broken  limestone  heaped  up  on  the  other,  evidently  the 
work  of  human  hands.  I  had  expected,  from  the  course  of  my  needle, 
that  this  avenue  would  have  carried  us  round  to  the  chief  city ;  but  was 
sadly  disappointed,  when  I  found  the  end  a  few  hundred  yards  from  the 
fourth  city,  which  caused  us  to  retrace  our  steps ;  and  not  having  been  so 
particular  in  marking  the  different  entrances  as  I  ought,  we  were  very 
much  bewildered,  and  once  completely  lost  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes. 

'At  length  we  found  our  way,  and,  weary  and  faint,  entered  the  chief 
city  at  ten  at  night ;  however,  much  fatigued  as  I  was,  I  determined  to 
explore  the  cavern  as  long  as  my  lights  held  out.  We  now  entered  the 
fifth  and  last  avenue  from  the  chief  city,  which  carried  us  south-east  about 
nine  hundred  yards,  when  we  entered  the  fifth  city,  whose  arch  covers 
upwards  of  four  acres  of  level  ground,  strewed  with  broken  limestone. 
Fire  beds  of  uncommon  size,  with  brands  of  cane  lying  around  them,  are 
interspersed  throughout  this  city.  We  crossed  over  to  the  opposite  side, 
and  entered  an  avenue  that  carried  us  east  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
rods ;  when,  finding  nothing  remarkable  in  this  passage,  we  turned  back, 
and  crossed  a  massy  pile  of  limestone  in  the  mouth  of  a  large  avenue, 
which  I  noticed  but  a  few  yards  from  this  last-mentioned  city  as  I  came  out 
of  it.  After  some  difficulty  in  passing  over  this  mass  of  limestone,  we 
entered  a  large  avenue,  whose  walls  were  the  most  perfect  of  any  that  we 
had  seen,  running  almost  due  south  for  five  hundred  rods,  and  very 
level  and  straight.  When  at  the  end  of  this  avenue,  and  while  I  was 
sketching  a  plan  of  the  cave,  one  of  my  guides,  who  had  been  some  time 
groping  among  the  broken  stones,  called  out,  requesting  me  to  follow  him. 
I  gathered  up  my  papers  and  compass,  and  also  giving  the  guide  who  sat 

9# 


102  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

with  me  orders  to  remain  where  he  was,  until  we  returned,  and  moreover 
to  keep  his  lamp  in  good  order,  I  followed  after  the  first,  who  had  entered 
a  vertical  passage  just  large  enough  to  admit  his  body.  We  continued  to 
step  from  one  stone  to  another,  until  at  last,  after  much  difficulty,  from  the 
smallness  of  the  passage,  which  is  about  forty  feet  in  height,  we  entered 
upon  the  side  of  a  chamber  eighteen  hundred  feet  in  circumference,  and 
whose  arch  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  in  the  centre.  After  having 
marked  arrows,  pointing  downwards,  upon  the  slate-stones  around  the 
little  passage  through  which  we  had  winded,  we  walked  nearly  to  the 
centre  of  this  area.  It  was  past  midnight  when  I  entered  this  chamber  of 
eternal  darkness,  where  "  all  things  are  hushed,  and  nature's  self  lies 
dead."  I  must  acknowledge  I  felt  a  shivering  horror  at  my  situation,  when 
I  looked  back  upon  the  different  avenues  through  which  I  had  passed,  since 
I  entered  the  cave  at  eight  in  the  morning;  and  "at  time  of  night,  when 
church-yards  groan,"  to  be  buried  several  miles  in  the  dark  recesses  of  this 
awful  cavern,  the  grave,  perhaps,  of  thousands  of  human  beings — gave  me 
no  very  pleasant  emotions.  With  the  guide  who  was  now  with  me,  I  took 
the  only  avenue  leading  from  this  chamber,  and  traversed  it  for  the  distance 
of  a  mile  in  a  northerly  direction,  when  my  lamps  forbade  me  going  any 
farther,  as  they  were  nearly  exhausted.  The  avenue,  or  passage,  was  as 
large  as  any  that  we  had  entered ;  and  how  far  we  might  have  entered, 
had  our  lights  held  out,  is  unknown. 

'  It  is  supposed  that  Green  river,  a  stream  navigable  several  hundred 
miles,  passes  over  three  branches  of  this  cave.  It  was  nearly  one  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  when  we  descended  the  passage  of  the  chimney,  as 
it  is  called,  to  the  guide  who  sat  on  the  rocks.  He  was  quite  alarmed 
at  our  long  absence,  and  was  heard  by  us  a  long  time  before  we  reached 
the  passage  to  descend  to  him,  hallooiog  with  all  his  might,  fearing  we  had 
lost  our  track  in  the  ruins  above.  Very  near  the  vertical  passage,  and  not 
far  from  where  I  had  left  my  guide  sitting,  I  found  some  very  beautiful 
specimens  of  soda,  which  I  brought  out  with  me.  We  returned  over  piles 
of  saltpetre  earth  and  fire  beds,  out  of  one  avenue  into  another,  until  at 
last,  with  great  fatigue  and  a  dim  light,  we  entered  the  walls  of  the  chief 
city ;  where,  for  the  last  time,  we  trimmed  our  lamps,  and  entered  the  spa- 
cious avenue  that  leads  to  the  second  hopper.  I  found,  when  in  the  last- 
mentioned  large  avenue,  or  upper  chamber,  many  curiosities ;  such  as 
Glauber  salts,  Epsom  salts,  flint,  yellow  ochre,  spar  of  different  kinds,  and 
some  petrifactions,  which  I  brought  out  together  with  the  mummy,  which  was 
found  at  the  second  hopper.  We  happily  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  cave 
at  five  in  the  morning,  nearly  exhausted  and  worn  down  with  nineteen 
hours'  continued  fatigue.  I  have  described  to  you  hardly  one  half  of  the 
cave,  as  the  avenues  between  the  mouth  of  the  cave  and  the  second  hopper 
have  not  been  named.  There  is  a  passage  in  the  main  avenue,  about 
sixty  rods  from  the  entrance,  like  that  of  a  trap-door.  By  sliding  aside  a 
large  flat  stone,  you  can  descend  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet  into  a  very  nar- 
row defile,  where  the  passage  comes  upon  a  level,  and  winds  about  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  pass  under  the  main  passage,  without  having  any 
communication  with  it ;  and  at  last  opens  into  the  large  passages,  just  be- 
yond the  second  hopper.  It  is  called  the  Glauber  salt  room,  from  salts  of 
that  kind  being  found  there.  There  is  also  the  sick  room,  the  bat  room, 
and  the  flint  room,  all  of  which  are  large,  and  some  of  them  quite  long. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  103 

The  last  that  I  shall  mention  is  a  very  winding  avenue,  which  branches 
off  at  the  second  hopper,  running  west,  and  south-west,  for  more  than 
two  miles.  This  is  called  the  haunted  chamber,  from  the  echo  of  the 
sound  made  in  it.  The  arch  of  this  avenue  is  very  beautifully  incrusted 
with  limestone  spar ;  and  in  many  places  the  columns  of  spar  are  truly 
elegant,  extending  from  the  ceiling  to  the  floor.  I  discovered  in  this  ave- 
nue a  very  high  dome,  in  or  near  the  centre  of  the  arch,  apparently  fifty 
feet  high,  hung  in  rich  drapery,  festooned  in  the  most  fanciful  manner  for 
six  or  eight  feet  above  the  hangings,  and  in  colors  the  most  rich  and  bril- 
liant. The  columns  of  spar,  and  the  stalactites  in  this  chamber,  are  ex- 
tremely romantic  in  their  appearance,  with  the  reflection  of  one  or  two 
lights.  There  is  a  cellar  formed  of  this  spar,  called  Wilkins's  armed  chair, 
which  is  very  large,  standing  in  the  middle  of  the  avenue,  and  is  encircled 
with  many  smaller  ones.  Columns  of  spar,  fluted  and  studded  with  knobs 
of  spar  and  stalactites,  drapery  of  various  colors,  superbly  festooned  and 
hung  in  the  most  graceful  manner,  are  shewn  with  the  greatest  brilliancy 
from  the  reflection  of  lamps. 

'  A  part  of  the  haunted  chamber  lies  directly  over  the  bat  room,  which 
passes  under  it,  without  having  any  connection  with  it.  I  was  led  into  a 
very  narrow  defile  on  the  left  side  of  this  chamber,  and  about  a  hundred 
yards  from  Wilkins's  armed  chair,  over  the  side  of  a  smooth  limestone  rock, 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  which  we  passed  with  much  precaution,  for  had  we 
slipped  from  our  hold,  we  had  gone  to  that  "bourne  whence  no  traveller 
returns,"  if  I  may  judge  from  a  cataract  of  water,  whose  dismal  sound  we 
heard  at  a  very  considerable  distance  in  this  pit,  and  nearly  under  us. 
However,  we  crossed  in  safety,  clinging  fast  to  the  wall,  and  winding  under 
the  haunted  chamber,  and  through  a  very  narrow  passage  for  thirty  or 
forty  yards,  when  our  course  was  west,  and  the  passage  twenty  or  thirty 
feet  in  width,  and  from  ten  to  eighteen  feet  high,  for  more  than  a  mile. 
The  air  was  pure  and  delightful  in  this,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
cave.  At  the  farther  end  of  this  avenue,  we  came  upon  a  reservoir  of 
water,  very  clear  and  delightful  to  the  taste,  apparently*  having  neither 
inlet  nor  outlet.  Within  a  few  yards  of  this  reservoir  of  water,  on  the 
right  hand  of  the  cave,  there  is  an  avenue  leading  to  the  north-west.  We 
had  entered  it  but  forty  feet,  when  we  came  to  several  columns  of  the  most 
brilliant  spar,  sixty  or  seventy  feet  in  height,  and  almost  perpendicular, 
which  stand  in  basins  of  water,  that  comes  trickling  down  their  sides,  then 
passes  off  silently  from  the  basin,  and  enters  the  cavities  of  stone,  without 
being  seen  again.  These  columns  of  spar,  and  the  basins  they  rest  in,  for 
splendor  and  beauty,  surpass  every  similar  work  of  art  I  ever  saw.  We 
passed  by  these  columns,  and  entered  a  small  but  beautiful  chamber,  whose 
walls  were  about  twenty  feet  apart,  and  the  arch  not  more  than  seven  feet 
high,  white  as  white-wash  could  have  made  it ;  the  floor  was  level  as  far 
as  I  could  see,  which  was  not  a  great  distance,  as  I  found  many  pit-holes 
in  my  path,  that  appeared  to  have  been  lately  sunk,  and  which  induced  me 
to  return.  We  returned  Dy  the  beautiful  pool  of  water,  which  is  called  the 
pool  of  Clitorius,  after  the  Fons  Clitorius  of  the  classics,  which  was  so 
pure  and  delightful  to  the  taste,  that,  after  drinking  of  it,  a  person  had  no 
longer  a  taste  for  wine.  On  our  way  back  to  the  narrow  defile,  I  found 
some  difficulty  in  keeping  my  lights,  for  the  bats  were  so  numerous  and 
continually  in  our  faces,  that  it  was  next  to  impossible  to  get  along  in  safety. 


104  BOOK  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

I  brought  this  trouble  on  myself,  by  my  own  want  of  foresight,  for  as  we 
were  moving  on,  I  noticed  a  large  number  of  these  bats  hanging  by  their 
hind  legs  to  the  arch,  which  was  not  a  foot  higher  than  my  head.  I  took 
my  cane  and  gave  a  sweep  the  whole  length  of  it,  when  down  they  fell ; 
but  soon,  like  so  many  imps,  they  tormented  us  until  we  reached  the  narrow 
defile,  when  they  left  us.  We  returned  by  Wilkins's  armed  chair,  and  back 
to  the  second  hopper,  where  I  found  the  mummy  before-mentioned,  and 
which  had  been  placed  there  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  for  preservation  in  another 
cave.' 

Indiana  Cave. — In  the  southern  part  of  Indiana  there  is  a  remarkable 
cave,  which  abounds  in  Epsom  Salts,  and  which  is  thus  described  by  Mr. 
Adams. — '  The  hill  in  which  it  is  situated,  is  about  four  hundred  feet  high, 
from  the  base  to  the  most  elevated  point,  and  the  prospect  to  the  south-east, 
in  a  clear  day,  is  exceedingly  fine,  commanding  an  extensive  view  of  the 
hills  and  valleys  bordering  on  Big  Blue  river.  The  top  of  the  hill  is  co- 
vered principally  with  oak  and  chesnut.  The  side  to  the  south-east  is 
mantled  with  cedar.  The  entrance  is  about  midway  from  the  base  to  the 
summit,  and  the  surface  of  the  cave  preserves  in  general  about  that  eleva- 
tion; although  I  must  acknowledge  this  to  be  conjectural,  as  no  experiments 
have  been  made  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  fact.  It  is  probably  owing  to 
this  middle  situation  of  the  cave,  that  it  is  much  drier  than  is  common. 

1  After  entering  the  cave  by  an  aperture  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  wide,  and 
in  height,  in  one  place,  three  or  four  feet,  you  descend  with  easy  and  gra- 
dual steps  into  a  large  and  spacious  room,  which  continues  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  pretty  near  the  same  in  appearance,  varying  in  height  from  eight 
to  thirty  feet,  and  in  breadth  from  ten  to  twenty.  In  this  distance  the  roof 
is  in  some  places  arched,  in  others  a  plane,  and  in  one  place,  particularly, 
it  resembles  an  inside  view  of  the  roof  of  a  house.  At  the  distance  above- 
named  the  cave  forks,  but  the  right  hand  fork  soon  terminates,  while  the 
left  rises  by  a  flight  of  rocky  stairs  nearly  ten  feet  high,  into  another  story, 
and  pursues  a  course  at  this  place  nearly  south-east.  Here  the  roof  com- 
mences a  regular  arch,  the  height  of  which  from  the  floor  varies  from  five 
to  eight  feet,  and  the  width  of  the  cave  from  six  to  twelve  feet — which 
continues  to  what  is  called  the  Creeping  Place,  from  the  circumstance 
of  having  to  crawl  ten  or  twelve  feet  into  the  next  large  room.  From  this 
place  to  the  Pillar,  a  distance  of  about  one  mile  and  a  quarter,  the  visi- 
tor finds  an  alternate  succession  of  large  and  small  rooms  variously  decorat- 
ed; sometimes  mounting  elevated  points  by  gradual  or  difficult  ascents, 
and  again  descending  as  far  below;  sometimes  travelling  on  a  pavement,  or 
climbing  over  huge  piles  of  rocks,  detached  from  the  roof  by  some  convul- 
sion of  nature,  and  thus  continues  his  route  until  he  arrives  at  the  Pillar. 

'  The  aspect  of  this  large  and  stately  white  column,  as  it  heaves  in  sight 
from  the  dim  reflection  of  the  torches,  is  grand  and  impressive.  Visitors 
have  seldom  pushed  their  inquiries  further  than  two  hundred  or  three  hun- 
dred yards  beyond  this  pillar.  This  column  is  about  fifteen  feet  in  diame- 
ter, from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height,  and  regularly  reeded  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom.  In  the  vicinity  of  this  spot  are  some  inferior  pillars  of 
the  same  appearance  and  texture. 

'  I  have  thus  given  you  an  imperfect  sketch  of  the  mechanical  structure 
and  appearances  of  the  cave.      It  only  remains  to  mention  its  productions. 

■  The  first  in  importance  is  sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  Epsom  salts,  which, 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  105 

as  has  been  before  remarked,  abounds  throughout  this  cave  in  almost  its 
whole  extent,  and  which,  I  believe,  has  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  that 
article.  This  neutral  salt  is  found  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  and  in  many 
different  stages  of  formation,  sometimes  in  lumps,  varying  from  one  to 
ten  pounds  in  weight.  The  earth  exhibits  a  shining  appearance,  from  the 
numerous  particles  interspersed  through  the  huge  piles  of  dirt  collected  in 
different  parts  of  the  cave.  The  foregoing  remark  applies  with  truth,  not 
only  to  the  surface,  but  to  three  feet  below  it.  This  is  the  greatest  distance 
hitherto  examined.  The  walls  are  covered  in  different  places  with  the 
same  article,  and  reproduction  goes  on  rapidly.  With  a  view  to  ascertain 
this  fact,  I  removed  from  a  particular  place  every  vestige  of  the  salt,  and 
in  four  or  five  weeks  the  place  was  covered  with  small  needle-shaped 
crystals,  exhibiting  the  appearance  of  frost. 

1  The  quality  of  the  salt  in  this  cave  is  inferior  to  none,  and,  when  it 
takes  its  proper  stand  in  regular  and  domestic  practice,  must  be  of  national 
utility.  With  respect  to  the  resources  of  this  cave,  I  will  venture  to  say 
that  every  competent  judge  must  pronounce  them  inexhaustible.  The  worst 
earth  that  has  been  tried  will  yield  four  pounds  of  salt  to  the  bushel,  and 
the  best  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds. 

4  The  next  production  is  the  nitrate  of  lime,  or  saltpetre  earth.  There  are 
vast  quantities  of  this  earth,  and  equal  in  strength  to  any  that  I  have  ever 
seen ;  and  when  potassium  can  be  more  conveniently  obtained  than  at  pre* 
sent,  the  manufacture  of  saltpetre  must  be  a  lucrative  pursuit.  There  are 
also  large  quantities  of  the  nitrate  of  allumina  or  nitrate  of  argyl,  which 
will  yield  as  much  nitrate  of  potassium  or  saltpetre,  in  proportion  to  the 
quantities  of  earth,  as  the  nitrate  of  lime. 

*  The  three  articles  above  enumerated  are  first  in  quantity  and  import* 
ance;  but  there  are  several  others,  which  deserve  notice  as  subjects  of  phi- 
losophical  curiosity.  The  sulphate  of  lime,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  is  to  be 
seen  variously  formed;  ponderous,  crystallized,  and  impalpable,  or  soft> 
light,  and  rather  spongy.  Vestiges  of  the  sulphate  of  iron,  are  also  to  be 
seen  in  one  or  two  places.  Small  specimens  of  the  carbonate,  and  also  the 
nitrate  of  magnesia,  have  been  found.  The  rocks  in  the  cave  principally 
consist  of  carbonate  of  lime,  or  common  limestone. 

1  I  had  almost  forgotten  to  state,  that  near  the  forks  of  the  cave  are  two 
specimens  of  painting,  probably  of  Indian  origin.  The  one  appears  to  be 
a  savage,  with  something  like  a  bow  in  his  hand,  and  furnishes  the  hint 
that  it  was  done  when  that  instrument  of  death  was  in  use.  The  other  is 
80  much  defaced,  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  it  was  intended  to  repre- 
sent.' 

Carver's  Cave. — '  About  twelve  miles  below  the  new  garrison  at  St» 
Peter's,'  says  Mr.  Schoolcraft, '  we  stopped  to  examine  a  remarkable  cavern, 
on  the  east  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  called  Wakon-teebe,  by  the  Narcotah 
or  Sioux  Indians,  but  which,  in  compliment  to  the  memory  of  its  first  Eu- 
ropean visitor,  should  be  denominated  Carver's  Cave.  It  is  situated  in  a 
rock  of  the  most  beautiful  white  sand-stone,  at  the  head  of  a  small  valley 
about  four  hundred  yards  from  the  banks  of  the  river.  Its  mouth  is  about 
sixty  or  seventy  feet  wide  and  twenty  in  height,  but  the  former  soon  de- 
creases to  about  twenty  feet,  and  the  latter  to  seven.  This  width  gradually 
lessens  as  you  advance  during  the  first  hundred  yards,  but  the  height  re- 
mains nearly  the  same,  so  that  a  man  can  walk  without  stooping.  Thou 
14 


106  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

it  tapers  into  a  narrow  passage,  where  it  is  necessary  to  creep,  which  sud- 
denly opens  into  a  spacious  chamber.  From  this  a  narrow  crevice  conti- 
nues as  far  as  it  has  been  explored.  Some  of  our  party  pursued  it  four 
hundred  yards  by  the  light  of  wax  candles.  It  is  very  damp  and  chilly. 
There  is  a  handsome  stream  of  pure  water  running  from  its  mouth.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  in  the  cave  was  fifty-four  degrees,  that  of  the  water 
forty-seven.  As  it  is  situated  in  sand-stone  rock,  it  affords  no  stalactites, 
or  spars.  Some  parts  of  the  rock  at  the  mouth  are  colored  green,  proba- 
bly by  the  carbonate  of  copper.  The  bed  of  the  brook  is  composed  of 
a  crystalline  sand  of  the  most  snowy  whiteness,  originating  from  the  dis- 
integration of  the  surrounding  walls.  Scattered  over  this  are  a  number 
of  small  pebbles,  of  so  intensely  black  a  color,  as  to  create  a  pleasing  con- 
trast, when  viewed  through  the  medium  of  a  clear  stream.  These,  on 
examination,  proved  to  be  masses  of  limestone,  granite,  and  quartz,  colored 
externally  by  a  thin  deposit  of  earthy  matter,  and  I  conclude  the  color  to 
proceed  from  the  gallic  acid,  with  which  the  water,  percolating  into  the 
cavern,  through  the  beds  of  oak  leaves  of  the  superincumbent  forest,  may 
be  partially  saturated.  This  cave  has  been  visited  by  most  persons  who 
have  passed  up  the  Mississippi,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  number  of  names 
found  upon  the  walls.  Among  them,  we  were  informed,  was  that  of  Cap- 
tain Carver,  who  visited  it  in  1768,  but  we  did  not  observe  it.  His  grant 
of  land  from  the  Indians  is  dated  in  this  cave,  but  the  cave  itself  appears 
to  have  undergone  a  considerable  alteration  since  that  period,  for  he  says 
that  "  about  twenty  feet  from  the  entrance  begins  a  lake,  the  water  of  which 
is  transparent,  and  extends  to  an  unsearchable  distance."  As  the  rock  is 
of  a  very  friable  nature,  and  easily  acted  upon  by  running  water,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  lake  has  been  discharged,  thus  enlarging  the  boundaries  of 
the  cave.  He  also  remarks,  "  at  a  little  distance  from  this  dreary  cavern, 
is  the  burying-place  of  several  bands  of  the  Nawdowessie  (Sioux)  Indians. 
Though  these  people  have  no  fixed  residence,  living  in  tents,  and  abiding 
but  a  few  months  in  one  spot,  yet  they  always  bring  the  bones  of  their 
dead  to  this  place  ;  which  they  take  the  opportunity  of  doing  when  the 
chiefs  meet  to  hold  their  councils,  and  to  settle  the  public  affairs  for  the 
ensuing  summer."  We  noticed  no  bones  or  traces  of  interment  about  the 
cave,  but  perhaps  a  further  examination  of  the  adjacent  region  would  have 
led  to  a  discovery.' 

In  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  caves  are  numerous,  which  appear  to  have 
been  used  for  burial-places.  In  the  county  of  Ulster,  in  New  York,  is  a 
cave  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  caused  by  a  stream  running  under 
ground.  The  rock  which  constitutes  the  roof  and  sides  of  the  cave  is  a 
dark  colored  limestone,  containing  impressions  of  shells,  calcareous  spar, 
and  beautiful  white  and  yellow  stalactites.  At  one  end  is  a  fall  of  water, 
the  depth  of  which  has  not  been  fathomed.  At  Rhinebeck,  near  the 
Hudson,  is  a  cave  in  which  a  narrow  entrance  leads  to  several  spacious 
rooms,  abounding  with  columns  of  stalactites.  At  Chester,  in  Warren 
county,  there  is  a  stream  which  passes  under  a  natural  bridge,  and  among 
many  deep  caverns ;  the  waters  enter  in  two  streams,  unite  in  the  subter- 
ranean passage,  and  issue  in  a  single  current  under  a  precipice  sixty  feet 
in  height. 

In  the  Laurel  Mountain,  in  Pennsylvania,  is  a  cavern  with  a  very  narrow 
entrance,  and  various  winding  passages,  which  has  been  traversed  two 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  107 

miles.  It  is  formed  of  a  soft  sandstone,  and  its  roof  is  covered  with  millions 
of  bats.  At  Durham  in  Bucks  county,  on  the  Delaware,  is  a  cave  in  the 
limestone  rock,  abounding  with  pools  and  rivulets  of  water.  At  Carlisle 
is  another  somewhat  similar,  in  which  human  bones  have  been  discovered. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CAVES. 

Caves  or  grottoes  are  natural  fissures  in  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  with  walls  and  a 
natural  roof.  They  are  sometimes  of  immense  extent  and  depth,  and  frequently  the 
first  excavation  is  only  the  vestibule  to  another  much  larger  and  deeper.  Eldon  Hole,  in 
Derbyshire,  has  been  sounded  with  a  line  of  more  than  nine  thousand  six  hundred  feet, 
but  without  reaching  its  bottom.  A  cavern  near  Frederickshall,  Norway,  has  been  esti- 
mated at  eleven  thousand  feet  in  depth.  Many  caverns  are  remarkable  for  various  natural 
curiosities.  The  most  interesting  are  those  in  which  the  dropping  of  water  has  caused  the 
formation  of  stalactites,  either  suspended  from  the  vaults  of  the  caverns  in  the  shape 
of  long  crystals,  or  assuming  fantastic  forms  on  the  floor  and  along  the  wall.  Antiparos 
and  Peak  caves  in  Derbyshire,  England,  owe  their  celebrity  to  those  formations.  Other 
caves  are  strewed  with  petrified  bones,  and  have  evidently  been  the  burial-places  of 
generations  of  human  beings. 

There  are  caverns  which  contain  deep  pite  of  water,  or  wells,  of  such  an  extent  as  to 
acquire  the  name  of  subterranean  lakes,  in  some  are  the  sources,  and  in  others  the 
receptacles,  of  large  streams.  In  Norway  you  may  sometimes  walk  upon  an  arched 
calcareous  floor,  and  hear  the  roar  of  torrents  under  your  feet.  In  Russia,  many  caverns 
have  been  evidently  formed  by  means  of  water,  and  even  masses  of  ice. 

Fingal's  Cave  in  the  Isle  of  Staffa,  on  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  is  the  grandest  in 
the  known  world.  Its  sides  are  formed  of  majestic  columns  of  basalt,  which  are  almost 
as  regular  as  if  they  had  been  formed  by  art.  These  columns  support  a  lofty  roof,  under 
which  the  sea  rolls  its  waves,  while  the  vastness  of  the  entrance  admits  the  light  of  day 
to  the  recesses  of  the  cave.     The  origin  of  these  basaltic  formations  is  uncertain. 

The  caves  of  Kirkdale,  in  England,  and  Gailenreuth,  in  Germany,  are  remarkable  for 
the  quantities  of  bones  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  hyena  found  in  them.  The 
mine  of  fluor  spar,  in  Castleton,  Derbyshire,  passes  through  several  stalactic  caverns 
Other  caverns  in  England  contain  subterraneous  cascades.  In  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar 
there  are  a  number  of  stalactic  caverns,  of  which  the  principal  is  called  St.  Michael's, 
and  is  one  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  most  famous  caves  of  Germany  are  those 
of  Bauman  and  Bielstein,  in  the  Hartz. 

Caves  sometimes  exhale  poisonous  vapors.  Of  these,  the  most  remarko,ble  is  near 
Naples,  named  the  Grotto  del  Cane.  In  Iceland,  there  are  many  formed  by  the  lava 
from  its  volcanoes.  In  the  volcanic  country  near  Rome,  are  many  natural  cavities  of 
great  extent  and  coolness,  which  form  pleasant  places  of  resort  in  the  hot  weather.  The 
grottoes  in  the  Cevennes  Mountains,  in  France,  are  both  numerous  and  extensive,  and 
abound  in  objects  of  curiosity.  In  South  America  is  the  cavern  of  Guacharo,  which  is 
said  to  extend  for  leagues. 


108 


CHAPTER  IX.— ISLANDS. 

Most  of  the  coast  of  Maine  is  thickly  strewn  with  islands.  The  largest 
is  Mount  Desert,  on  the  west  side  of  Frenchman's  Bay ;  it  is  fifteen  miles 
long,  and  twelve  broad.  Many  fine  islands  lie  in  Penobscot  Bay,  as  Long 
Island,  on  which  is  the  town  of  Islesborough ;  the  Fox  Islands,  containing 
the  town  of  Vinalhaven ;  and  Deer  Isle,  on  the  east  side  of  the  bay,  about 
eight  miles  from  Castine. 

The  Isles  of  Skoals  belong  partly  to  New  Hampshire,  and  partly  to 
Maine.  They  lie  about  eight  miles  out  at  sea,  between  Portsmouth  and 
Newburyport,  and  are  hardly  more  than  a  cluster  of  rocks  rising  above  the 
waters  ;  but  they  are,  on  many  accounts,  worthy  of  notice.  They  have  but 
a  thin  and  barren  appearance,  yet  for  more  than  a  century  previous  to  the 
revolution  they  were  quite  populous,  containing  at  one  time  six  hundred 
inhabitants,  who  found  there  an  advantageous  situation  for  carrying  on 
fisheries.  To  this  day  the  best  cod  in  the  world  are  those  which  are  known 
in  the  market  as  Isle  of  Skoals  dun  fish.  These  islands  were  discovered 
by  the  celebrated  Captain  Smith  in  1614,  and  called  at  first  Smith's  Isles. 
The  New  Hampshire  portion  now  constitutes  the  town  of  Gosport. 

In  all  of  them  are  chasms  in  the  rocks  apparently  caused  by  earthquakes. 
There  is  a  remarkable  chasm  on  Star  Island,  where  one  of  the  female 
inhabitants  secreted  herself  when  the  islands  were  invaded,  and  the  people 
carried  into  captivity  by  the  Indians.  The  largest  is  named  Hog  Island, 
and  contains  three  hundred  and  fifty  acres ;  Star  Island  has  one  hundred 
and  fifty,  Hayley's  one  hundred  ;  they  are  in  all  seven.  The  inhabitants 
are  about  one  hundred ;  they  live  solely  by  fishing,  and  in  connection  with 
those  of  the  shore  in  their  immediate  neighborhood,  who  follow  the  same 
mode  of  life,  are  the  most  rude  and  uncivilized  beings  in  New  England, 
except  the  Indians.  They  supply  the  markets  of  Newburyport  with  fish, 
and  have  long  been  known  there  by  the  name  of  Algerines.  Efforts  have 
recently  been  made  to  improve  their  social  condition. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Massachusetts,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Merrimack, 
lies  Plum  Island,  nine  miles  long  and  one  wide.  On  the  side  towards  the 
ocean  it  consists  of  sand  hills  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  thrown  into  a  thou- 
eand  fantastic  shapes  like  snow  drifts  in  a  storm.  These  hills  are  covered 
with  low  bushes  bearing  the  beach  plum,  a  fruit  about  the  size  of  a  musket 
ball,  and  of  a  pleasant  taste  ;  wild  cherries  and  grapes  also  grow  in  different 
parts.  In  autumn  it  is  much  frequented  by  parties  of  pleasure  from  the 
neighborhood.  At  the  northern  extremity  are  two  lighthouses  and  a 
hotel. 

Nantucket,  twenty  miles  south  of  the  main  land  at  Cape  Cod,  is  an  island 
of  triangular  form,  about  fifteen  miles  long  and  eleven  broad  in  the  widest 
part,  containing  twenty-nine  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty  acres.  It 
is  removed  at  least  twenty  miles  from  the  nearest  land,  and,  during  some 
parts  of  the  winter,  the  water  is  frozen  around  it  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
for  a  number  of  weeks.  The  climate  is  comparatively  of  an  equal  tempe- 
rature. Springs  of  water  on  the  island  below  a  certain  level  have  a  peculiar 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  109 

taste,  and  are  disagreeable  to  those  unused  to  them.  The  frequency  of 
dense  and  heavy  fogs  has  frustrated  the  attempts  made  here,  to  manufac- 
ture salt  by  evaporation  from  sea-water. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  island  are  a  robust  and  enterprising  race,  chiefly 
seamen  and  mechanics ;  and  those  employed  in  the  whale  fishery  are  said 
to  be  superior  to  all  others;  the  island,  being  sandy  and  barren,  is  calculated 
only  for  such  people  as  are  willing  to  depend  almost  entirely  on  the  ocean 
for  subsistence. ^  The  people  are  mostly  of  the  society  of  Friends,  and 
are  warmly  attached  to  theiHsland ;  few  wishing  to  remove  to  a  more  de- 
sirable situation. 

There  is  a  sand-bar  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  of  Nantucket,  which 
effectually  excludes  large  vessels,  deeply  laden.  Some  attempts  have  been 
recently  made  to  remove  this  bank,  and  an  appropriation  of  twenty-eight 
thousand  dollars  was  made  by  government  for  this  purpose  ;  but  the  sand 
removed  in  summer  was  more  than  supplied  in  winter,  and  the  project  was 
abandoned.  Ships  now  unlade  at  Edgartown,  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  their 
cargoes  are  taken  in  small  vessels  to  the  island.  Some  months  in  the  year, 
they  can  unload  at  the  bar.  South-east  of  the  island,  and  out  of  sight  of 
land,  lie  Nantucket  Shoals,  a  dangerous  reef  of  sand,  fifty  miles  in  extent. 

Martha's  Vineyard,  west  of  Nantucket,  and  lying  nearer  the  continent, 
is  twenty  miles  long,  and  ten  broad.  This  island  has  a  good  soil,  and  in 
the  western  part  is  somewhat  elevated ;  it  has  many  productive  farms,  and 
contains  the  town  of  Edgartown,  which  has  a  good  harbor,  Holmes's  Hole  is 
a  safe  and  commodious  harbor  in  the  north  part  of  the  island,  much  fre- 
quented during  the  winter  by  inward  bound  vessels.  The  Elizabeth  Islands 
are  a  chain  of  sixteen  small  islands  lying  north-west  of  Martha's  Vineyard, 
and  forming  the  south-east  side  of  Buzzard's  Bay  ;  a  part  of  them  only  are 
inhabited.  They  were  discovered  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  in  1602.  A 
multitude  of  islands  lie  in  Boston  Bay,  many  of  them  very  beautiful,  but 
none  of  sufficient  importance  to  merit  particular  description. 

Rhode  Island,  in  Narraganset  Bay,  is  fifteen  miles  long  from  north-east 
to  south-west,  and  averages  two  and  a  half  in  width.  In  its  most  flourishing 
state  it  was  called  by  travellers  the  Eden  of  America.  It  has  a  good  soil 
well  cultivated,  and  an  agreeably  varied  surface,  but  it  is  destitute  of  trees, 
the  whole  island  having  been  laid  waste  by  the  British  in  the  revolutionary 
war.  A  mine  of  anthracite  coal  has  been  wrought  to  some  extent  in  the 
north  part  of  the  island,  but  is  not  now  much  esteemed.  The  town  of 
Newport,  in  the  south-west  part,  is  a  fashionable  summer  resort. 

Conanicut  is  an  island  lying  on  the  west  side  of  Rhode  Island ;  it  is 
eight  miles  long  and  about  one  in  breadth.  This  is  also  a  beautiful  island, 
and  has  a  fertile  soil.  At  the  southern  extremity  is  a  lighthouse.  In  the 
same  part  may  be  seen  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  circular  fortification,  which 
once  defended  the  passage  of  the  bay. 

Prudence  Island,  farther  up  Narraganset  Bay,  is  six  miles  in  length. 
Block  Island  lies  ten  miles  out  at  sea,  and  is  eight  miles  long  and  from  two 

*  There  are  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  pounds'  weight  of  wool  annually  produced 
on  this  island,  the  average  quality  of  which  is  acknowledged  to  be  superior  for  manu- 
facturing purposes,  to  most  of  the  native  wool  grown  on  the  continent.  We  have  no 
woollen  factories,  and  but  very  small  quantities  of  the  staple  article  are  wrought  into 
fabrics  by  domestic  labor.  Consequently,  says  the  Nantucket  Inquirer,  it  may  be  an  objeet 
for  wool  purchasers  occasionally  to  look  this  way  for  a  part  of  their  supplies. 

10 


110  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

to  four  broad  ;  it  has  an  uneven  surface,  but  produces  maize  and  othel 
grain.  A  lighthouse  stands  upon  it.  Among  the  other  islands  in  Narra- 
ganset  Bay  are  Patience,  Hope,  Dyers'  and  Hog  Island. 

Long  Island  extends  along  the  coast  of  Connecticut,  but  belongs  wholly 
to  New-York.  It  is  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  long  from  east  to  west, 
and  its  average  breadth  is  about  ten  miles.  It  is  of  alluvial  formation,  but 
there  is  a  rocky  ridge  or  spine,  extending  lengthwise  through  it,  which 
presents  summits  of  considerable  elevation.  On  the  south  side  of  the  island 
is  Hempstead  Plain,  an  extensive  tract  of  wild  savanna,  fifteen  miles  in 
length  and  four  in  breadth.  In  favorable  years,  the  best  parts  of  the  island 
have  yielded  thirty  or  forty  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre.  In  the  western 
parts  are  many  fine  orchards.  Deer  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the 
centre  of  the  island;  the  shores  abound  with  the  finest  oysters. 

Shelter  Isla7id  lies  off  the  east  end  of  Long  Island.  It  contains  about 
eight  thousand  acres  of  varied  surface,  with  a  soil  generally  light  and  sandy, 
but  in  some  parts  rich,  level,  and  well  cultivated.  Fisher's  Island  lies  near 
the  east  extremity  of  Long  Island ;  it  is  twelve  miles  long  and  one  wide  ; 
the  surface  is  broken,  but  it  affords  a  good  farm,  and  its  dairies  are  very 
fine.  Gardiner's  Island  is  on  the  north  side  of  Long  Island,  and  contains 
about  three  thousand  acres  of  valuable  land. 

Staten  Island  lies  at  the  mouth  of  New-York  harbor ;  it  is  about  eighteen 
miles  long,  and  eight  wide.  The  surface  is  generally  rough  and  hilly,  but 
on  the  south  is  a  level  tract  of  good  land.  This  island  forms  the  county 
of  Richmond.*5 

*  The  shores  of  Staten  Island  are  finely  indented,  and  sprinkled  with  the  white,  clean- 
looking  villas  of  this  country .  The  island  rises  quickly  to  a  considerable  height,  con- 
taining an  area  of  about  fifty-two  square  miles. 

The  quarantine  establishment  and  the  adjoining  village  are  pictures  of  cleanliness, 
all  painted  of  a  bright  white.  The  houses,  hotels,  &c.  generally  disjoined,  and  many 
of  them  inclosed  in  small  gardens.  The  whole  buildings  are  situated  on  a  bank  gently 
rising  from  the  shore,  and  overhanging  a  beautiful  bay  below;  in  which  there  were  some 
large  ships,  as  well  as  a  few  of  the  elegant  sailing  craft,  with  which  the  Bay  of  New- 
York  is  always  adorned.  Behind  the  village  the  ground  becomes  abrupt,  to  a  point  at 
which  a  building  is  erected  called  the  Pavilion,  expressly  on  account  of  the  splendor  of 
the  view,  the  top  of  which  is,  I  think,  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  sea, 
consisting  of  handsome  saloons,  with  balconies,  piazzas,  &c.  on  all  sides,  and  a  look-out 
place  from,  the  summit,  from  which  the  prospect  is  most  glorious.  I  have  never  been 
more  delighted  with  any  of  the  prospects  of  this  description  which  have  charmed  me 
most,  on  the  Frith  of  Forth,  the  Clyde,  the  Bay  of  Dublin,  or  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  I 
cannot  help  doubting  whether  there  be  a  more  magnificent  prospect  in  the  world.  All 
the  features  which  it  contains  are  beautiful,  and  many  of  them  splendid.  Then  the 
moving  ships,  pilot-boats,  and  small  craft,  never  allow  the  view  of  the  water  to  be  fof 
two  moments  the  same. 

The  view  comprehends  half  a  dozen  friths,  dividing,  by  marked  headlands,  tracts  of 
well  wooded  and  waving  country  ;  and  it  embraces  not  only  the  city  of  New- York,  sur- 
rounded with  a  vast  mass  of  shipping,  but  the  city  of  New-Jersey,  projected  into  the  bay, 
quite  as  much  as  Burnt  Island  is  into  the  Frith  of  Forth,  as  well  as  the  village  of 
Newark.  The  cities  lie  too  low,  but  they  serve  to  convince  the  beholder  that  he  is  in  the 
heart  of  a  densely  peopled  country.  Peninsulas,  promontories,  islands,  isthmuses,  land, 
in  a  variety  of  shapes,  lie  before  him,  and  beyond  all,  the  boundless  Atlantic.  New- 
York,  the  magnificent  Hudson,  the  Frith  of  Newark,  and  lands  and  hills  of  Jersey  are 
on  the  north ;  Long  Island  and  its  Sound,  the  Narrows,  and  the  Quarantine  Ground, 
With  the  Atlantic  on  the  east ;  and  the  coast  of  New- Jersey,  Raritan  Bay,  Sandy  Hook, 
and  the  Atlantic  to  the  south  ;  the  whole  forming  a  noble  prospect  in  the  heart  of  as  rich 
looking  a  country  as  is  in  the  world. 

I  have  hitherto  seen  nothing  in  this  country  to  be  compared  to  the  prospect  whic>  * 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  HI 

Manhattan  Island,  the  seat  of  the  city  of  New  York,  is  fifteen  miles 
long,  and  one  and  a  half  in  its  average  breadth.  It  is  washed  on  the  western 
side  by  the  Hudson,  and  separated  from  the  continent  and  Long  Island  on 
the  east  by  narrow  channels.  It  is  generally  level  in  the  lower  part,  and 
the  soil  here  rests  upon  a  granite  rock.  At  the  northern  extremity,  the 
granite  is  succeeded  by  limestone,  which  affords  excellent  marble,  and  ex- 
tends for  some  distance  into  the  country.  In  the  northern  part,  the  shores 
are  rocky,  and  the  face  of  the  island  strongly  marked  by  abrupt  crags  and 
ravines,  hills  and  valleys,  insulated  rocks  and  marshy  inlets.  The  gneiss 
rock,  which  is  much  used  for  side- walk  pavements  and  the  foundations  of 
buildings,  is  found  in  abundance  here.  Small  quantities  of  porcelain  clay 
have  also  been  found  upon  the  island. 

The   Bay  of  Chesapeak  contains    many  islands  within  the   limits  of 

Maryland.     Kent  Island,  on  the  east  side  of  the   bay,  opposite  Annapolis, 

is  twelve  miles  long.     The  Tangier  Islands  lie  farther  down  the  bay.     On 

-the  seacoast  is  the  island  of  Assatiegue,  twenty  miles  long  and  two  broad. 

The  coast  of  North  Carolina  is  skirted  by  a  range  of  low,  sandy  islands, 
thrown  up  by  the  sea.  They  are  long  and  narrow,  and  inclose  several 
bays  or  sounds.  They  are  generally  barren.  The  southern  part  of  South 
Carolina  exhibits  a  similar  range,  separated  from  the  main  land  by  nar- 
row channels,  which  afford  a  steam-boat  navigation.  These  islands, 
like  the  neighboring  continent,  are  low  and  flat,  but  are  covered  with 
forests  of  live  oak,  pine,  and  palmetto.  Before  the  cultivation  of  cotton, 
many  of  them  were  the  haunts  of  alligators,  and  their  thick  woods  and 
rank  weeds  rendered  them  impenetrable  to  man.  At  present,  they  are  under 
cultivation  and  well  inhabited  ;  and  as  the  voyager  glides  along  their  shores 
in  a  steam-boat,  he  is  enchanted  with  the  prospect  of  their  lively  verdure, 
interspersed  with  thick  clumps  of  palmettoes,  live  oak,  and  laurel,  and 
flowering  groves  of  orange  trees.  The  long  sandy  beaches  which  border 
these  islands  towards  the  sea,  are  covered  with  thousands  of  water-fowl. 
Georgia  is  also  bordered  with  a  range  of  small  islands  and  marshy  tracts, 
intersected  by  channels  and  rivulets  which  are  navigable  for  small  vessels. 
These  islands  consist  of  a  rich  gray  soil  called  hammoc  land.     In  their 

have  endeavored  to  describe  from  the  Pavilion  at  Staten  Island.  There  are  finer  views  of 
New  York  itself  from  the  opposite  shores  of  New -Jersey,  on  the  one  side,  and  from  Brook- 
lyn  and  the  heights  of  Long  Island,  on  the  other ;  but  Staten  Island  is  unquestionably  the 
place  for  seeing  New  York  in  combination  with  its  noble  harbor,  and  the  surrounding  seas 
and  the  shipping  which  adorn  them.  After  I  had  once  found  my  way  under  the  guidance  of 
my  friends  to  the  Pavilion,  I  frequently  bent  my  steps  to  it  when  I  had  leisure,  to  spend 
an  hour  or  two  in  the  island,  and  never  returned  without  being  equally  delighted  with 
the  scenery  above  the  quarantine  ground.  Strange  it  is,  but  not  less  strange  than  true, 
that  I  have  never  observed  in  any  of  the  published  tours  relative  to  the  United  States, 
the  slightest  reference  made  to  the  beauties  of  Staten  Island,  or  to  the  prospect  from  the 
Pavilion.  Captain  Hall's  Travels  were  brought  me  while  I  was  writing  the  notes  of  this 
excursion,  but  it  does  not  appear  from  them  that  he  had  ever  visited  this  island,  though 
only  five  miles  from  New  York,  where  he  resided  for  a  considerable  period.  At  a  sub- 
sequent period  I  procured  at  Philadelphia,  Mr.  Darby,  the  geographer's,  valuable  view  of 
the  United  States,  and  was  glad  to  find  that  he  recommended  Staten  Island  as  possessing 
the  most  variegated  landscapes  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  '  No  traveller 
ought  (he  wTrites)  to  neglect  it.  In  a  clear  day,  a  single  hour  on  some  of  the  hills  of 
Staten  Island  is  worth  a  voyage  of  considerable  extent.  How  many  who  visit  New- York 
with  all  the  means  of  gratification,  and  who  travel  for  mere  amusement,  lose  the  invalu- 
able pleasure  of  scanning  the  rich  perspective  from  Staten  Island.  Thousands  and  tens 
of  thousands.' — Stuart's  America. 


112  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

natural  state,  they  are  covered  with  forests  of  live  oak,  pine,  and  hickory  ; 
but  under  cultivation  they  produce  the  best  cotton  in  the  world,  called  Sea* 
Island  cotton.  There  are  many  small  islands  scattered  along  the  coast  of 
Florida  ;  and  off  the  southern  extremity,  at  some  distance  from  the  land, 
lies  a  cluster,  on  one  of  which,  Key  West,  the  United  States  have  estab- 
lished a  naval  station. 

The  Chandeleur  Islands  lie  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Louisiana ;  they  are 
little  more  than  heaps  of  sand,  covered  with  pine  forests.  West  of  the 
Mississippi  are  many  others  scattered  along  the  coast.  Here  is  the  island 
of  Barataria,  formerly  noted  as  a  nest  of  pirates.  It  lies  in  a  bay  which 
receives  the  waters  of  a  lake  of  the  same  name.  The  soil  of  these  islands 
is  generally  rich ;  most  of  them  are  low  and  level.  There  are  some  very 
fertile  islands  in  the  Mississippi,^  and  in  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  Island  of  Michilimackinac,  in*  the  strait  connecting  Lake  Huron  and 
Lake  Michigan,  is  important  in  a  political  point  of  view,  being  the  Gibraltar 
of  the  north-west.  It  is  of  an  elliptical  form,  about  seven  miles  in  circum- 
ference, rising  gradually  to  the  centre ;  its  figure  suggested  to  the  mind  of 
the  Indians  its  appropriate  name,  Michi  Mackina,i  (Great  Turtle.)  The 
greater  part  of  the  island  is  almost  an  impenetrable  thicket  of  underwood 
and  small  trees,  which  contribute  materially  to  the  defence  of  the  garrison. 
Fort  Holmes  stands  on  a  summit  of  the  island,  several  hundred  feet  above 
the  level  of  Lake  Huron,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  formidable  positions 
in  the  western  country.  The  French  were  the  first  settlers,  and  their  de- 
scendants, to  a  considerable  number,  reside  near  the  Fort. 

Maniton  Island  is  situated  near  the  eastern  coast  of  Lake  Michigan  ;  it 
is  six  miles  long  and  four  wide,  and  is  held  sacred  by  the  Indians.  The 
Castor  Islands  are  a  chain  of  islets,  extending  from  Grand  Traverse  Bay 
nearly  across  the  lake ;  they  are  low  and  sandy,  but  afford  a  shelter  for 
light  boats  in  their  passage  to  Green  Bay.  Grosse  Isle  is  a  valuable  allu- 
vion of  several  thousand  acres,  being  five  miles  long,  and  from  one  to  two 
wide. 

*There  are  about  one  hundred  and  twenty -five  islands  of  considerable  size,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  small  ones,  in  that  part  of  the  Mississippi  between  New  Orleans  and  the  junction 
o(  the  Ohio.  Wolf  Island,  about  twenty-four  miles  below  the  confluence,  is  situate  in  a 
fine  part  of  the  river,  where  the  banks  are  high  and  the  current  rapid.  This  island  is 
about  twenty  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains  fifteen  thousand  acres  of  good  land, 
with  a  fine  prairie  in  the  centre. 

There  are  many  beautiful  scenes  in  passing  the  islands  upon  the  river,  which  I  saw 
to  great  advantage,  it  being  full,  and  yet  only  in  a  few  places  overflowing  its  proper 
course  ;  but  natural  beauties  of  this  kind,  where  all  that  sort  of  variety  of  feature  is 
wanting  which  depends  upon  the  neighborhood  of  mountain  and  hill,  and  where  nothing 
but  the  forest  is  to  be  seen,  excepting,  at  considerable  distances  from  each  other,  patches 
of  cultivated  ground,  soon  cease  to  be  very  interesting,  and  the  river,  the  prodigious 
length  of  which,  as  well  as  its  great  volume  of  water,  astonish  the  beholder  for  the  first 
time,  is  the  only  object  that  on  such  a  voyage  as  this  continues  powerfully  to  arrest  the 
attention. — Stuarfs  America. 

f  The  Indian  tradition  concerning  the  name  of  this  little  barren  island  is  curious. 
They  say  that  Michapous,  the  chief  of  spirits,  sojourned  long  in  that  neighborhood*;  and 
they  believe  that  a  mountain  on  the  border  of  the  lake  was  the  place  of  his  residence, 
which  they  still  call  by  his  name.  It  was  here,  say  they,  that  he  first  instructed  men 
to  make  nets  for  fishing,  and  where  he  has  collected  the  greatest  quantity  of  fish.  On 
the  island  he  left  spirits  named  ImaMnalcos,  and  from  these  aerial  possessors  it  has 
received  the  appellation  of  Michilimackinac. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  113 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  ISLANDS. 

It  has  been  well  observed,  that  a  large  island  is  a  continent  in  miniature,  with  its 
chains  of  mountains,  its  lakes,  rivers,  and  not  unfrequently  its  surrounding  islets.  The 
smaller  islands  are  found  single,  or  in  groups.  Among  the  low  or  flat  islands,  there  are 
some  which  are  only  banks  of  sand,  scarcely  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  water ; 
sometimes  they  consist  of  masses  of  shells  or  petrifactions,  as  the  Isles  of  Lachof  to  the 
north  of  Siberia,  which  are  nothing  but  masses  of  ice,  sand,  and  the  bones  of  the  mam- 
moth. The  Pacific  contains  a  great  many  islands  formed  of  coral  reefs,  which  are  some- 
times covered  with  sand,  and  afford  nourishment  to  a  few  plants. 

Among  the  more  elevated  islands  we  find  very  many  which  owe  their  foundation,  in  a 
great  measure,  to  volcanic  agencies.  Submarine  islands,  as  they  have  been  sometimes 
called,  or  immense  sand-banks,  covered  with  shoal  water,  are  not  unfrequent.  Chains 
of  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of  continents  seem  to  be  often  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
waters  washing  away  the  less  solid  parts,  which  once  occupied  the  spaces  between  the 
mountains  and  rocks.  In  this  manner  were  probably  formed  the  islands  along  the  coast 
of  the  United  States,  which  still  appear  above  the  surface  of  the  waves. 

One  of  the  chief  advantages  that  islands  derive  from  their  situation  is,  that  the  cli- 
mate is  generally  rendered  mild  and  salubrious,  from  the  vapors  of  the  surrounding  sea, 
which  generally  moderate  the  violence  of  heat  and  cold,  both  of  which  are  sensibly  less 
than  on  the  continent  in  the  same  latitude.  Another  advantage  is  found  in  their  acces- 
sibility on  every  side,  by  which  islands  are  open  to  receive  and  export  commodities,  and 
at  times  when  the  ports  of  the  continent  are  closed.  An  island  has  on  all  sides  the  most 
extensive  and  effectual  frontier,  subsisting  forever  without  repairs  and  without  expense  ; 
and,  which  is  still  more,  derives  from  this  very  frontier,  a  great  part  of  the  subsistence 
of  its  inhabitants,  and  a  valuable  article  in  its  commerce,  from  fisheries. 

The  island  of  Acroteri,  famous  in  ancient  history,  is  represented  to  have  risen  from 
the  sea,  in  a  violent  earthquake  ;  its  surface  is  composed  of  pumice-stone  incrusted  with 
a  covering  of  fertile  earth.  Four  neighboring  islands  have  been  attributed  to  a  similar 
cause,  and  yet  the  sea  about  them  cannot  be  fathomed  by  any  sounding  line.  These 
have  risen  at  different  periods,  the  last  in  1573,  the  first  long  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
Similar  eruptions  of  islands  have  occurred  in  the  group  of  the  Azores.  Thus  in  Decem- 
ber, 1720,  a  violent  shock  of  an  earthquake  was  felt  at  Tercera.  During  the  night,  the 
top  of  a  new  island  appeared,  which  ejected  a  huge  column  of  smoke.  The  pilot  of  a 
ship  who  attempted  to  approach  it  sounded  on  one  side  of  the  new  formed  island,  but 
could  not  reach  bottom  with  a  line  of  sixty  fathoms.  On  the  opposite  side,  the  sea  was 
deeply  tinged  with  various  colors,  white,  blue  and  green,  and  was  very  shallow.  This 
island  gradually  diminished  in  size,  and  finally  altogether  disappeared. 

History  abounds  with  accounts  of  floating  islands,  but  they  are  either  false  or  much 
exaggerated.  These  islands  are  generally  found  in  lakes,  and  are  composed  of  the 
light  matter  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  cakes,  forming,  with  the  roots  of 
plants,  collections  of  different  sizes,  which,  not  being  fixed  in  any  part  to  the  shore,  are 
driven  about  by  the  winds.  In  the  course  of  time,  some  of  them  arrive  at  considerable 
size.  The  floating  islands,  however,  mentioned  by  the  old  writers,  have  now  disappeared 
or  become  fixed. 


15  10* 


114 


CHAPTER  X.— CAPES  AND  PENINSULAS. 

Cape  Ann,  the  northern  limit  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  is  a  rocky  promon- 
tory, fifteen  miles  in  length,  containing  several  good  harbors.  The  penin- 
sula of  Cape  Cod,  in  the  south-east  part  of  Massachusetts,  is  about  sixty- 
five  miles  long,  and  from  one  to  twenty  miles  broad ;  its  shape  is  nearly 
that  of  a  man's  arm  bent  inward  at  the  elbow  and  wrist.  The  greater  part 
of  the  peninsula  is  a  barren  desert ;  in  the  south-western  portion  the  land, 
though  sterile,  is  under  some  little  cultivation ;  but  the  northern  part  con- 
sists almost  wholly  of  hills  of  white  sand.  The  houses  are  built  upon 
stakes  driven  into  the  ground,  with  open  spaces  between  for  the  sand  to 
drift  through.  The  cape  is  well  inhabited,  notwithstanding  its  sterility, 
and  supports  a  population  of  twenty -eight  thousand,  who  derive  their  sub- 
sistence chiefly  from  the  fisheries.  The  coast  is  beset  with  numerous 
shoals,  and  has  long  been  the  dread  of  mariners.  At  the  first  settlement 
of  the  country,  there  was  an  island  east  of  the  cape,  about  nine  miles  out 
at  sea,  which  was  twenty  acres  in  extent,  and  covered  with  savin  and 
cedar  trees ;  for  a  century  this  island  has  been  entirely  submerged,  and 
the  water  is  above  six  fathoms  deep. 

The  peninsula  of  Nahant,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  harbor  of  Boston,  is 
connected  with  the  main  land  by  Lynn  beach,  a  smooth  and  level  floor  of 
.sand  two  miles  in  length.  It  is  divided  into  Great  Nahant,  Little  Nahant, 
and  Bass  Neck  :  the  two  former  being  connected  by  a  delightful  beach 
ninety  rods  long.  These  beaches  are  hard  and  smooth,  and  of  sufficient 
width  at  low  water  to  accommodate  thousands  with  a  pleasant  walk  or 
ride.  Great  Nahant  contains  three  hundred  and  five  acres  of  land.  The 
shores  of  this  peninsula  are  bold  and  rocky.  On  its  southern  side  is  a  large 
and  curious  cavern  called  the  Swallows'  House,  inhabited  by  a  great 
number  of  swallows,  which  here  make  their  nests.  On  the  northern  shore 
is  a  chasm  thirty  feet  deep,  called  the  Spouting  Horn,  into  which,  at  about 
half-tide,  the  water  rushes  with  great  violence  and  a  tremendous  sound. 

Nahant  presents  some  of  the  most  striking  sea  views  in  the  world. 
After  an  easterly  storm,  the  violent  dashing  of  the  huge  waves  against  the 
rocks  presents  a  spectacle  possessing  all  the  elements  of  the  sublime.  Dur- 
ing the  heat  of  summer,  Nahant  is  a  favorite  place  of  resort  for  invalids, 
and  people  of  fashion,  on  account  of  its  cool  and  refreshing  breezes. 

Cape  May,  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  northern  point  of  the 
mouth  of  Delaware  Bay,  is  the  termination  of  a  range  of  low,  sandy,  barren 
coast,  commencing  at  Shrewsbury.  It  is  eighteen  miles  north-east  of 
Cape  Henlopen,  a  point  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  entrance  to  the  same 
bay.  On  this  cape  is  a  lighthouse  of  an  octagon  form,  handsomely  built  of 
stone,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  high,  and  on  a  foundation  nearly  as  much 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Cape  Henry  is  the  southern  salient  point  at 
the  mouth  of  Chesapeak  Bay;  and  its  northern  salient  point,  twelve  miles 
distant  to  the  north,  is  the  promontory  of  Cape  Charles. 

Cape  Hatter  as,  the  most  remarkable  and  dangerous  cape  on  the  coast  of 
North  America,  is  situated  in  latitude  thirty-five  degrees  and  twelve  minutes, 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  115 

and  has  occasioned  the  destruction  of  many  a  fine  vessel,  and  the  loss 
of  hundreds  of  valuable  lives.  The  water  is  very  shoal  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  cape,  which  is  remarkable  for  sudden  and  violent  squalls  of  wind, 
and  for  the  most  severe  storms  of  thunder,  lightning,  and  rain,  which  hap- 
pen almost  every  day  for  one  half  the  year.  The  shoals  lie  about  fourteen 
miles  south-west  of  the  cape,  and  are  nearly  five  or  six  acres  in  extent,  with 
about  ten  feet  water.  Here,  at  times,  the  ocean  breaks  in  a  tremendous 
manner,  spouting  as  it  were  to  the  clouds,  from  the  violent  agitation  of  the 
Gulf  Stream,  which  touches  the  edge  of  the  banks. 

Cape  Fear  and  Cape  Lookout  are  dangerous  capes  on  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina.  The  former  is  the  southern  extremity  of  Smith's  Island,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name.  About  sixty  years  ago,  Cape  Look- 
out afforded  an  excellent  harbor,  capacious  enough  for  a  large  fleet  in 
good  deep  water;  but  the  basin  is  now  filled  up.  Roman  is  the  name  of  a 
cape  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  and  of  one  on  the  western  coast  of 
East  Florida.  Cape  Cannaveral  is  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Florida,  being 
the  projecting  point  of  a  long,  narrow  and  low  sandy  island  between  Indian 
river  and  the  ocean.  Cape  Florida  is  a  promontory  of  the  south-eastern 
coast  of  Florida,  projecting  to  the  south,  and  inclosing  on  the  north-east 
the  Bay  of  Biscino.  Cape  Sable  is  the  extreme  point  of  Florida.  Every 
part  of  the  coast  of  the  Southern  States  is  low  and  flat,  without  a  single 
lofty  headland  to  warn  the  navigator  of  his  approach  to  the  land.  The 
peninsula  of  East  Florida  may  be  considered  an  immense  cape,  and  much 
the  largest  in  the  United  States.  The  Mississippi  has  formed  at  its 
mouth,  by  the  mud  brought  down  in  its  waters,  a  cape  forty  miles  in  extent, 
the  extreme  point  of  which  is  called  the  Balize,  through  the  whole  length 
of  which   the  river  passes  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CAPES  AND  PENINSULAS. 

Parts  of  continents  which  shoot  into  the  sea,  and  are  connected  with  the  main  land  by 
only  a  small  portion  of  their  circumference,  are  named  peninsulas,  and  their  figures 
often  correspond  with  those  of  gulfs  and  inland  seas.  When  such  masses  of  land  are 
attached  to  the  continent  by  a  greater  extent  of  line  than  one  fourth  of  their  circumfe- 
rence, they  are  not  considered  as  peninsulas.  If  the  projection  of  land  reach  but  a  short 
distance,  they  are  called  capes,  promontories,  or  simply  points.  The  most  remarkable 
capes  in  the  world  are,  Cape  Horn,  St.  Roque,  Blanco,  Cod,  Verd,  Good  Hope,  Gardafui, 
North,  Comorin,  and  Taymour. 


116 


CHAPTER  XL— BAYS,  HARBORS,  SOUNDS,  AND  GULFS. 

I.  BAYS  AND  HARBORS. 

The  seacoast  of  Maine  is  indented  with  numerous  bays.  Of  these  the 
largest  is  Penobscot  Bay,  which  forms  the  estuary  of  the  river  of  that 
name,  is  about  thirty  miles  in  length,  and  eighteen  in  width  at  its  entrance 
between  the  isle  of  Holt  and  Owl's  Head.  It  incloses  Fox,  Haut,  Long, 
and  Deer  islands,  besides  a  number  of  small  islands  and  rocks.  On  a  fine 
peninsula  in  this  bay  the  British,  in  the  late  war,  built  a  fort,  and  made  a 
settlement,  which  is  now  the  shire  town  of  the  county  of  Hancock,  and  is  a 
very  commodious  place  for  the  lumber  trade.  Broad  Bay  is  situated  about 
twelve  miles  westwardly,  and  is  bounded  by  Pleasant-point  on  the  east, 
and  Pemaquid-point  on  the  west,  the  latter  of  which  projects  considerably 
into  the  sea.  Casco  Bay  lies  between  Cape  Elizabeth  and  Cape  Small- 
point,  and  averages  twenty-five  miles  in  width  by  fourteen  in  length ;  it 
forms  the  entrance  into  Sagadahok  river,  and  has  sufficient  depth  of 
water  for  vessels  of  any  burden.  This  is  a  very  handsome  bay,  and  con- 
tains not  less  than  three  hundred  small  islands,  some  of  which  are  inhabited, 
and  nearly  all  more  or  less  cultivated ;  the  land  on  these  islands,  and  on 
the  opposite  coast,  being  the  best  for  agriculture  of  any  near  the  seashore 
of  this  part  of  the  country.  Wells  Bay  lies  between  Cape  Porpoise  and 
Neddick,  which  are  twenty-one  miles  apart.  Passamaquoddy  Bay,  forming 
a  part  of  the  boundary  between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick,  is  six  miles 
long  and  twelve  wide ;  it  contains  many  islands,  and  receives  the  St.  Croix 
river.  Small  harbors  are  numerous,  and  the  shores  are  rocky  and  bold. 
Besides  the  bays  here  described,  are  the  Saco  and  Machias  bays. 

Massachusetts  Bay  is  about  forty  miles  in  extent,  lying  between  Cape 
Ann  on  the  north  and  Cape  Cod  on  the  south.  Within  this  lies  Boston 
Bay,  comprising  the  space  between  Nahant  on  the  north  and  Point  Alder- 
ton  on  the  south,  and  including  the  harbors  of  Boston,  Lynn,  Dorchester, 
Quincy,  and  Hingham,  with  Nantucket  and  President  Roads,  and  the  nu- 
merous islands  within  the  Boston  lighthouse.  The  most  noted' of  these 
are  Governor's  Island,  and  Castle  Island,  on  both  of  which  fortifications 
are  erected ;  they  lie  about  two  and  a  half  miles  easterly  from  Boston,  at 
the  distance  of  about  a  mile  from  each  other,  dividing  the  inner  from  the 
outer  harbor.  The  only  channel  for  large  ships  passes  between  them. 
This  harbor  is  of  sufficient  extent,  and  its  water  is  sufficiently  deep  to 
admit  five  hundred  ships  of  the  largest  class  to  ride  at  anchor  in  safety  ; 
while  its  entrance  is  so  narrow  as  scarcely  to  admit  two  ships  abreast. 

In  the  south  of  Massachusetts  Bay  is  Cape  Cod  Bay,  fifteen  or  twenty 
miles  in  extent,  lying  between  Cape  Cod  and  Plymouth ;  within  this  are 
Barnstable  and  Plymouth  Bays.  In  the  south  of  the  state  is  Buzzard's 
Bay,  on  the  south-west  side  of  Cape  Cod,  twenty  miles  deep,  and  inclosing 
the  harbor  of  New  Bedford.  '  Buzzard's  Bay,'  says  a  recent  and  entertain- 
ing tourist, '  has  much  that  is  interesting  on  its  extensive  shores.  A  beau- 
tiful little  spot  called  Nauskaw,  will  not  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
voyager  on  his  way  to  Nantucket.     Parts  of  it  are  thickly  covered  with 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  117 

woods.  From  its  centre,  on  an  eminence,  rises  a  picturesque  spot,  which 
was  built  by  an  English  gentleman  of  wealth,  for  his  summer  residence. 
Some  time  previous  to  his  death,  he  became  impressed  with  the  belief  that, 
at  the  expiration  of  twenty  years  after  his  decease,  he  should  return  and 
resume  the  occupations  of  life.  He  accordingly  gave  orders  that  the  house 
with  its  furniture,  should  remain  unmolested  until  the  expiration  of  that 
time,  when  he  should  again  return  to  occupy  it.  Every  thing  remained 
as  he  would  have  it  for  some  time  after  his  death.  But  eventually  the  house 
and  furniture  were  sold,  and  passed  into  other  hands.  Thirty  or  forty 
summers  have  reinvigorated  the  turf  of  his  grave,  but  he  has  not  yet 
returned,  to  claim  his  property,  or  to  reinhabit  the  decaying  mansion.' 
The  boat  passes  from  the  bay  into  the  sound,  through  a  narrow  passage 
called  Wood's  Hole,  a  place  very  intricate  and  difficult  of  navigation. 
Breakers  run  out  from  the  shore  in  all  directions ;  so  that  a  straight  course 
through,  would  be  impossible.  The  boat  in  passing  through  this  miniature 
Hurl  Gate,  makes  a  course  in  the  form  of  the  letter  s. 

Narraganset  Bay  intersects  the  state  of  Rhode  Island,  and  is  about  twen- 
ty-eight miles  long  and  ten  miles  broad.  It  contains  fifteen  islands  ;  it  has 
many  excellent  harbors,  and  affords  great  advantages  for  navigation. 
Newport  harbor,  in  the  channel  between  Conanicut  and  Rhode  Island,  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  being  safe,  deep,  capacious,  and  easily  acces- 
sible. Its  entrance  is  defended  by  Fort  Wolcott  on  Goat's  Island,  and  Fort 
Adams  on  Rhode  Island ;  the  latter  is  a  large  stone  castle  of  great  strength. 
The  banks  of  this  bay  are  covered  with  fine  settlements,  the  view  of  which 
•from  the  water  is  highly  pleasing  and  picturesque. 

The  seacoast  of  New  York  is  nearly  all  comprised  within  the  shores  of 
Long  Island,  which  contain  a  few  harbors  and  inlets,  but  none  that  are 
much  frequented  by  shipping.  The  bay  or  harbor  of  New  York  is  very 
cafe  and  capacious ;  its  boundaries  towards  the  sea  are  Long  Island  and 
Staten  Island ;  it  extends  nine  miles  below  the  city,  and  is  from  a  mile 
end  a  half  to  five  miles  broad ;  inclosing  several  small  islands,  on  which 
are  fortifications.  The  Hudson  enters  this  bay  from  the  north.  The  East 
river,  or  channel  between  New  York  Island  and  Long  Island,  communicates 
with  Long  Island  Sound  on  the  east.  The  Kills,  a  strait  between  Staten 
Island  and  the  Jersey  shore,  communicates  with  Newark  Bay  and  the  river 
Raritan  on  the  west ;  and  the  Narrows  open  into  the  Atlantic  towards  the 
south.  At  low  water,  the  entrance  by  the  Narrows  is  somewhat  difficult 
for  large  ships,  and  the  entrance  from  the  Sound  is  obstructed  by  the  rocky 
strait  of  Hell  Gate.  There  are  several  harbors  on  Lake  Ontario,  the* 
most  noted  of  which  is  Sacket's  Harbor,  toward  the  east  end  of  the  lake ; 
it  is  deep  and  safe,  and  was  an  important  naval  station  during  the  war 
of  1812. 

New  Jersey  has  a  long  line  of  seacoast,  but  it  is  quite  deficient  in  good 
harbors.  Newark  Bay  is  rather  a  small  lake,  communicating  by  long 
outlets  with  the  sea.  The  Bay  of  Amboy,  between  Staten  Island  and 
Sandy  Hook,  affords  little  shelter  for  vessels.  There  is  a  long  bay,  formed 
by  a  beach  four  or  five  miles  from  the  shore,  extending  along  the  coast 
from  Manasquan  river,  in  Monmouth  county,  almost  to  Cape  May. 
Through  this  beach  are  a  number  of  inlets,  by  which  the  bay  communicates 
with  the  ocean.  Delaware  Bay  lies  between  the  states  of  Delaware  and 
New  Jersey,  formed  by  the  mouth  of  Delaware  river  and  several  other 


118  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

smaller  ones.  It  is  sixty-five  miles  long,  and  in  the  centre  about  thirty 
miles  across,  and  about  eighteen  at  its  mouth,  from  Cape  May  to  Cape 
Henlopen.  This  bay  has  many  shoal  places,  but  is  in  general  deep  and 
favorable  to  navigation.  A  breakwater  and  dike  are  now  constructing 
by  the  United  States'  government  at  the  entrance  of  the  bay.  The  ancho- 
rage ground  is  formed  by  a  cove  in  the  southern  shore,  directly  west  of  the 
pitch  of  Cape  Henlopen  and  the  seaward,  and  of  an  extensive  shoal  called 
the  Shears :  the  tail  of  which  makes  out  from  the  shore  about  five  miles  up 
the  bay,  near  the  mouth  of  Broadkill  Creek,  from  whence  it  extends  eastward, 
and  terminates  at  a  point  about  two  miles  to  the  northward  of  the  shore  at 
the  cape.  The  breakwater  consists  of  an  insulated  dike  or  wall  of  stone, 
formed  in  a  straight  line  from  east  south-east  to  west  north-west,  and  twelve 
hundred  yards  in  length.  At  the  distance  of  three  hundred  and  fifty 
yards  from  the  western  end  of  the  breakwater,  a  similar  dike  of  five  hun- 
dred yards  in  length  is  projected  in  a  direct  line,  west  by  south,  one  half 
south,  forming  an  angle  of  one  hundred  and  forty-six  degrees  fifteen 
minutes  with  the  breakwater.  This  part  of  the  works  is  more  particularly 
designed  as  an  ice-breaker.  The  whole  length  of  the  two  dikes  above 
described,  is  seventeen  hundred  yards.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  six 
hundred  and  fifty  yards  in  width,  between  the  north  point  of  the  cape  and 
the  east  end  of  the  breakwater.  At  this  opening,  the  harbor  will  be  acces- 
sible during  all  winds  coming  from  the  sea.* 

The  Chesape.ak  Bay  is  a  deep  gulf  opening  from  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
between  capes  Henry  and  Charles,  and  lying  in  the  states  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia.  It  is  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles  in  length,  extending 
northwardly,  and  its  entrance  is  sixteen  miles  wide.  Its  general  breadth 
varies  from  seven  to  twenty  miles,  and  its  average  depth  is  nine  fathoms ; 
it  affords  a  safe  and  easy  navigation,  and  many  fine  harbors.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  that  of  Norfolk,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  bay 
near  the  mouth  of  the  James.  The  embouchure  of  this  river  forms  a 
spacious  haven,  called  Hampton  Roads. 

The  channel  which  leads  in  from  the  capes  of  Virginia  to  Hampton 
Roads,  is,  at  Old  Point  Comfort,  reduced  to  a  very  narrow  line.  The 
shoal  water,  which,  under  the  action  of  the  sea,  and  re-acted  upon  by  the 
bar,  is  kept  in  an  unremitting  ripple,  has  given  the  name  of  Rip  Raps  to 
this  place.  When  the  bar  is  passed,  Hampton  Roads  afford  the  finest 
anchorage  in  the  world,  and  in  them  all  its  navies  might  ride  with  perfect 
safety.  With  a  view  of  making  this  a  secure  retreat  for  ships  of  war  and 
for  our  commerce,  in  any  future  contest  with  a  naval  power,  Fort  Monroe 

*  The  whole  cost  of  this  work  was  estimated  by  the  commissioners  at  two  million 
two  hundred  and  sixteen  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy  dollars.  The  amount 
hitherto  expended  is  not  far  from  one  million  dollars.  Two  or  three  years  more  will  be 
required,  in  order  to  carry  the  work  to  its  completion.  When  finished,  according  to  the 
original  plan,  it  will  afford  a  harbor  sufficiently  capacious  for  the  anchorage  of  upwards 
of  sixty  vessels.  '  The  water  surface  will  comprise  an  area  of  one  mile  square,  having  a 
depth  at  low  water  of  from  three  to  six  fathoms,  between  the  pitch  of  the  cape  and  the 
western  extremity  of  the  ice-breaker.  This  place  will  be  completely  secured  from 
all  gales  from  the  north-east  and  north-west,  these  being  the'  only  points  of  attack 
which  there  has  been  a  necessity,  in  the  plan  of  the  work,  to  secure  and  fortify.'  There 
is  but  one  breakwater  in  the  world  that  can  claim  a  comparison  with  it,  viz.  that  at 
Plymouth,  England,  the  length  of  which  is  about  a  mile.  Its  cost  was  upwards  of  one 
million  pounds  sterling,  and  the  quantity  of  stone  employed  in  its  construction,  about 
two  million  tons. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  119 

was  built  on  the  point,  on  the  right  side  of  the  channel  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Roads ;  and  the  Castle  of  the  Rip  Raps  is  directly  opposite  the  point, 
at  the  distance  of  about  one  thousand  nine  hundred  yards.  The  two  forts 
will  completely  command  the  channel,  and  it  will  be  impossible  for  a  single 
ship  of  war  to  pass  without  the  permission  of  the  power  holding  the  fort- 
resses. They  are  so  constructed,  as  to  present  immense  batteries  of  cannon 
upon  an  approaching  ship,  from  the  moment  she  comes  in  reach,  from  the 
capes,  and  throughout  all  the  bendings  of  the  channel.* 

Chesapeak  Bay,  and  its  tributary  streams,  have  been  known  from  their 
discovery  as  the  great  place  of  resort  for  water-fowl  in  the  United  States 
This  is  attributed  to  the  great  abundance  of  their  favorite  food,  which  is 
found  on  the  immense  flats  or  shoals  near  the  mouth  of  the  Susquehanna, 
the  whole  length  of  North,  East,  and  Elk  rivers,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bay  as  far  south  as  York  and  James  rivers. 

The  harbors  of  North  and  South  Carolina  are  generally  bad.  That  of 
Charleston  is  obstructed  at  its  entrance  by  a  dangerous  sand-bar;  that  of 
Georgetown  will  admit  only  small  craft.  The  harbor  of  Beaufort  or  Port 
Royal  is  the  best  in  the  state,  but  is  little  frequented.  The  largest  bays 
of  Florida  are  those  of  Apalachicola,  St.  Andrew's,  Ochlockney,  and  Pen- 
sacola.  Alabama  has  but  about  sixty  miles  of  seacoast,  containing  the 
spacious  Bay  of  Mobile,  which  extends  thirty  miles  inland.  It  has  two 
principal  entrances,  one  of  which  has  eighteen  feet  depth  of  water.  To 
the  west  it  communicates  by  a  shallow  passage  with  the  Bay  of  Pasca- 
goula,  which  lies  within  a  number  of  islands,  on  the  coast  of  this  state  and 
Mississippi. 

II.  SOUNDS. 

Long  Island  Sound  is  an  extensive  gulf  or  channel,  from  three  to  twenty- 
five  miles  broad,  and  about  one  hundred  and  forty  in  length,  extending  the 
whole  length  of  Long  Island,  and  dividing  it  from  Connecticut.  It  is  narrow 
at  the  eastern  entrance,  and  expands  in  the  middle ;  it  communicates  with 
the  ocean  at  both  ends.  Towards  the  west  it  contracts  gradually,  till  it 
joins  the  harbor  of  New  York  by  a  narrow  and  crooked  strait.  It  admits 
of  a  free  navigation  throughout  its  whole  extent  for  the  largest  ships,  except 

#  Fort  Monroe  is  already  finished,  and  is  at  this  moment  in  admirable  condition,  if  its 
armament  were  completed.  The  Rip  Raps,  when  finished,  will  be  a  monument  worthy 
of  the  people  who  have  lavished  their  means  in  its  erection,  and  of  the  genius  of  the 
engineers  by  whom  it  was  planned.  The  area  of  the  structure,  as  originally  staked 
off,  includes  five  acres ;  great  part  of  which  was  twenty-two  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  and  that  nearest  the  surface  eighteen  feet.  To  get  a  foundation  above  water 
for  the  fort,  or  castle,  an  island  has  been  raised,  by  throwing  rocks  into  the  water,  until, 
by  gradual  accumulation,  it  has  emerged  above  the  tides.  The  rock  of  which  this  island 
is  formed,  has  been  brought  from  great  distances  and  at  vast  expense. 

After  a  foundation  was  obtained  for  the  castle  above  high  water,  the  building  of  the 
castle  was  begun,  and  carried  up  so  as  to  form  the  first  embrasures.  It  was  found  that 
the  settling  of  the  artificial  mound  of  stone,  cracked  the  walls.  The  building  was, 
therefore,  discontinued ;  but  immense  masses  of  granite  have  since  been  brought  and 
lodged  upon  the  line  of  the  work,  that  the  weight  of  the  material,  designed  for  its  com- 
pletion, might  be  employed  in  consolidating  its  foundations.  For  some  years  this 
marine  pyramid  sunk  between  six  and  eight  inches ;  during  the  last  year,  although 
pressed  with  the  weight  of  all  the  material  gathered  for  the  superstructure,  it  settled 
about  three  inches.  It  is  stated  that  the  erection  of  the  castle  may  now  proceed  with 
safety,  and  that  its  immediate  completion  is  contemplated  by  government. 


120  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

at  the  celebrated  passage  called  Hell  Gate,*  situated  near  the  west  end 
of  this  sound,  about  eight  miles  from  the  city  of  New  York.  It  is  a  very 
singular  strait,  about  three  or  four  hundred  yards  in  breadth,  having  a 
ledge  of  sunken  rocks  across  it  in  an  angular  direction,  which  occasions 
many  whirlpools  and  cross  currents  in  the  water.  These,  at  certain  periods 
of  the  tide,  make  a  tremendous  noise,  and  render  a  passage  impracticable ; 
but  at  other  times  the  water  is  smooth,  and  the  navigation  easy. 

Pamlico  Sound  is  a  kind  of  a  lake  or  inland  sea,  from  ten  to  thirty  miles 
broad,  and  seventy  miles  in  length.  It  is  separated  from  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
in  its  whole  length,  by  a  beach  of  sand  hardly  a  mile  wide,  generally 
covered  with  trees  or  bushes.  Through  this  bank  are  several  small  inlets, 
by  which  boats  may  pass ;  but  Ocrecock  Inlet  is  the  only  one  that  will 
admit  vessels  of  burden.  This  inlet  communicates  with  Albemarle  Sound, 
which  is  also  a  kind  of  inland  sea,  sixty  miles  in  length,  and  from  four  to 
fifteen  in  breadth,  lying  north  of  Pamlico  Sound.  Core  Sound  lies  south  of 
Pamlico,  and  has  a  communication  with  it.  These  sounds  are  so  large, 
when  compared  with  their  inlets  from  the  sea,  that  no  tide  can  be  perceived 
in  any  of  the  rivers  which  empty  into  them,  nor  is  the  water  salt,  even  in 
the  mouths  of  these  rivers. 

III.  GULFS. 
Gulf  of  Mexico. — The  Gulf  of  Mexico  washes  the  shores  of  Florida, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  on  the  side  of  the  United  States.  It 
extends  between  the  eighteenth  and  thirtieth  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and 
is  nearly  of  a  circular  form,  but  somewhat  elongated  from  east  to  west. 
In  the  latter  direction  it  is  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  long;  in 
the  transverse  direction  it  is  about  nine  hundred  and  thirty.  It  opens  in  a 
south-east  direction,  between  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  and  Florida,  or  the 
capes  Catoche  and  Sable,  which  are  about  four  hundred  and  sixty-five  miles 
distant  from  each  other.  The  Island  of  Cuba  divides  this  opening  into  two 
channels :  the  one  to  the  south-west,  communicating  with  the  Sea  of  the 
Antilles,  and  the  other  to  the  north-east  with  the  Atlantic,  by  means  of  the 
Straits  of  Bahama  or  Florida.  South  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  del  Norte, 
round  about  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Alvarado,  an  extent  of  six  hundred  miles, 
this  gulf  does  not  present  a  single  good  port,  as  Vera  Cruz  is  merely  a  bad 
anchorage  amidst  shallows.  The  Mexican  coast  may  be  considered  a  sort 
of  dike,  against  which  the  waves,  continually  agitated  by  the  trade-winds 
blowing  from  east  to  west,  throw  up  the  sands  carried  by  the  violent  motion. 
The  rivers  descending  from  the  Sierra  Madre,  have  also  contributed  to  in- 
crease these  sands,  and  the  land  is  gaining  on  the  sea.  No  vessels,  says 
Humboldt,  drawing  more  than  twelve  and  a  half  inches  water,  can  pass 
over  these  sand-bars  without  danger  of  grounding. 

*  Washington  Irving  describes  Hell  Gate  '  to  be  as  pacific  at  low  water  as  any  other 
stream.  As  the  tide  rises,  it  begins  to  fret ;  at  half-tide  it  rages  and  roars,  as  if  bellow- 
ing for  more  water  •  but  when  the  tide  is  full,  it  relapses  again  into  quiet,  and  for  a 
time  seems  almost  to  sleep  as  soundly  as  an  alderman  after  dinner.  It  may  be  compared 
to  an  inveterate  hard  drinker,  who  is  a  peaceable  fellow  enough  when  he  has  no  liquor 
at  all,  or  when  he  has  his  skin  full :  but  when  half-seas-over,  plays  the  very  devil.' 

The  borders  of  the  sound,  all  about  this  strait,  are  broken  and  indented  by  rocky  nooks, 
and  the  bay  towards  the  city  is  so  beautifully  shaped,  and  the  views  on  both  sides  so 
interesting,  that  the  shores  and  neighborhood  of  the  bay  are  adorned  with  a  great 
number  of  handsome  and  expensive  villas. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  121 

The  Mississippi  is  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
carries  down  with  it,  besides  its  vast  body  of  waters,  a  prodigious  quantity 
of  organic  and  unorganic  debris.  The  town  of  New  Orleans,  near  the 
mouth  of  this  river,  is  the  principal  commercial  station  along  the  whole 
gulf.  In  the  middle  of  the  gulf  the  winds  blow  regularly  from  the  north- 
east; but  they  vary  considerably  on  approaching  the  shore.  From  the 
Mississippi,  along  the  Florida  coast,  the  south-west  wind  blows  violently 
in  the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October  ;  the  north  wind  prevails 
during  the  other  nine  months.  Between  the  Mississippi  and  San  Bernardo, 
the  wind  generally  blows  in  the  morning  from  the  south-east  or  east-south- 
east, and  in  the  evening  from  the  south-west.  Between  Catoche  and  Cam- 
peachy  the  reigning  wind,  during  a  great  part  of  the  year,  blows  from  the 
north-east ;  but  from  the  end  of  April  to  September,  it  comes  from  the 
opposite  direction.  The  most  remarkable  current  in  the  gulf,  is  that  called 
the  Gulf  Stream,  described  in  the  following  chapter. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  BAYS! 

Many  portions  of  the  land  and  sea  extend  reciprocally  the  one  into  the  other.  If  the 
sea  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  any  continent,  it  forms  there  a  mediterranean,  or  inland 
sea,  almost  surrounded  by  land,  and  having  only  a  narrow  opening  into  the  sea.  If  the 
extent  of  such  seas  be  less,  and  the  opening  larger,  they  are  called  gulfs  or  bays,  two 
terms  which  geographical  writers  have  wished  to  distinguish,  but  which  customary 
language  more  frequently  confounds.  The  still  smaller  portions  of  sea,  surrounded  as 
it  were  by  land,  and  which  afford  a  shelter  for  ships,  are  called  ports,  creeks,  or  roads. 
The  first  term  means  a  secure  asylum  ;  the  second  is  applied  to  places  or  ports  of  much 
smaller  size,  and  which,  when  improved  or  completed  by  artificial  aid,  are  styled  harbors, 
and  roads  afford  only  a  temporary  anchorage  and  security  from  certain  winds.  The 
principal  bays  in  the  world  are  Baffin's,  Hudson's,  James's,  Fundy,  Massachusetts, 
Narraganset,  Delaware,  Chesapeak,  Campeachy,  Honduras,  Bristol,  All  Saints,  Cardi- 
gan, Donegal,  Galway,  Biscay,  Bengal,  Walwich,  Table,  False,  Angola,  Natal,  Saldanha, 
and  Botany.  The  principal  gulfs  are  St.  Lawrence,  Mexico,  Amatique,  California, 
Panama,  Guayaquil,  St.  George,  Bothnia,  Finland,  Riga,  Genoa,  Naples,  Taranto,  Venice, 
Salonica,  Persian,  Ormus,  Siam,  Tonquin,  Corea,  Obi,  and  Guinea.  The  principal  sounds 
are  Long  Island,  Albemarle,  Pamlico,  Prince  William's,  Queen  Charlotte's,  and  Nootka 


16  11 


122 


CHAPTER  XII.— OCEANS. 

The  United  States  are  washed  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  nearly  the 
whole  of  their  eastern  coast,  and  by  the  Pacific  on  a  large  portion  of  their 
Western  boundary. 

Under  the  name  of  the  Atlantic,  is  comprised  that  mass  of  water  between 
the  eastern  coast  of  America  and  the  western  coast  of  Europe  and  Africa* 
In  its  narrowest  part,  between  Europe  and  Greenland,  it  is  one  thousand 
miles  wide,  and  opening-  thence  to  the  south-west  with  the  general  range 
of  the  bounding  continents,  spreads  under  the  northern  tropic  to  a  breadth 
of  sixty  degrees  of  longitude,  or  four  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy 
miles,without  estimating  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  general  phenomena  on 
the  two  opposing  sides  of  the  Atlantic  have  great  resemblance.  The  Atlan- 
tic coast  of  the  United  States  presents  an  elliptic  curve  in  its  entire  extent, 
with  three  intermediate  and  similar  curves ;  the  first  extending  seven 
hundred  miles  from  Cape  Florida  to  Cape  Hatteras,  the  second  from  Cape 
Hatteras  five  hundred  miles  to  the  outer  capes  of  Massachusetts,  and  the 
third  formed  by  the  coasts  of  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire  and  Maine. 
Opposite  to  the  United  States,  the  Atlantic  admits  soundings  in  every 
place  near  the  shores,  always  deepening  very  gradually.  We  have  not 
found  an  exact  comparison  of  the  natural  history  of  the  Atlantic  with  that 
of  other  oceans*  The  chief  phenomenon  that  marks  it  along  the  coast  of 
the  states  is  the  Gulf  Stream. 

Besides  the  regular  periodical  currents  produced  in  the  ocean  by  the 
tides,  various  others  arise  from  different  causes.*  The  waters  of  the  sea 
may  be  put  in  motion  by  an  external  impulse,  by  a  difference  in  tempera- 
ture and  saltness,  by  the  periodical  meeting  of  the  polar  ice,  or  by  the 
inequality  of  evaporation  that  takes  place  in  different  latitudes.  Some- 
times several  of  these  causes  concur  in  producing  the  same  effect ;  at  others, 
their  actions  are  opposed  to  one  another,  and  their  effects  wholly  or  partially 
destroyed.  Some  of  these  currents  constantly  follow  the  same  direction, 
others  are  subject  to  periodical  changes,  whilst  a  third  class  are  more  acci- 
dental. The  most  regular  and  extensive  current  on  the  globe  is  that  which 
constantly  flows  from  east  to  west,  between  the  tropics,  and  extends  on  each 
side  of  the  equator  to  about  the  thirtieth  degree  of  latitude. 

This  vast  current  necessarily  results  from  the  attraction  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth,  and  the  direction  of  the  trade  winds. 
Its  existence  is  incontestibly  proved  by  the  fact,  that  vessels  sailing  to  the 
westward,  are  always  ahead  of  their  reckoning;  that  is,  their  real  situation, 
as  determined  by  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  always  found  to 
be  west  of  that  estimated  from  the  rate  of  which  the  vessel  is  supposed  to 
sail,  as  impelled  by  the  wind  alone.  This  difference  of  situation  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  general  movement  of  the  waters  in  the  same  direction,  and  is, 
consequently,  the  proper  measure  of  the  current.     This  is  the  reason  why 

*  Major  ftennel  considers  the  Winds  the  principal  cause  of  currents  in  the  ocean,  in 
which  opinion  he  is  supported  by  several  eminent  writers  ;  but  allowing  to  the  wind 
great  influence,  still  that  influence  is  not  sufficient  to  account  satisfactorily  for  the  vari- 
ous and  contradictory  facts  which  are  recorded  concerning  these  mighty  streams. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  123 

navigators,  in  sailing  from  Europe  to  America  and  the  "West  India  Islands, 
make  the  latitude  of  the  Canaries,  and  then  shape  their  course  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  and  current  across  the  Atlantic. 

A  general  current  also  flows  from  the  poles  towards  the  equator.  This 
arises  from  the  increased  evaporation  in  the  equatorial  regions,  and  the 
augmented  temperature  of  the  waters,  which  render  them  specifically 
lighter  than  those  of  the  ocean  in  higher  latitudes,  as  well  as  from  the 
increased  supplies  produced  by  the  melting  of  the  polar  ice ;  all  of  which 
render  these  currents  necessary  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  this  perpetu- 
ally circulating  fluid.  Their  existence  and  effects  are  fully  attested  by  the 
enormous  masses  of  polar  ice,  which  they  convey  into  the  more  temperate 
regions  of  the  ocean,  and  which  sometimes  float  as  low  as  forty  degrees  of 
latitude. 

These  general  currents  are  greatly  modified,  and  changed  into  various 
directions  by  the  obstacles  they  encounter  in  their  progress.  The  coast  of 
America,  and  the  numerous  islands  with  which  it  is  flanked,  intercept  the 
general  current  of  the  Atlantic,  and  create  what  navigators  call  the  Gulf 
Stream.  This  great  current  enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and,  sweeping 
round  the  shores  of  that  gulf,  issues  with  accelerated  velocity  towards  the 
north,  by  the  channel  between  the  southern  point  of  Florida  and  the  Bahama 
Islands.^  It  then  rolls  along  the  shore  of  North  America,  diminishing  in 
velocity,  but  increasing  in  breadth,  till  it  reaches  the  great  bank  of  New- 
foundland. There  it  suddenly  turns  towards  the  east  and  south-east,  and 
flows  with  still  decreasing  velocity,  towards  the  shores  of  Europe,  the 
Azores,  and  the  coasts  of  Africa.  Navigators  readily  distinguish  this 
current  by  the  high  temperature  of  its  waters,  their  great  saltness,  their 
indigo  color,  and  the  shoals  of  sea-weedt  that  cover  their  surface. 

Humboldt,  in  May,  1804,  observed  its  velocity  in  the  twenty-seventh 
degree  of  latitude,  and  found  it  about  eighty  miles  in  twenty-four  hours, 
though  the  north  wind  blew  very  strongly  at  the  time  of  the  observation. 
When  it  issues  from  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  its  velocity  resembles  that  of  a 
torrent,  and  is  sometimes  five  miles  an  hour,  but  at  others  not  more  than 
three.     Between  the  nearest  point  of  Florida,  and  the  bank  of  Bahama,  the 

*  When  the  course  of  this  stream  is  stated  to  be  three  thousand  geographical  miles, 
some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  force  with  which  it  issues  through  the  strait  of  Florida  ; 
a  force  so  great  as  to  be  destructive  to  the  land  in  that  quarter.  On  the  north  side  of 
Delaware  Bay,  the  encroachments  of  the  sea  average  nine  feet  a  year,  from  observations 
made  between  1804  and  1820,  and  at  Sullivan's  Island  on  the  north  side  of  the  entrance 
to  the  harbor  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  the  sea  carried  away  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of 
land  in  three  years ;  which  destructive  power  arises  from  the  narrowness  of  the  strait, 
and  the  great  volume  of  water  that  passes  through  it.  As  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
strait  of  Florida  is  thirty-six  nautic  miles  in  breadth,  and  the  annual  mean  velocity 
about  seventy-three  miles  per  day,  a  surface  of  two  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty- 
eight  square  miles  of  gulf  water  will  be  poured  into  the  Atlantic  every  day,  or  about 
two-thirds  of  a  square  equatorial  degree. 

f  Humboldt  is  of  opinion  that  this  weed  is  produced  in  large  beds,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  and  that  from  these  beds  it  is  detached  in  a  ripened  state,  and  collects  in  large 
masses  on  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  called  the  Sargasso,  or  Weedy  Sea.  Hans  Sloane,  in 
his  history  of  Jamaica,  quotes  many  authorities  for  the  weed's  being  found  on  the  shores 
of  the  Cape  Verd  and  Canary  islands,  as  well  as  among  those  of  the  West  Indies,  and  that 
it  is  carried  to  sea,  by  means  of  winds  and  currents.  The  opinion  of  Humboldt  appears 
to  account  more  satisfactorily  for  the  accumulation  of  such  vast  masses  than  that  of  the 
historian  of  Jamaica. 


124  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

breadth  is  only  fifteen  leagues/but  a  few  degrees  further  north,  it  is  seven* 
teen ;  in  the  parallel  of  Charleston  it  is  from  forty  to  fifty  leagues  in  breadth ; 
and  in  latitude  forty  degrees  and  twenty-five  minutes,  this  is  increased  to 
nearly  eighty  leagues.  The  waters  of  the  torrid  zone,  being  thus  forcibly 
impelled  towards  the  north-east,  preserve  their  high  temperature  to  such  a 
degree,  that,  in  latitude  forty  and  forty-one  degrees,  it  has  been  found  to 
be  seventy-two  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  while  out  of  the  current  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  was  only  sixty-three  degrees. 

In  the  parallel  of  New  York  the  temperature  of  the  Gulf  Stream  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  sea  in  latitude  eighteen  degrees.  When  the  current  reaches 
the  western  islands  of  the  Azores,  where  the  breadth  is  about  one  hundred 
and  sixty  leagues,  the  'waters  still  preserve  a  part  of  the  impulsion  they 
receive  in  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  nearly  one  thousand  leagues  distant.  Hence 
the  current  proceeds  to  the  Canaries  and  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  the 
latitude  of  Cape  Blanco,  where  the  waters  flow  towards  the  south-west, 
they  mingle  with  the  current  of  the  tropics,  and  recommence  their  tour  from 
east  to  west. 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  between  the  eleventh 
and  forty-third  degrees,  are  constantly  drawn  by  currents  into  a  kind  of 
whirlpool ;  and  if  a  drop  of  these  waters  be  supposed  to  return  precisely  to 
the  place  from  which  it  commenced  its  motion,  Humboldt  has  calcu- 
lated, from  the  known  velocity  of  the  current,  that  it  would  require  two 
years  and  ten  months  to  complete  its  circuit  of  three  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred leagues. 

'  A  boat,'  he  observes,  '  which  may  be  supposed  to  receive  no  impulsion 
from  the  winds,  would  require  thirteen  months  from  the  Canary  Islands,  to 
reach  the  coast  of  Caraccas,  ten  months  to  make  the  tour  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  reach  the  Tortoise  Shoals,  opposite  the  port  of  Havana, 
while  forty'or  fifty  days  might  be  sufficient  to  carry  it  from  the  straits  of 
Florida  to  the  bank  of  Newfoundland.  Estimating  the  velocity  of  the  wa- 
ter at  seven  or  eight  miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  in  their  progress  from  this 
bank  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  it  would  require  ten  or  eleven  months  for  this 
last  distance.  Such  are  the  effects  of  this  slow  but  regular  motion,  which 
agitates  the  waters  of  the  ocean.'  The  Gulf  Stream  furnished  to  Christo- 
pher Columbus  indications  of  the  existence  of  land  to  the  west.  This 
current  had  carried  upon  the  Azores  the  bodies  of  two  men  of  an  unknown 
race,  and  pieces  of  bamboo  of  an  enormous  size.  In  latitude  forty-five 
or  fifty  degrees,  near  Bonnet  Flamand,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
flows  from  the  south-west  to  the  north-east,  towards  the  coast  of  Europe. 
It  deposits  upon  the  coasts  of  Ireland  and  Norway,  trees  and  fruits  belong- 
ing to  the  torrid  zone.  Kemains  of  a  vessel  burnt  at  Jamaica  were  found 
upon  the  coast  of  Scotland.  It  is  likewise  this  river  of  the  Atlantic  which 
annually  throws  the  fruits  of  the  West  Indies  upon  the  shore  of  Norway. 

The  Pacific  is  also  one  of  the  great  boundaries  of  the  United  States.  By 
treaties  with  Spain  and  Russia  our  government  possesses  sovereignty  along 
the  Pacific  ocean  from  latitude  forty-two  degrees  to  fifty -four  degrees  and 
forty  minutes,  which  is  equal  to  about  eight  hundred  and  eighty  statute 
miles.  This  great  ocean  extends  from  Beering's  Straits  to  the  antarctic 
circle,  a  distance  of  three  thousand  two  hundred  leagues,  and  from  Asia 
and  New  Holland  to  America.  It  is  separated  from  the  Atlantic  and  Ant- 
arctic oceans  only  by  imaginary  lines.    Its  extreme  breadth,  a  little  north  of 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  125 

the  equator,  is  four  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty  leagues ;  between  South 
America  and  New  Holland,  latitude  thirty  degrees  south,  it  is  two  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  seventy  leagues.  It  contains  an  immense  number  of 
islands  spread  over  its  surface,  particularly  between  latitude  thirty  degrees 
north  and  fifty  degrees  south,  to  which  modern  geographers  have  given  the 
general  appellation  of  Oceanica.  It  was  first  called  the  South  Sea  by  the 
European  navigators  who  entered  it  from  the  north.  Magellan  gave  it  the 
name  of  Pacific,  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  calms  which  he  experienc- 
ed in  it ;  but  it  by  no  means  deserves  the  name,  as  it  is  remarkable  for 
the  fury  of  its  storms,  and  the  agitation  of  its  waters.  The  trade-winds, 
which  constantly  blow  between  the  tropics,  render  the  passage  from  the 
western  coast  of  America  to  Asia  very  short ;  but  the  return  is  proportion- 
ately difficult.  The  Portuguese  were  the  first  Europeans  who  entered  the 
Pacific,  which  they  did  from  the  east.  Balboa,  in  1513,  discovered  it  from 
the  summit  of  the  mountains  which  traverse  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Ma- 
gellan sailed  across  it  from  east  to  west  in  1521.* 

The  Pacific,  by  its  general  motion,  retreats  from  the  coast  of  America, 
and  flows  from  east  to  west ;  and  this  motion  is  very  powerful  in  the  vast 
and  uninterrupted  extent  of  that  sea.  Near  Cape  Corriantes,  in  Peru,  the 
sea  appears  to  flow  from  the  land  by  this  single  cause.  Ships  are  carried 
with  rapidity  from  the  port  of  Acapulco,  in  Mexico,  to  the  Philippine  Islands. 
But  in  order  to  return,  they  are  obliged  to  go  to  the  north  of  the  tropics,  to 
seek  the  polar  current,  and  the  variable  winds.  On  the  other  side,  the 
south  polar  current,  finding  no  land  to  impede  it,  carries  along  with  it  the 
polar  ice  even  to  the  latitude  where  the  motion  of  the  tropical  current  be- 
gins to  be  felt.  This  is  the  reason  why,  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
floating  pieces  of  ice  are  met  with  at  fifty  and  even  at  forty  degrees. 

In  its  motion  towards  the  west,  the  Pacific  is  impeded  by  an  immense 
archipelago  of  flats,  islands,  submarine  mountains,  and  even  land  of  con- 
siderable extent ;  it  penetrates  into  this  labyrinth,  and  there  forms  one 
current  after  another.  The  direction  which  the  principal  of  these  currents 
observe,  is  conformable  to  the  general  motion  towards  the  west.  But,  as 
might  be  expected,  the  inequalities  of  the  basin  of  the  sea,  the  coasts,  and 

^Magellan  set  sail  from  Europe  in  September,  1519,  with  five  ships,  with  the  intention 
by  sailing  west  and  south,  and  following  a  course  never  before  attempted,  to  try  to  make 
the  Molucca  Islands  at  least,  by  an  entirely  new  passage.  Reaching  first  a  southern  part 
of  the  South  American  Continent,  where  he  rested  for  the  winter  and  refreshed  his  fol- 
lowers, he  leisurely  proceeded  still  southerly  ;  and  in  the  October  following,  first  disco- 
vered the  strait  which  now  bears  his  name.  Neither  the  dangerous  currents  of  this 
tempestuous  region,  however,  nor  the  unknown  nautical  terrors  of  the  stormy  Cape 
Horn,  could  damp  the  ardor  of  this  bold  adventurer ;  and  having  at  length  surmounted 
all  the  difficulties  of  the  strait,  and  cleared  the  wild  shores  by  which  they  were  sur- 
rounded, Magellan  and  his  discovery  ships  first  emerged  into  the  great  South  Sea. 

Sea-room,  almost  boundless,  the  great  delight  of  the  sailor,  together  with  steady 
breezes  and  salubrious  weather,  carried  these  first  adventurers  on  into  this  new  region, 
with  high  hopes,  and  spirits  dancing  as  the  waves  over  which  they  rode.  Finding  that 
the  stream  of  wind  which  so  pleasingly  wafted  them  into  a  warmer  climate,  followed 
the  course  of  the  sun  and  blew  steadily  in  one  direction,  in  that  manner  which  in  all 
similar  cases  has  since  been  denominated  trade-wind  j  and  that,  favored  by  this  breeze, 
the  trader  and  his  companions  proceeded  on  with  an  ease  and  rapidity  beyond  their 
most  sanguine  expectations,  the  sea  and  sky  seemed  to  Magellan  equally  to  be  at  peace 
with  each  other  and  with  the  hopeful  mariner  who  had  intrusted  himself  to  both  ;  and 
thinking  this  unexplored  world  of  waters  worthy  to  be  called  a  Pacific  Ocean,  he  gave  it 
the  name,  which,  however  inappropriate,  it  will  probably  forever  retain. 

11* 


126  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  chains  of  submarine  mountains,  sometimes  turn  these  currents  toward 
the  north  or  south.  We  may  easily  conceive  that  a  strong  repercussion  of 
the  waters  of  the  ocean,  in  consequence  of  their  meeting  with  a  large  mass 
of  land,  (as  New  South  Wales,)  may  even  produce  a  counter  current, 
which  will  return  towards  the  east,  and  which,  by  breaking,  will  also  pro- 
duce other  currents,  adverse  and  dangerous  to  navigators,  and  such  as  were 
encountered  by  Cook  and  La  Perouse. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Asia.  Beering's  Straits 
connects  it  with  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  the  line  which  indicates  the  one 
hundred  and  forty-seventh  eastern  meridian,  arbitrarily  separates  it  from 
the  Indian  Ocean.  Geographers  divide  the  Pacific  into  the  northern  and 
southern,  the  equator  being  the  line  of  demarcation.  This  ocean  occupies 
"fifty  millions  of  square  miles  ;  nearly  one  fourth  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
globe.  It  covers  three  times  the  extent  of  the  Indian,  and  twice  the  extent 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  OCEANS. 

The  bed  of  the  ocean  is  diversified  by  the  same  inequalities  that  are  exhibited  on  the 
surface  of  the  land.  Its  greatest  depth  that  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment,  is 
seven  thousand  two  hundred  feet.  Its  mean  depth  is  a  little  over  three  thousand  feet  • 
about  the  same  as  the  mean  heights  of  the  continents  and  islands  above  its  surface. 
Parts  of  the  sea  differ  in  saltness,  but  the  difference  is  slight.  Though  more  bitter  than 
that  at  a  considerable  depth,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  water  of  the  surface  is  less 
salt.  Inland  seas  are  less  salt  than  the  main  ocean,  on  account  of  the  large  volumes  of 
fresh  water  emptied  into  them.  The  coldness  of  the  polar  seas  occasions  a  more  rapid 
deposit  of  the  saline  substances,  and  renders  them  more  salt  than  those  of  the  equator. 
Various  theories  have  been  formed  to  account  for  the  saltness  of  the  sea ;  one  attributes 
it  to  the  existence  of  primitive  beds  of  salt  at  its  bottom,  another  to  the  corruption  of 
vegetable  and  animal  matter  carried  into  it  by  rivers.  A  third  theory  considers  the 
ocean  as  the  residue  of  a  primitive  fluid,  which,  after  depositing  all  the  substances  of 
wrhich  the  earth  is  composed,  retained  the  saline  principle.  Sea-water  is  freed  from  its 
salt  only  by  distillation. 

In  the  open  ocean,  the  prevailing  color  is  a  deep  greenish  blue ;  other  shades  ob- 
served in  the  different  seas  seem  to  be  owing  to  local  causes.  In  shoal  places  the  water 
takes  a  lighter  hue.  The  luminous  appearance  of  the  sea  by  night  is  a  magnificent  phe- 
nomenon, that  has  not  yet  been  entirely  explained.  The  great  divisions  of  the  sea  are 
inhabited  by  their  peculiar  fish,  and  frequented  by  peculiar  species  of  birds.  The  level 
of  the  sea  is,  generally  speaking,  every  where  the  same ;  though  exceptions  to  this  rule 
are  sometimes  found  in  land-locked  bays  and  gulfs,  where  the  waters  become  accumu- 
lated and  stand  higher  than  in  the  open  ocean. 


127 


CHAPTER  XIII.— SOIL. 

Every  variety  of  soil  is  found  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States, 
and  an  accurate  general  estimate  is  not  of  course  to  be  formed.  We  will 
first  describe  that  portion  of  the  country  known  as  the  Atlantic  Slope. 
Next  to  the  ocean  are  salt  meadows  or  marshes,  but  little  elevated  above 
the  water,  towards  which,  their  surface  has  a  very  slight  inclination.  They 
are  covered  with  a  peculiar  reddish  grass,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in 
height,  growing  very  thick,  and  forming  with  its  roots  a  compact  turf  or 
sward,  which  is  only  cut  with  a  sharp  instrument  and  by  considerable 
force.  These  meadows  are  overflowed  by  the  salt  water  a  few  inches  deep, 
several  times  every  spring,  and  to  this  their  peculiar  character  is  attributed ; 
for  when  the  water  is  kept  from  them  by  dikes,  the  upland  grasses  take  root, 
the  turf  loses  its  tenacity  and  crumbles,  and  in  a  few  years  their  appearance 
is  entirely  changed.  A  slope  of  about  six  feet  in  two  or  three  rods  lies 
between  these  meadows  and  low  water  mark ;  this  is  covered  with  a  coarse 
tall  grass  called  sedge,  which  requires  the  returns  of  the  daily  tides  to  bring 
it  to  maturity. 

Adjoining  the  salt  meadows,  and  on  the  same  level,  at  the  farthest  extent 
of  the  overflowing  of  the  spring  tides,  fresh  meadows  immediately  com- 
mence, which  generally  extend  to  the  upland;  sometimes,  however,  there 
is  an  interval  of  wet  ground  covered  with  bushes,  or  a  swamp  between 
them  and  the  upland.  They  are  wet,  and  usually  too  soft  to  bear  a  wagon. 
Similar  meadows  are  sometimes  found  several  miles  from  any  salt  meadows 
or  salt  water,  and  generally  at  the  heads  of  rivers,  where  the  face  of  the 
country  is  level.  These  meadows  bear  a  general  resemblance,  all  being 
covered  with  wild  grass,  varying  in  height  from  twelve  to  thirty-six  inches, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  soil ;  the  more  water  there  is,  the 
more  rank  becomes  the  growth  of  the  grass,  until  flags  and  rushes  take  its 
place.  The  meadows  are  much  lower  than  the  upland,  and  Were  evidently 
formed  by  the  agency  of  water,  depositing  an  alluvion  composed  of  the  fine 
particles  from  the  high  grounds,  and  decayed  vegetable  matter.  When 
drained  by  means  of  ditches,  they  become  hard,  will  produce  cultivated 
grass,  and  even  trees,  and  will  in  a  few  years  lose  all  their  former  features, 
except  their  low  situation  and  level  aspect. 

The  soil  of  this  section  is  to  a  great  extent  sandy ;  very  light  therefore, 
and  sometimes  barren,  more  especially  near  the  coast,  where  there  are 
much  marsh  land,  and  extensive  swamps.  In  many  places  these  swamps 
are  covered  with  an  impenetrable  growth  of  timber,  especially  of  the  cypress, 
and  some  species  of  the  pine,  which  are  favored  by  the  deep  clayed  soil, 
with  its  rich  annual  deposit ;  Louisiana,  towards  the  sea,  exhibits  a  great 
breadth  of  this  country  through  its  whole  extent.  Along  the  rivers  a  rich 
clay  is  found  in  considerable  quantities ;  many  fertile  spots  are  likewise 
interspersed  among  the  sands,  and  the  land  generally  improves  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  mountains.  The  best  soil  is  in  the  central  portions  of  the 
slope.  In  the  alluvial  district  of  Louisiana  the  soil  is,  for  the  most  part, 
deep  and  rich ;  it  is  also  strong  and  vigorous  on  the  Red  river.     Along  the 


128  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

range  of  the  Apalachian  Mountains  a  thin  and  poor  soil  prevails,  mingled, 
however,  with  many  rich  and  productive  valleys.  In  the  northern  portion 
of  it  is  a  considerable  extent  of  hilly,  flinty,  and  consequently  barren  land. 

When  we  cross  the  mountains,  and  come  to  the  slope  descending  to  the 
Mississippi,  we  survey  a  large  extent  of  country  almost  universally  fertile  ; 
and  divided,  as  we  have  before  mentioned,  into  the  thickly  timbered,  the 
barren,  and  the  prairie  country.  In  the  first  division  every  traveller  re- 
marks a  grandeur  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  trees,  a  depth  of  verdure  in 
the  foliage,  and  a  luxuriance  of  growth  of  every  sort,  that  distinguish  this 
country  from  other  regions.  The  trees  are  large,  tall,  and  rise  aloft  free 
from  branches,  like  columns.  In  the  richer  lands  they  are  generally 
wreathed  with  a  drapery  of  ivy,  bignonia,  grape  vines,  or  other  creepers. 
Intermingled  with  the  foliage  of  the  trees  are  the  broad  leaves  of  the  grape 
vines,  with  trunks  occasionally  as  large  as  the  human  body.  Sometimes 
the  forests  are  entirely  free  from  undergrowth ;  at  others,  the  only  shrub 
is  the  graceful  and  splendid  papaw ;  but  often,  particularly  in  the  richer 
alluvions  of  the  south,  beneath  the  trees,  are  impenetrable  cane  brakes,  and 
a  tangle  of  brambles,  briars,  vines,  and  every  sort  of  weed. 

The  country  denominated  barrens  has  a  very  distinct  and  singular  con- 
figuration. It  has  usually  a  surface  gently  undulating,  in  long  and  uniform 
ridges.  The  soil  is  generally  of  a  clayey  texture,  of  a  reddish  or  grayish 
color,  covered  with  tall,  coarse  grass.  The  trees  are  thinly  scattered,  seldom 
either  large  or  dwarfish.  They  are  chiefly  oaks,  and  have  an  appearance 
peculiar  to  the  region  they  inhabit.  The  general  quality  of  the  land  seldom 
exceeds  the  third  rate ;  but  in  the  proper  latitudes,  it  is  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  wheat  and  fruit  trees.  On  the  little  elevations  of  the  barrens, 
trees  and  grass  grow ;  but  grass  and  weeds  are  the  only  occupants  of  the 
low  grounds.  The  soil  of  the  barrens  is  alluvial  to  a  greater  or  less  depth, 
though  on  some  of  the  highest  points  there  is  very  little  ;  and  the  lower 
the  ground  the  deeper  the  alluvion.  On  the  elevations,  when  there  is  no 
alluvion,  a  stiff  blue  clay  is  found,  without  pebbles.  On  the  little  ridges, 
where  the  dampness  is  not  too  great,  the  oak  or  the  hickory  has  taken 
possession,  and  there  grows  to  a  moderate  height  in  clusters ;  on  the  low 
lands  the  soil  is  too  wet  and  the  grass  too  thick  for  such  a  growth. 

The  barrens  then  are  natural  meadows,  covered  with  tall  coarse  grass, 
varying  in  extent  and  figure,  with  here  and  there  a  piece  of  elevated  ground, 
decked  with  a  cluster  of  trees  ;  add  to  this,  a  reddish  stream  running  through 
ground  but  little  lower  than  the  surrounding  plain,  and  you  have  the  picture 
complete.  There  are  large  districts  of  this  description  in  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Alabama ;  they  are  common  in  Illinois  and  Missouri,  and  are 
found  more  or  less  over  the  whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  This  region 
and  the  bushy  prairies,  abound  in  those  singular  cavities  called  sink-holes, 
which  are  generally  in  the  shape  of  inverted  cones,  from  ten  to  seventy  feet 
in  depth,  and  at  the  top  from  sixty  to  three  hundred  feet  in  circumference. 
Willows  and  other  aquatic  vegetables  grow  at  the  sides  and  bottom.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  these  cavities  are  caused  by  running  waters,  which 
find  their  way  through  the  limestone  cavities  beneath  the  upper  stratum 
of  the  soil. 

The  remaining  surface  is  that  of  the  prairies,  and  this  is  by  far  the  most 
extensive.  These  may  be  classed  under  three  general  divisions,  though 
they  have  great  diversity  of  aspect ;  the  heathy,  or  bushy ;  the  alluvial,  or 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  129 

wet;  and  the  dry,  or  rolling  prairies.  The  bushy  prairies  seem  to  be  in- 
termediate between  the  barrens  and  the  alluvial  prairies.  They  have 
springs,  abound  in  bushes  and  shrubs,  with  grape  vines,  and  in  the  summer 
with  a  great  variety  of  flowers ;  the  bushes  are  often  overtopped  with  the 
common  hop  vine.  Prairies  of  this  description  are  very  common  in  Illinois, 
Mississippi,  and  Indiana,  and  they  occur  among  the  other  prairies  to  a 
considerable  distance  towards  the  Chippewayan  Mountains.  The  dry 
prairies  are  for  the  most  part  without  springs,  and  destitute  of  all  vegetation 
except  weeds,  flowering  plants,  and  grass.  To  the  sight  they  are  nearly 
level,  but  their  inclination  is  proved  by  the  quick  motion  of  the  water 
courses.  This  class  of  prairies  is  by  far  the  most  extensive.  Here  are  the 
haunts  of  the  buffaloes,  and  here  the  traveller  may  wander  for  days  without 
wood  or  water,  and  the  horizon  on  every  side  sinking  to  contact  with  the 
grass. 

The  alluvial  or  wet  prairies  form  the  last  and  smallest  division.  They 
occur  generally  on  the  margins  of  water  courses,  though  they  are  sometimes 
found  with  all  their  distinctive  peculiarities,  far  from  the  points  where 
waters  run  at  present.  They  are  commonly  basins,  and  their  outline  is 
strongly  marked ;  their  soil  is  black,  deep,  friable,  and  wonderfully  rich. 
Native  grasses  spring  on  them  in  singular  luxuriance,  rising  to  a  great 
height,  but  they  are  too  loamy  for  the  cultivated  grasses.  In  proper  lati- 
tudes they  are  excellent  for  wheat  and  maize.  Still  more  than  the  rolling 
prairies,  they  appear  to  the  eye  a  dead  level,  though  they  have  slight  in- 
clinations and  depressions ;  yet  from  the  general  equality,  and  immense 
amount  of  vegetation,  small  ponds  and  bayous  are  formed  there,  which  fill 
from  the  rivers  and  rains,  and  are  only  exhausted  during  the  intense  heats 
of  summer,  by  evaporation. 

In  the  alluvial  prairies  that  are  connected  with  the  rivers,  these  ponds 
are  filled  in  the  season  of  high  waters  with  fish  of  various  kinds ;  as  the 
water  becomes  low,  and  their  course  connecting  with  the  river  become  dry, 
the  fish  are  taken  by  cartloads  among  the  high  grass,  where  the  Y/ater  is 
three  or  four  feet  deep.  When  the  waters  evaporate,  the  fish  die,  and 
thousands  of  buzzards  are  unable  to  prevent  them  from  polluting  the  air* 
This  decayed  matter  seriously  affects  the  salubrity  of  the  climate. 

Along  these  rich  plains,  herds  of  deer  are  seen,  flying  with  the  rapidity 
of  the  wind,  or  feeding  quietly  with  the  domestic  cattle.  In  the  spring  and 
autumn,  water-fowl  in  innumerable  flocks  hover  about  the  ponds  and  lakes 
of  these  prairies,  to  feast  on  the  oily  seeds  of  the  plants  and  grasses. 
During  the  months  of  vegetation,  the  richer  prairies  are  blooming  with 
flowers,  of  whose  variety,  number,  forms,  hues,  and  odors,  description  can 
furnish  no  adequate  idea.  Most  of  the  prairie  plants  have  tall  and  arrowy 
stems,  with  spiked  or  tassellated  heads,  and  the  flowers  have  great  size, 
gaudiness  and  splendor,  without  much  delicacy  or  fragrance.  In  the  spring 
their  prevailing  color  is  bluish  purple ;  in  mid-summer,  red  mingled  with 
yellow ;  in  autumn,  the  flowers  are  large,  generally  of  the  helianthus  shape, 
and  of  a  rich  golden  color. 

The  northern  shores  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Erie,  the  western  shore  of 
Lake  Huron,  and  the  general  surface  of  the  valleys  of  the  Ohio,  the  Illinois, 
*nd  the  Mississippi,  afford  a  highly  productive  soil.  More  to  the  south- 
ward, the  extended  valley  of  the  Tennessee  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  portions 
of  the  republic  ;  and  the  same  fertility  extends  itself  beyond  the  Mississippi, 
17 


130  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

below  the  Missouri,  until  it  is  checked  by  the  Ozark  Mountains,  whose 
productive  portion  is  confined  to  the  valleys.  To  the  west  of  these  moun- 
tains, and  of  the  Missouri,  the  soil  becomes  less  and  less  fertile,  till  we 
reach  the  Great  American  Desert,  which  has  already  been  described.  The 
eastern  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  southern  coast  of  Lake  Superior, 
are  either  sandy  or  rocky,  and  generally  barren. 

Among  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  sheltered  and  fertile  valleys,  though 
their  summits  are  of  course  rocky,  sterile,  and  covered  with  snow  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  The  timber  in  the  mountains  is  pine,  spruce,  fir,  and  other 
terebinthines.  Though  deficient  in  timber,  the  terrace  plains  below  have 
generally  a  fine  soil.  The  prairies,  like  those  in  the  Mississippi  valley, 
are  covered  with  coarse  grass  and  a  variety  of  beautiful  flowers.  Among 
the  prairie  plants  are  two  or  three  kinds  of  roots,  which  furnish  food  to  the 
savages.  Wild  sage  is  found  in  abundance;  it  grows  of  the  size  and  height 
of  a  small  tree,  and  on  these  extensive  plains  is  one  of  the  principal  articles 
of  fuel.  For  a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior,  the  seashore  is 
skirted  with  deep  and  thick  forests  of  evergreen.  On  the  whole,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  few  countries  on  the  earth  have  a  more  fertile  soil,  than  the 
valleys  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

'  In  estimating  the  quality  of  new  lands  in  America,'  says  Dr.  Dwight, 
'  serious  errors  are  very  commonly  entertained,  from  want  of  due  attention 
to  the  following  fact :  Wherever  the  forest  has  been  undisturbed  by  fire, 
they  have  accumulated,  by  shedding  their  foliage  through  a  long  succession 
of  ages,  and  by  their  own  decay,  a  covering  of  vegetable  mould  from  six 
to  twelve  inches  deep,  and  sometimes  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four.  This 
mould  is  the  best  of  all  soils,  and  eminently  friendly  to  every  species  of 
vegetation.  It  is,  indeed,  no  other  than  a  mere  mass  of  manure,  and  that 
of  the  very  best  kind,  converted  into  mould ;  and  so  long  as  it  remains  in 
considerable  quantities,  all  grounds  produce  plentifully.  Unless  a  proper 
allowance  be  made,  therefore,  when  we  are  forming  an  estimate  of  the 
quality  of  soils,  for  thp.  efficacy  of  this  mould,  which,  so  far  as  my  observa- 
tion has  extended,  is  not  often  done,  those  on  which  it  abounds  will  be  of 
course  overrated.  On  the  contrary,  where  it  does  not  abound,  the  quality 
of  the  soil  will,  in  a  comparative  view,  be  underrated.  Hence  all  maple 
lands  which,  from  their  moisture,  are  incapable  of  being  burnt,  are  consi- 
dered as  more  fertile  than  they  ultimately  prove ;  while  oak,  and  even  pine 
lands,  are,  almost  of  course,  regarded  as  being  less  fertile.  The  maple  lands 
in  Ballston  are  found  to  produce  wheat  in  smaller  quantities,  and  of  a 
worse  quality,  than  the  inhabitants,  misled  by  the  exhuberance  of  their  first 
crops,  expected.  Their  pine  lands,  on  the  contrary,  yield  more  and  better 
wheat  than,  till  very  lately,  they  could  have  been  induced  to  believe.  The 
same  things  severally  are  true,  as  I  have  already  observed,  of  the  oak  and 
maple  lands  in  the  county  of  Ontario. 

'  From  this  source  it  has  arisen  that  all  the  unburnt  new  lands  in  the 
northern,  middle,  southern,  and  western  states,  have  been,  and  still  are, 
uniformly  valued  beyond  their  real  worth.  When  the  tract  on  the  moun- 
tains in  Massachusetts  was  first  settled,  the  same  luxuriant  fertility  was 
attributed  to  it  which  has  since  characterized  Kentucky.  About  the  same 
time  it  was  ascribed  to  the  Valley  of  Housatonic,  in  the  county  of  Berkshire. 
From  these  tracts  it  was  transferred  to  the  lands  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont,  on  the   Connecticut ;    and    from   thence  to   those  in  Vermont, 


THYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  131 

on  the  western  side  of  the  Green  Mountains.  From  these  regions 
the  paradise  has  travelled  to  the  western  part  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  to  New  Connecticut,  to  Upper  Canada,  to  the  countries  on  the  Ohio, 
to  the  south-western  territory,  and  is  now  making  its  progress  over  the 
Mississippi  into  the  newly  purchased  regions  of  Louisiana.  The  accounts 
given  of  all  these  countries,  successively,  were  extensively  true,  but  the 
conclusions  which  were  deduced  from  them  were,  in  a  great  measure,  er- 
roneous. So  long  as  this  mould  remains,  the  produce  will  be  regularly 
great,  and  that  with  very  imperfect  cultivation, — for  the  mould  in  its  native 
state  is  so  soft  and  light,  as  scarcely  to  need  the  aid  of  the  plough.  But 
this  mould,  after  a  length  of  time,  will  be  dissipated.  Where  lands  are 
continually  ploughed,  it  is  soon  lost ;  on  those  which  are  covered  with  grass 
from  the  beginning,  it  is  preserved  through  a  considerable  period.  At 
length,  however,  every  appearance  of  its  efficacy,  and  even  of  its  existence, 
vanishes. 

1  The  true  object  of  inquiry,  whenever  the  quality  of  a  soil  is  to  be  esti- 
mated, is  the  nature  of  the  earth  immediately  beneath  the  vegetable  mould, 
for  this,  in  every  case,  will  ultimately  be  the  soil.  If  this  is  capable  of 
being  rendered,  by  skilful  cultivation,  regularly  productive,  the  soil  is  good; 
if  not,  it  is  poor.  With  this  object  in  view,  I  have  formed  the  opinion  ex- 
pressed above,  concerning  the  country  under  discussion.  Throughout 
most  of  this  tract,  the  earth  beneath  the  mould  is  an  excellent  soil.  The 
mould  itself  will  speedily  be  gone.  It  is  wisely  and  kindly  provided  by 
the  Creator,  to  answer  the  immediate  calls  of  the  first  settlers.  These  are 
of  course  few  and  poor, — are  embarrassed  by  many  wants  and  difficulties, 
and  need  their  time  and  labor  to  build  their  houses,  barns,  and  inclosures, 
as  well  as  to  procure,  with  extreme  inconvenience,  many  articles  of  neces- 
sity and  comfort,  which  are  obtained  in  older  settlements  without  labor  or 
time.  To  them  it  is  a  complete  and  ample  manure,  on  which  whatever  is 
sown  springs  with  vigor,  and  produces,  almost  without  toil  or  skill,  a  plen- 
tiful harvest.  But  it  was  not  intended  to  be  permanent ;  it  is  not  even 
desirable  that  it  should  be.  To  interrupt,  or  even  to  slacken,  the  regular 
labor  of  man  materially,  is  to  do  him  an  injury.  One  of  the  prime  bles- 
sings of  temperate  climates  is  this,  that  they  yield  amply  to  skilful  labor, 
and  without  it  yield  little  or  nothing.  Where  such  is  the  fact,  energy  and 
effort  will  follow,  and  all  their  inestimable  consequences.  Where  coun- 
tries are  radically  barren,  man  will  despair.' 

We  will  now  give  a  brief  description  of  the  soil  of  each  of  the  states, 
commencing  with  the  north-eastern  divisions.  The  soil  of  Maine  in 
general,  when  properly  fitted  to  receive  the  seed,  is  friendly  to  the 
growth  of  Indian  corn,  rye,  barley,  oats,  peas,  hemp,  and  flax,  as  well  as 
to  the  production  of  almost  all  kinds  of  culinary  roots  and  plants ;  wheat 
is  also  grown,  but  not  in  large  quantities.  Excellent  potatoes  are  raised 
in  great  quantities.  For  the  most  part,  the  lands  are  easily  cleared,  having 
very  little  underwood.  The  natural  productions  consist  of  white  pine  and 
spruce  trees  in  large  quantities,  suitable  for  masts,  boards,  and  shingles ; 
and  also  of  maple,  beech,  white  and  grey  oak,  and  yellow  birch.  The 
land  between  the  Kennebec  and  Penobscot  rivers  is  well  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  agriculture,  and  is  excellent  for  grazing.  With  good  cultiva- 
tion, land  of  average  quality  yields  forty  bushels  of  maize  to  the  acre, 
from  twenty  to  forty  bushels  of  wheat,  and  from  one  to  three  tons  of  hay. 


132  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Apple,  pear,  plum,  and  cherry  trees,  flourish;   the  peach  tree  does  not 
thrive. 

The  soil  of  New  Hampshire,  near  the  seacoast,  is  in  many  places  sandy ; 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  it  is  generally  good,  and  in  the  valleys  among 
the  mountains,  which  are  rich  on  the  brows,  and  usually  covered  with 
timber.  The  river  land  is  most  esteemed,  producing  every  kind  of  grain 
in  the  utmost  perfection ;  but  it  is  not  so  good  for  pasture  as  the  uplands. 
In  the  uncultivated  parts  of  the  state,  the  soil  is  distinguished  by  the  various 
kinds  of  timber  which  grow  upon  it ;  thus,  white  oak  land  is  hard  and 
stony,  the  undergrowth  consisting  of  brakes  and  fern;  black  and  yellow 
birch,  white  ash,  elm,  and  alder,  are  indications  of  a  good  soil,  deep,  rich 
and  moist,  which  will  admit  grass  and  grain  without  ploughing ;  red  oak 
and  white  birch  are  signs  of  strong  land.  Agriculture  is,  and  always  will 
be,  the  chief  business  of  the  people  of  New  Hampshire.  Apples  and  pears 
are  fruits  the  most  commonly  cultivated,  and  no  husbandman  thinks  hia 
farm  complete  without  an  orchard. 

A  large  portion  of  Vermont  state  is  fertile,  and  adapted  to  the  various 
purposes  of  agriculture.  The  soil  is  generally  deep,  rich,  moist,  of  a  dark 
color,  loamy,  and  seldom  parched  with  drought.  On  the  border  of  the 
stream  it  is  alluvial,  and  the  richest  in  the  state  ;  though  some  of  the  up- 
lands almost  equal  it  in  fertility.  Wheat  is  extensively  cultivated,  particu- 
larly on  the  west  side  of  the  mountains.  Barley,  rye,  oats,  peas,  flax,  and 
potatoes,  flourish  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  Indian  corn  also  thrives,  and 
apples  are  abundant.  Much  of  the  land  among  the  mountains  is  excellent 
for  grazing,  and  great  numbers  of  cattle  are  annually  sent  out  of  the  state 
for  sale. 

No  extensive  alluvial  tracts  occur  in  Massachusetts;  although  limited 
patches  of  this  stratum  are  sometimes  found  on  the  banks  of  every  stream, 
and,  with  the  adjoining  elevated  woodland  and  pasture  ground,  constitute 
many  of  the  richest  farms  in  the  state.  There  are  numerous  uncultivated 
swamps,  however,  for  ages  the  reservoir  of  rich  soil,  that  may  be  reclaimed 
with  considerable  labor  and  expense,  which  they  will  amply  repay  by  their 
singular  fertility.  The  soil  of  Massachusetts  is  chiefly  diluvial,  of  all 
soils  the  most  unfriendly  to  rich  vegetation,  though  capable  of  being  made 
rich  by  clearing  away  its  stone,  and  the  extensive  use  of  manure.  The 
diluvium  is  most  abundant  in  the  south-east  parts  of  the  state,  almost  en- 
tirely overspreading  the  counties  of  Plymouth,  Barnstable,  Duke's  and 
Nantucket.  Toward  the  extremity  of  Cape  Cod,  and  on  the  Island  of  Nan- 
tucket, this  stratum  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  sand.  The  most  ex- 
tensive tertiary  formation  in  the  state  is  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Con- 
necticut. Here  also  are  found  tracts,  from  which  the  diluvium  and  tertiary 
have  been  swept  away,  and  which  exhibit  the  reddish  aspect  that  charac- 
terises the  red  sand-stone  formation.  This  soil  is  of  a  superior  quality, 
and  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  fruit. 

The  soil  of  Rhode  Island  is  various,  and  a  great  part  of  it  good  ;  though 
better  adapted  for  grazing  than  for  grain.  The  north-western  parts  of  the 
state  are  rocky  and  barren ;  but  the  tract  in  the  neighborhood  of  Narragan- 
set  Bay  is  excellent  pasture  land,  and  is  inhabited  by  wealthy  farmers, 
who  raise  some  of  the  finest  neat  cattle  in  America.  The  ground  is  well 
cultivated,  and  produces  Indian  corn,  rye,  barley,  oats,  wheat,  (though  not 
enough  for  home  consumption,)  fruits  and  vegetables,  in  great  abundance* 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  133 

The  soil  of  Connecticut  is  generally  rich  and  well  watered,  and  the  whole 
state  resembles  a  cultivated  garden.  In  the  central  valley  of  the  Connecti- 
cut river,  and  in  the  valleys  of  its  tributary  streams,  large  accumula- 
tions of  alluvial  deposit  have  formed  extensive  plains  and  meadows.  The 
soil  is  adapted  to  Indian  corn,  rye,  wheat,  and  flax;  orchards  are  numerous, 
and  of  late  years,  tobacco  has  also  been  raised  in  not  inconsiderable  quan- 
tities. Much  of  the  land,  however,  is  better  for  grazing  than  tillage;  and 
the  beef,  pork,  butter  and  cheese,  of  Connecticut,  are  equal  to  any  in  the 
world.     The  meadows  on  the  banks  of  the  river  are  uncommonly  rich. 

The  soil  of  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  New  York,  is  dry  and 
gravelly,  intermixed  with  loam;  the  mountainous  districts  are  well  adapted 
for  grazing,  and  there  are  many  rich  valleys  on  the  rivers.  The  northern 
and  western  parts  nre  generally  rich  and  fertile.  In  the  valley  of  the 
Gennessee^  is  some  of  the  best  wheat  country  in  the  world;  and  the  allu- 
vial flats  of  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  are  highly  fertile.  Around  Lake 
Champlain  js  an  extensive  district  of  clayey  soil,  extending  to  the  hills  that 
skirt  the  Peruvian  Mountain's.  West  of  Albany  are  extensive  sandy  plains 
interspersed  with  marshes.  A  large  part  of  New  York  is  under  excellent 
cultivation ;  particularly  the  western  end  of  Long  Island,  and  the  counties 
of  Westchester  and  Duckess. 

The  soil  of  Pennsylvania  is  of  many  various  kinds.  To  the  east  of  the 
mountains  it  is  generally  good,  and  a  considerable  part  of  it  is  bedded  on 
limestone.  Among  the  mountains,  the  land  is  rough,  and  much  of  it  poor, 
in  some  parts  quite  barren;  but  there  are  a  great  many  rich  and  fertile 
valleys.  In  the  neighborhood  of  York  and  Lancaster,  the  soil  consists  of 
rich,  brown,  loamy  earth ;  and  proceeding  in  a  south-westerly  course,  pa- 
rallel to  the  Blue  Mountains,  the  same  kind  of  soil  is  met  with  as  far  as 
Fredericktown,  in  Maryland.  West  of  the  mountains  the  country  improves, 
and  about  the  head-waters  of  the  Ohio  it  is  generally  fertile.  Pennsylva- 
nia has  a  soil  much  better  adapted  to  grazing  than  tillage. 

The  southern  parts  of  New  Jersey  are  sandy  and  flat,  sometimes  marshy, 
almost  perfectly  sterile,  though  occasionally  producing  shrub  oaks,  and 
pines:  the  northern  half  of  the  state  is  well  adapted  either  for  grazing  or 
tillage.  A  part  of  Delaware  abounds  with  swamps  and  stagnant  waters , 
which  render  it  alike  unfit  for  the  purposes  of  agriculture,  and  injurious 
to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  state  is 
the  Cypress  Swamp,  a  morass  twelve  miles  in  length  and  six  in  breadth, 
including  an  area  of  nearly  fifty  thousand  acres  of  land ;  the  whole  of 
which  is  a  high  and  level  basin,  very  wet,  though  undoubtedly  the  highest 
land  between  the  sea  and  the  bay.  The  swamp  contains  a  great  variety 
of  trees,  plants,  wild  beasts,  birds,  and  reptiles.  In  the  northern  parts, 
along  the  Delaware  river  and  bay,  and  from  eight  to  ten  miles  into  the  in- 
terior, the  soil  is  generally  a  rich  clay,  in  which  a  great  variety  of  the  most 

*  '  In  the  afternoon,'  says  Mr.  Stuart, '  we  hired  a  carriage  to  take  us  to  Gennessee, 
that  we  might  have  an  opportunity  of  seeing  Mr.  Wads  worth's  flats  or  meadows,  which 
are  thought  the  finest  and  most  productive  in  this  country  ;  they  consist  of  a  great  tract 
of  k)w-lying  land  along  the  river  side,  covered  with  luxuriant  herbage.  The  farm  of 
Mr.  Wadsworth  is  of  great  extent,  about  four  thousand  acres;  but  the  beautiful  tract  of 
alluvial  land  does  not  exceed  sixteen  or  seventeen  hundred  acres,  of  the  most  fertile  soil 
that  can  be  conceived,  A  few  noble  oaks,  single  trees,  which  are  seldom  met  with 
here,  adorn  the  fields.  I  measured  one  of  them,  which  was  twenty-eight  feet  in  circum- 
ference.' 

12 


134  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Useful  productions  can  be  conveniently  and  plentifully  reared  ;  from  thence 
to  the  swamps  before  noticed,  the  soil  is  light,  sandy,  and  of  an  inferior 
quality.  In  the  central  parts  of  the  state,  there  is  a  considerable  mixture 
of  sand ;  and  in  the  southern  part  it,  renders  the  soil  almost  totally  un- 
productive. 

In  the  western  part  of  Maryland,  the  soil  is  somewhat  strong,  and  in 
other  parts  are  tracts  of  thin,  unproductive  land.  It  is  generally,  however, 
a  red  clay  or  loam  ;  much  of  it  is  excellent,  and  producing  large  crops. 
Wheat  and  tobacco  are  the  staple  commodities,  but  on  the  uplands  of  the 
interior,  hemp  and  flax  are  raised  in  considerable  quantities. 

The  soil  in  the  low  part  of  Virginia  is  sandy  or  marshy,  except  on  the 
banks  of  the  rivers,  where  it  is  very  rich.  This  territory  is  alluvial,  and 
Under  its  surface  every  where  exhibits  bones  and  marine  shells.  Between 
the  head  of  tide-waters  and  the  mountains,  it  exhibits  a  great  variety,  and 
&  considerable  portion  is  good.  Among-  the  mountains  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  poor  land,  but  it  is  interspersed  with  rich  valleys.  In  the  valley 
between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Alleghany,  we  come  to  a  country  lying 
Upon  a  bed  of  limestone.  Here  the  soil  is  a  deep  clayey  earth,  well  suited 
to  the  culture  of  small  grain  and  clover,  and  produces  abundant  crops. 
Beyond  the  mountains  the  surface  is  broken,  with  occasional  fertile  tracts, 
but  the  soil  is  generally  lean. 

North  Carolina,  from  the  seacoast  to  sixty  miles  inward,  is  a  level  tract, 
of  a  lean  and  sandy  soil,  interspersed  with  swamps,  and  covered  with  pine 
forests.  In  the  mountainous  parts,  and  to  the  west  of  the  mountains,  the 
soil  is  moist  and  fertile.  On  the  banks  of  some  of  the  rivers,  particularly 
the  Roanoke,  it  is  remarkably  rich.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are 
two  millions  five  hundred  thousand  acres  of  swampy  land  within  the  state, 
capable  of  being  drained  at  a  trifling  cost,  and  adapted  to  the  purposes  of 
agriculture.  They  have  a  clayey  bottom,  overlaid  with  a  vegetable  com- 
post, and  when  drained  have  proved  exceedingly  fertile.  One  of  these 
tracts  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  ;  it  is  thirty  miles  long 
and  ten  broad,  overgrown  with  pine,  juniper,  and  cypress  trees.  In  the 
midst  of  it  is  a  lake  seven  miles  in  length.  The  Alligator,  or  Little  Dis- 
mal Swamp,  lies  to  the  south  of  Albemarle  Sound,  and  incloses  a  lake 
eleven  miles  long  and  seven  broad.  This  swamp  has  been  partly  drained 
by  means  of  a  canal,  and  many  productive  rice  plantations  occupy  the 
reclaimed  lands. 

The  soil  of  South  Carolina  may  be  divided  into  five  classes  :  first,  the 
pine  barren,  which  is  valuable  only  for  its  timber  ;  interspersed  among 
these  barrens,  are  tracts  destitute  of  every  kind  of  growth  except  grass, 
called  savannas,  and  forming  a  second  kind  of  soil,  good  for  grazing.  The 
third,  is  that  of  the  swamps  and  low  grounds  on  the  rivers,  which  is  a  mix* 
ture  of  black  loam  and  rich  clay,  producing  naturally  canes  in  great  plenty, 
cypress,  and  bays.  In  these  sWamps  rice  is  cultivated.  The  high  lands, 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  oak  and  hickory  lands,  constitute  the 
fourth  kind  of  soil ;  this  tract  is  comparatively  small,  and  is  situated  in  the 
north-western  extremity  of  the  state.  The  fifth  class  is  that  of  the  salt 
marsh,  which  borders  on  the  seacoast  and  has  been  much  neglected. 

The  greater  part  Of  the  soil  of  Georgia  is  alluvial.  On  the  islands  which 
line  its  coast  the  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  cotton  of  a  superior 
\|ualityi     The  soil  of  the  main  land,  adjoining  the  marshes  and  creeks,  is 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  135 

similarly  fertile.  This  is  succeeded  by  the  pine  barrens,  which  abound 
with  swampy  tracts.  On  the  banks  of  the  rivers  are  the  valuable  rice  plan- 
tations. The  soil  between  the  rivers,  after  leaving  the  borders  of  the 
swamps,  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  changes  from  a  gray  to  a 
red  color,  and  is  covered  with  oak,  hickory,  and  pine.  In  some  places  it  is 
gravelly,  but  fertile,  and  so  continues  for  a  number  of  miles,  gradually 
deepening  the  reddish  color  of  the  earth,  till  it  changes  into  what  is  called 
the  mulatto  soil,  which  is  composed  of  black  and  red  earth.  These  mulatto 
lands  are  generally  strong,  and  yield  large  crops.  To  this  kind  of  land 
succeeds  by  turns  a  soil  nearly  black  and  very  rich.  This  succession  of  the 
different  soils  continues  uniform  and  regular,  though  there  are  some  large 
veins  of  all  the  different  soils  intermixed. 

The  soil  of  East  Florida  is  generally  poor,  and  circumstances  have  pre- 
vented the  settlement  and  cultivation  of  the  small  proportion  of  really  good 
lands.  The  parts  on  the  western  seashore  are  barren  and  sandy,  abounding 
with  marshes  and  lagoons.  In  the  northern  districts,  gentle  elevations  of 
fertile  land,  supporting  a  vigorous  growth  of  oaks  and  hickories,  are  found 
in  the  midst  of  marshes  and  pine  barrens.  Sugar  cane  is  raised  here  with 
great  facility,  and  a  superior  quality  of  long  and  short  staple  cotton. 

In  the  lower  parts  of  Alabama  are  extensive  swamps,  cypress  land,  and 
cane  brakes.  The  central  region  is  covered  with  gentle  elevations,  having 
a  thin  soil  with  a  substratum  of  clay  that  cultivation  will  render  productive. 
At  present  these  hills  are  covered  with  pine,  and,  while  there  are  tracts  of 
rich  land,  will  be  held  in  little  estimation ;  they  include  more  than  one  half 
the  surface  of  the  state.  On  the  banks  of  the  Alabama  and  Tombeckbee 
there  are  wide  and  fertile  alluvions,  and  the  region  between  these  rivers  is 
the  richest  and  best  in  Alabama.  The  French  emigrants  represent  the  soil^ 
of  the  slopes  and  hammoc  lands  of  this  state  to  be  suitable  for  the  vine. 

In  the  northern  section  of  Mississippi  the  land  rises  in  regular  undula- 
tions, and  the  soil  is  black,  fertile,  and  deep,  covered  with  high  cane  brake. 
The  valleys  north-west  of  the  Yazoo  are  well  watered  and  exceedingly 
rich.  In  the  western  parts  of  the  state,  the  lands  are  unfortunately  exposed 
to  inundation ;  but,  in  other  respects,  the  soil  does  not  much  differ  from  that 
of  Alabama.     The  southern  tract  is  a  level  alluvion. 

A  region  of  Louisiana,  comprising  about  five  millions  of  acres,  is  annu- 
ally overflowed  by  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi.  Of  this  tract  a  large 
portion  is,  in  its  present  state,  unfit  for  cultivation.  This  immense  tract 
embraces  soil  of  various  descriptions  ;  cypress  swamps,  sea  marsh,  small 
elevated  prairie  lands  of  great  fertility,  and  a  tract  covered  with  cane  brake, 
rank  shrubbery,  and  a  heavy  growth  of  timber.1*     The  best  soil  of  Louisi- 

*  Before  quitting  New  Orleans,  I  made  a  trip  to  visit  the  Delta  of  the  Mississippi,  in 
one  of  the  steamers  employed  in  towing  vessels  to  and  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Though  with  three  large  vessels  attached,  our  bark  made  good  way  under  the  co-opera- 
tive  influence  of  steam  and  stream.  About  seven  miles  below  the  city  is  the  field  of 
battle.  It  is  a  plain  about  half  a  mile  in  breadth,  bounded  by  the  Mississippi  on  one 
side,  and  the  forest  on  the  other.  Below  is  a  bend  of  the  river,  which,  from  what  reason 
I  know  not,  is  called  'the  English  Turn.'  Plantations  continue  at  intervals  for  about 
forty  miles,  when  cultivation  entirely  ceases. 

Below  this,  nature  is  to  be  seen  only  in  her  dreariest  and  most  desolate  aspect.  At 
first,  there  are  forests  springing  in  rank  luxuriance  from  swamps  impassable  even  by  the 
foct  of  the  Indian  hunter.  But  these  soon  pass,  and  nothing  but  interminable  cane 
brakes  are  to  be  seen  on  either  side.    From  the  shrouds  of  the  steam-boat,  though  the 


136  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ana  is  found  in  the  region  called  the  coast,  which  is  that  part  of  the  bottois 
of  the  Mississippi  commencing  with  the  first  cultivation  above  the  Balize, 
and  comprising  forty  miles  below  New  Orleans,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty 
above.  This  fertile  belt,  which  varies  in  width  from  one  to  two  miles,  is 
secured  from  inundation  by  an  embankment,  broad  enough  to  furnish  a  fine 
highway,  from  six  to  eight  feet  in  height.  In  the  northern  part  of  this 
state,  bordering  on  Arkansas,  is  a  considerable  extent  of  hilly,  flinty,  barren 
land. 

Arkansas  territory  exhibits  every  variety  and  quality  of  soil.  The  cul- 
tivated belt  below  the  Post  of  Arkansas  bears  some  outward  resemblance  to 
the  coast  in  Louisiana ;  though  its  soil  is  not  so  fertile,  and  needs  manuring 
to  produce  large  crops.  Large  prairies  interspersed  with  forest  bottoms, 
and  large  tracts  of  excellent  soil,  are  found  five  or  six  hundred  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  Arkansas  river.  Mount  Prairie,  which  lies  on  the  Washita, 
has  a  black  soil  of  extreme  richness.  On  the  White  river  are  some  of  the 
healthiest  and  most  fertile  situations  in  this  country.  The  other  parts  of 
this  territory  are  vast  tracts  of  sterile  and  precipitous  ridges,  sandy  prairies, 
and  barrens. 

The  soil  of  Tennessee,  in  the  valleys  of  its  creeks  and  streams,  is  rich 
beyond  any  of  the  same  description  elsewhere  in  the  western  country.  In 
East  Tennessee  it  derives  its  fertility  from  the  quantities  of  dissolved  lime, 
and  nitrate  of  lime  that  are  mixed  with  it.  In  West  Tennessee  the  strata 
are  arranged  in  the  following  order:  first,  a  loamy  soil,  or  mixtures  of  clay 
and  sand ;  next,  yellow  clay ;  then  comes  a  mixture  of  red  sand  and  red 
clay ;  and  lastly,  a  white  sand.  In  the  southern  parts  of  this  state 
immense  banks  are  found  of  uncommonly  large  oyster  shells,  situated  on 
high  table-grounds  remote  from  any  water-course. 

Missouri  contains  a  large  proportion  of  friable,  loamy,  and  sandy  soil. 
The  uplands  are  rich,  and  of  a  darkish  gray  color  :  excepting  the  region  of 
the  lead  mines,  where  the  soil  is  bright  and  reddish.  The  prairies  are 
generally  level,  and  of  an  intermediate  character  between  the  rich  and  the 
poorer  uplands,  the  latter  of  which  have  a  light,  yellow  soil,  stiff  and 
clayey.     The  bottoms  of  the  great  rivers  and  smaller  streams  of  this  state 

range  of  vision  probably  extended  for  many  leagues,  no  other  objects  were  discernible 
but  the  broad  muddy  river,  with  its  vast  masses  of  drift-wood,  and  the  wilderness  of 
gigantic  bulrushes  shaking  in  the  wind. 

There  are  four  passes  or  outlets  by  which  the  Mississippi  discharges  its  mighty  burden 
into  the  G-ulf  of  Mexico.  Two  of  these  are  navigable,  but  changes  are  ever  taking 
place,  and  the  passage  formerly  preferred  by  the  pilots,  is  now  rarely  attempted  even  by 
vessels  of  the  smallest  class.  On  approaching  the  Gulf,  verdure  appears  only  at  inter- 
vals, and  the  eye  rests  on  tracts  of  mere  mud,  formed  by  the  deposit  of  the  river  on  the 
drift-wood  which  some  obstacle  has  arrested  in  its  passage  to  the  ocean.  It  is  by  this 
process  that  land  is  formed,  and  it  may  be  traced  in  every  step  of  its  progress,  from  the 
island  resting  on  a  few  logs,  up  to  the  huge  tract  in  whose  bosom  are  imbedded  many 
millions.  Encountering  no  obstacle,  the  river  sends  out  arms  in  every  direction,  which, 
after  winding  through  the  half-formed  region  in  a  thousand  fantastic  flexures,  are  again 
united  to  the  main  branches. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  convey  an  idea  by  words,  of  the  effect  which  this  most  dismal 
scene  produces  on  the  heart  and  imagination  of  the  spectator.  It  seems  as  if  the  process 
of  creation  were  incomplete,  and  the  earth  yet  undivided  from  the  waters,  for  he  beholds 
only  an  intermediate  mass  which  admits  of  being  absolutely  assigned  to  neither  element. 
He  feels  that  he  has  forsaken  the  regions  of  the  habitable  world.  Above,  beneath, 
around,  there  is  nothing  to  excite  his  sympathies,  and,  probably,  for  the  first  time  in  his 
life,  he  becomes  conscious  of  the  full  sublimity  of  desolation. — Hamilton's  America. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  137 

have  uncommon  fertility.  On  the  upper  Mississippi  are  rich  uplands, 
interspersed  with  flinty  knobs  two  or  three  hundred  feet  high.  In  the 
south-west  part  of  the  state  are  sterile  tracts,  covered  with  yellow  pine,  and 
scattered  with  hilly  and  rocky  country. 

Kentucky  abounds  in  large  bodies  of  fertile  land,  but  even  here  are 
tracts  too  sterile  for  cultivation.  Nothing  can  exceed  in  richness  the  great 
valley  of  which  Lexington  is  the  centre.  A  tract  one  hundred  miles  by 
fifty  in  extent  is  found  in  the  centre  of  the  state,  with  a  substratum  of 
limestone,  which  dissolves  and  so  mingles  with  the  soil  as  to  impart  to  it 
great  richness  and  vigor.  Much  of  the  soil  is  of  that  character  known  as 
mulatto  land.  An  extensive  tract  of  barrens  occurs  between  the  Rolling 
Fork  and  Green  river,  and  between  the  latter  and  Cumberland  river,  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  state.  Here  the  soil  is  generally  good, 
and  affords  fine  pasturage. 

Illinois  has  but  few  elevations,  and  those  of  inconsiderable  extent ;  it  is 
generally  a  region  perfectly  level.  Though  containing  tracts  of  barrens 
and  rough  lands,  not  to  be  easily  cultivated,  it  perhaps  includes  a  greater 
proportion  of  land  of  the  best  quality  than  any  other  state.  This  region 
was  called  by  the  French  the  Terrestrial  Paradise ;  and  its  soil  is  said  to 
be  the  richest  in  the  world.  '  Our  road,'  says  a  recent  traveller,  '  passed 
through  the  prairie  ground,  of  which  above  two  thirds  of  the  whole  state  of 
Illinois  is  composed,  most  beautiful  at  all  times,  but  especially  at  this 
season,  owing  to  the  brilliancy  of  the  flowers  now  in  blossom.  Plantations 
we  saw  here  and  there,  but  the  general  appearance  of  the  country  was  that 
of  a  fine  waving  surface  of  strong  grass,  covered  with  strawberry  plants, 
and  the  finest  flowers,  and  with  wood  on  the  high  grounds  and  hollows, 
and  occasional  dropping  trees,  and  clumps  or  islets  of  wood.  In  general, 
there  was  quite  enough  of  wood  in  the  view,  and  far  more  happily  disposed 
than  if  the  trees  had  been  planted  by  the  hand  of  man.  ■ 

Indiana  contains  large  tracts  of  excellent  soil ;  and  is  generally  level 
and  fertile.  The  prairies  bordering  the  Wabash,  are  particularly  rich  ; 
wells  have  been  sunk  in  them,  where  the  vegetable  soil  was  twenty-two 
feet  deep,  under  which  was  a  stratum  of  fine  white  sand  ;  yet  the  ordinary 
depth  is  from  two  to  five  feet.  Many  of  the  prairies  and  intervals  are  too 
rich  for  wheat.  The  northern  part  of  the  state  contains  much  good  land, 
but  is  intersected  by  long  narrow  bogs  and  swamps,  with  a  soil  of  stiff  blue 
clay. 

In  Ohio,  the  land  bordering  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  is  hilly  and 
broken ;  but  most  of  these  hills  have  a  deep  rich  soil,  and  are  capable  of 
being  cultivated  to  their  very  summits.  The  bottoms  of  the  Ohio  are  of 
very  unequal  width ;  the  bases  of  some  of  the  hills  approach  close  to  the 
river,  while  others  recede  to  the  distance  of  two  or  three  miles.  There  are 
usually  three  bottoms,  rising  one  above  the  other  like  the  glacis  of  a  fortifica- 
tion ;  and  they  are  heavily  timbered  with  such  trees  as  denote  a  very  fertile 
soil.  In  such  parts  of  these  bottoms  as  have  been  cleared  and  settled, 
the  soil  is  uniformly  fertile  in  a  high  degree  ;  producing  in  great  abundance 
wheat,  Indian  corn,  rye,  oats,  and  barley,  and  apples  and  peaches  of  excellent 
quality.  In  the  western  counties,  and  in  the  north-western  and  northern 
portions  of  the  state,  there  is  a  leveller  surface,  and  a  moister  soil,  interspers- 
ed with  tracts  of  dry  prairie,  and  forests  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  soil.  The 
north-western  corner  of  the  state  contains  a  considerable  district  of  level, 
18  12* 


138  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

rich  lajid,  too  wet  and  swampy  to  admit  of  healthy  settlements :  the  soil  is 
a  black,  loose,  friable  loam,  or  a  vegetable  mould,  watered  by  sluggish  and 
dark-colored  streams. 

That  part  of  the  territory  of  Michigan,  which  forms  the  peninsula  lying 
between  the  great  lakes,  is  generally  level.  In  its  centre,  however,  is  a  ridge 
of  table-land  about  three  hundred  feet  above  the  lakes,  running  north  and 
south,  and  dividing  the  waters  emptying  into  Erie  and  Huron  from  those 
running  to  the  westward.  This  peninsula  is  divided  into  about  equal  pro- 
portions of  grass  prairies  and  forests.  Along  the  southern  shore  *bf  Lake 
Michigan  is  a  sandy  and  barren  tract  of  country,  bleak  and  desolate.  But 
much  of  the  soil  of  this  country  is  excellent,  and  its  productions  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  state  of  New  York.  The  North- West  territory  has  not 
yet  been  much  explored.  That  portion  of  it  situated  between  the  Fox  and 
Wisconsin  rivers,  and  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  has  a  rich, 
black,  alluvial  soil,  and  is  well  watered.  The  face  of  the  country  is  un- 
broken by  hills  of  any  magnitude. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  vast  Missouri  territory  is  its  ocean  of 
prairies.  A  belt  of  partially  wooded  country  extends  from  two  to  four 
hundred  miles  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  waters.  The  immense 
extent  of  country  west  of  the  two  great  rivers  is  generally  level,  and  is 
covered  with  grass  plains,  and  sand  deserts.  On  the  banks  of  the  streams 
there  is  usually  a  line  of  rich  soil,  but  as  we  leave  them  it  becomes  barren 
and  dry.  Much  of  this  country  is  as  sterile  as  the  deserts  of  Arabia, 
though  in  the  most  sandy  parts  there  is  a  thin  sward  of  grass  and  herbage. 
The  Missouri,  the  Platte  and  the  Yellow-stone  run  through  a  rich  soil ;  but 
in  its  upper  courses  the  Arkansas  waters  only  a  barren  prairie. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  SOIL. 

The  productiveness  of  soils  is  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  sub-soil,  or  the  earthy  or 
stony  strata  on  which  they  rest,  and  this  should  be  attended  to  in  all  plans  for  their  im- 
provement. Thus  sandy  soil  may  owe  its  fertility  to  the  power  of  the  sub-soil  to  retain 
water ;  and  an  absorbent  clay  soil  may  occasionally  be  prevented  from  being  barren  by 
the  influence  of  a  substratum  of  sand  and  gravel.  Those  soils  that  are  most  productive 
of  corn,  contain  always  certain  proportions  of  aluminous  or  calcareous  earth  in  a  finely 
divided  state,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  vegetable  or  animal  matter. 

'  In  cases,'  says  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  'where  a  barren  soil  is  examined  with  a  view 
to  its  improvement,  it  ought,  in  all  cases,  if  possible,  to  be  compared  with  an  extremely 
fertile  soil  in  the  same  neighborhood,  and  in  a  similar  situation ;  the  difference  given 
by  their  analyses  would  indicate  the  methods  of  cultivation,  and  thus  the  plan  of  im- 
provement would  be  founded  upon  accurate  scientific  principles. 

'  If  the  fertile  soil  contained  a  large  quantity  of  sand,  in  proportion  to  the  barren  soil, 
the  process  of  amelioration  would  depend  simply  upon  a  supply  of  this  substance ;  and 
the  method  would  be  equally  simple  with  regard  to  soils  deficient  in  clay  or  calcareous 
matter.  In  the  application  of  clay,  sand,  loam,  marl,  or  chalk,  to  lands,  there  are  no 
particular  chemical  principles  to  be  observed  ;  but,  when  quicklime  is  used,  great  care 
must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  obtained  from  the  magnesian  limestone  ;  for  in  this  case,  as 
has  been  shown  by  Mr.  Pennant,  it  is  extremely  injurious  to  land.  The  magnesian 
limestone  may  be  distinguished  from  the  common  limestone  by  its  greater  hardness, 
and  by  the  length  of  time  that  it  requires  for  its  solution  in  acids  ;  and  it  may  be  analyzed 
by  the  process  for  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

'  When  the  analytical  composition  indicates  an  excess  of  vegetable  matter  as  the  cause 
of  sterility,  it  may  be  destroyed  by  much  pulverization  and  exposure  to  air,  by  paring 
and  burning,  or  the  agency  of  lately  made  quicksilver ;  and  the  defect  of  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  must  be  supplied  by  animal  or  vegetable  manure.  The  general  indi- 
cations of  fertility  and  barrenness,  as  found  by  chemical  experiments,  must  necessarily 
differ  in  different  climates,  and  under  various  circumstances.    The  power  of  soils  to 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  139 

absorb  moisture,  a  principle  essential  to  their  productiveness,  ought  to  be  much  greater 
bl  warm  and  dry  countries,  than  in  cold  and  moist  ones ;  and  the  quantity  of  fine  alumi- 
nous earth  they  contain  should  be  larger. 

1  From  the  great  difference  of  the  causes  that  influence  the  productiveness  of  lands,  it 
is  obvious,  that,  in  the  present  state  of  the  science,  no  certain  system  can  be  devised  for 
their  improvement,  independent  of  experiment :  but  there  are  few  cases  in  which  the 
labor  of  analytical  trials  will  not  be  amply  repaid  by  the  certainty  with  which  they  denote 
the  best  methods  of  melioration  ;  and  this  will  particularly  happen  when  the  defect  of 
composition  is  found  in  the  proportions  of  the  primitive  earths.  In  supplying  animal 
or  vegetable  manure,  a  temporary  food  only  is  provided  for  plants,  which  is  in  all  cases 
exhausted  by  means  of  a  certain  number  of  crops ;  but  when  a  soil  is  rendered  of  the 
best  possible  constitution  and  texture  with  regard,  to  its  earthy  parts,  its  fertility  may  be 
considered  as  permanently  established.  It  becomes  capable  of  attracting  a  very  large 
portion  of  vegetable  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere,  and  of  producing  its  crops  with 
comparatively  little  labor  and  expense.' 


140 


CHAPTER  XIV.— CLIMATE.* 

The  United  States  are  most  desirably  situated.  Placed  in  the  northern 
temperate  zone,  they  occupy  just  that  portion  of  it,  which  is  most  likely  to 
yield  a  healthy  climate  and  rich  soil.  Happily  removed  from  the  parching 
heat  of  the  torrid,  and  eternal  frosts  of  the  frigid  zone,  the  republic  is  never- 

#  It  is  fortunate  that  habit  makes  us  so  little  observant  of  what  is  disagreeable  or 
inconsistent  in  climate.  Every  nation  thinks  that  to  which  it  is  accustomed,  combines, 
on  the  whole,  the  greater  number  of  advantages.  Colonel  Hamilton  considers  it  pre- 
posterous to  compare  the  climate  of  the  United  States  with  that  of  England ;  and  Count 
Pecchio,  an  Italian  exile,  is  much  amused  that  the  English  should  attempt  to  persuade 
themselves  that  they  have  a  climate  even  endurable.  We  have  placed  the  two  following 
extracts  in  juxta-position,  to  exhibit  the  respective  views  of  these  intelligent  travellers 
on  the  climate  of  the  two  counties  : 

1  When  on  the  subject  of  climate,  I  may  just  mention,  that  there  is  no  topic  on  which 
Americans  are  more  jealously  sensitive.  It  delights  them  to  believe  that  theirs  is,  in 
all  respects,  a  favored  land  ;  that  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi  the  sky  is 
brighter,  the  breezes  more  salubrious,  and  the  soil  more  fertile,  than  in  any  other  region 
of  the  earth.  There  is  no  harm  in  all  this  ;  nay,  it  is  laudable,  if  they  would  only  not 
insist  that  all  strangers  should  view  the  matter  in  the  same  light,  and  express  admira- 
tion as  rapturous' as  their  own. 

1  Judging  from  my  own  experience,  I  should  certainly  pronounce  the  climate  of  the 
northern  and  central  states  to  be  only  one  degree  better  than  that  of  Nova  Scotia, 
which  struck  me,  when  there  in  1814,  as  being  the  very  worst  in  the  world.  On  mak- 
ing the  American  coast,  we  had  four  days  of  denser  fog  than  I  ever  saw  in  London. 
After  my  arrival  at  New  York  in  November,  the  weather,  for  about  a  week,  was  very 
fine.  It  then  became  cloudy  and  tempestuous,  and,  during  the  whole  period  of  my 
residence  at  Boston,  I  scarcely  saw  the  sun.  At  Philadelphia  there  came  on  a  deluge 
of  snow,  by  which  the  ground  was  covered  from  January  till  March.  At  Baltimore 
there  was  no  improvement.  Snow  lay  deep  on  the  ground,  during  the  whole  period  of 
my  residence  at  Washington,  and  the  roads  were  only  passable  with  difficulty.  On 
crossing  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  however,  the  weather  became  delightful,  and  con- 
tinued so  during  the  voyage  to  New  Orleans.  While  I  remained  in  that  city,  three 
days  out  of  every  four  were  oppressively  close  and  sultry,  and  the  atmosphere  was 
damp  and  oppressive  to  breathe. 

'  During  my  journey  from  Mobile  to  Charleston,  though  generally  hotter  than  desira- 
ble, the  weather  was,  in  the  main,  bright  and  beautiful ;  but  the  very  day  of  my  arrival 
at  the  latter  place,  the  thermometer  fell  twenty  degrees  ;  and  in  the  thirty-third  degree 
of  latitude,  in  the  month  of  May,  the  inmates  of  the  hotel  were  crowding  round  a  blaz- 
ing fire.  On  my  return  to  New  York,  I  found  the  population  still  muffled  in  cloaks 
and  great  coats,  and  the  weather  bitterly  cold.  Not  a  vestive  of  spring  was  discernible, 
at  a  season  when,  in  England,  the  whole  country  is  covered  with  verdure.  During  the 
last  week  of  May,  however,  the  heat  became  very  great.  At  Quebec,  it  was  almost 
intolerable,  the  thermometer  ranging  daily  between  eighty-four  and  ninety-two  degrees. 
At  New  York,  in  July,  the  weather  was  all  that  a  salamander  could  desire ;  and  I 
embarked  for  England,  under  a  sun  more  burning  than  it  is  at  all  probable  I  shall  ever 
suffer  from  again. 

1  In  the  northern  and  central  states — for  of  the  climate  of  the  southern  states  it  is 
unnecessary  to  speak — the  annual  range  of  the  thermometer  exceeds  a  hundred  degrees. 
The  heat  of  summer  is  that  of  Jamaica  ;  the  cold  in  winter  is  that  of  Russia.  Such 
enormous  vicissitudes  must  necessarily  impair  the  vigor  of  the  human  frame ;  and 
when  we  take  into  calculation  the  vast  portion  of  the  United  States  in  which  the  atmos- 
phere is  contaminated  by  marshy  exhalations,  it  will  not  be  difficult,  with  the  auxiliary 
influences  of  dram-drinking  and  tobacco-chewing,  to  account  for  the  squalid  and  sickly 
aspect  of  the  population.    Among  the  peasantry,  I  never  saw  one  florid  and  robust 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  141 

theless  of  such  an  extent  as  almost  to  touch  upon  both.  The  climate  of  a 
country,  stretching  through  twenty  degrees  of  latitude,  cannot  but  be  of 
great  diversity.  In  this  respect  it  has  been  divided  into  five  regions,  which 
may  be  denominated  the  very  cold,  the  cold,  the  temperate,  the  warm,  and 
the  hot. 

man,  nor  any  one  distinguished  by  that  fulness  and  rotundity  of  muscle,  which  every 
where  meets  the  eye  in  England. 

'  In  many  parts  of  the  state  of  New  York,  the  appearance  of  the  inhabitants  was  such 
as  to  excite  compassion.  In  the  Maremma  of  Tuscany,  and  the  Campagna  of  Rome, 
I  had  seen  beings  similar,  but  scarcely  more  wretched.  In  the  "  fall,"  as  they  call  it, 
intermittent  fevers  come  as  regularly  as  the  fruit  season.  During  my  journey,  I  made 
inquiries  at  many  cottages,  and  found  none  of  them  had  escaped  the  scourge.  But 
inquiries  were  useless.  The  answer  was  generally  too  legible  in  the  countenance  of 
the  withered  mother,  and  in  those  of  her  emaciated  offspring. 

1  It  seems  ridiculous  to  compare  such  a  climate  with  that  of  England,  and  yet  there  is 
nothing  to  which  Americans  are  more  addicted.  It  is  a  subject  regularly  tabled  in 
every  society.  "  How  delightful  our  climate  must  appear  to  you/7  observed  a  lady, 
"  after  the  rain  and  fogs  of  your  own  country  !" — "  Whether,  on  the  whole,  do  you  pre- 
fer, our  climate,  or  that  of  Italy  ?"  inquired  a  gentleman  of  New  York,  in  a  tone  of  the 
most  profound  gravity.  My  answer,  I  fear,  gave  offence,  for  it  became  the  signal  for  a 
general  meteorological  attack.  "  I  was  three  months  in  England,"  observed  one,  "  and 
it  rained  every  hour  of  the  time." 

1  Though  attached  to  the  soil  of  my  country,  I  had  really  no  inclination  to  vindicate 
its  atmosphere.  I,  therefore,  simply  replied,  that  the  gentleman  had  been  unfortunate 
in  the  period  of  his  visit.  But  I  was  not  suffered  to  escape  thus.  Another  traveller 
declared  he  had  been  nine  months  there,  without  better  luck ;  and  as  the  nine  months, 
added  to  the  three,  precisely  made  up  the  whole  year,  of  course,  I  had  nothing  farther 
to  say. 

1  But  this  tone  of  triumph  is  not  always  tenable.  During  the  days,  weeks,  and  months, 
when  the  weather  is  manifestly  indefensible,  the  Io  Poeans  give  place  to  apologies.  A 
traveller  is  entreated,  nay,  sometimes  even  implored,  not  to  judge  of  the  climate  by  the 
specimen  he  has  seen  of  it.  Before  his  arrival,  the  sky  was  cloudless,  and  the  atmos- 
phere serene.  He  has  just  come  in  the  nick  of  bad  weather.  Never  in  the  memory 
of  the  oldest  inhabitant,  was  the  snow  so  deep  or  permanent.  Never  was  spring  so 
tardy  in  its  approach,  and  never  were  vicissitudes  of  temperature  so  sudden  and  fre- 
quent. In  short,  he  is  desired  to  believe  that  the  ordinary  course  of  nature  is  suspended 
on  his  approach  ;  that  his  presence  in  an  American  city  deranges  the  whole  action  of 
the  elements.' — Men  and  Manners  in  America. 

Count  Pecchio  holds  the  mirror  up  to  the  English  with  an  equally  obstinate  determi 
nation  to  expose  the  deformity  of  their  climate ;  though  not  quite  so  libellous,  he  is 
equally  amusing  with  the  gallant  colonel. 

1  When  on  his  first  arrival  in  England,  the  foreigner  is  seated  on  the  roof  of  a  car- 
riage which  bears  him  towards  London  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  an  hour,  he  cannot 
help  believing  himself  hurried  along  in  the  car  of  Pluto,  to  the  descent  into  the  realms 
of  darkness,  especially  if  he  have  just  left  Spain  or  Italy,  the  favorite  regions  of  the  sun. 
In  the  midst  of  wonder,  he  can  hardly  avoid,  at  first  setting  off,  being  struck  with  an 
impression  of  melancholy.  An  eternal  cloud  of  smoke  which  involves  and  penetrates 
every  thing ;  a  fog,  which  during  the  months  of  November  and  December,  now  gray, 
now  red,  now  of  a  dirty  yellow,  always  obscures,  and  sometimes  completely  extinguishes 
the  light  of  day,  cannot  fail  to  give  a  lugubrious  and  Dantesque  air  to  this  immeasurable 
and  interminable  capital.  He,  above  all,  who  is  just  arrived  from  a  sunny  country,  ex- 
periences, as  I  said  before,  the  same  effect  as  when,  from  the  bright  light  of  noon,  he 
enters  a  half  closed  chamber  ;  at  the  first  glance  he  sees  nothing,  but  afterwards,  by 
little  and  little,  he  discerns  the  harp,  the  lady,  the  sofa,  and  the  other  agreeable  objects 
in  the  apartment.  Caracciolo,  the  ambassador  to  George  the  Third,  was  not  in  the  wrong 
when  he  said,  that  the  moon  of  Naples  was  warmer  than  the  sun  of  London.  In  fact, 
for  several  days,  the  sun  only  appears  in  the  midst  of  the  darkness  visible,  like  a  great 
yellow  spot.  London  is  a  "  panorama  of  the  sun,"  in  which  he  is  often  better  seen  than 
felt.  On  the  29th  of  November,  1826,  there  was  an  eclipse  visible  in  England;  the  sky 
that  day  happened  to  be  clear,  but  nobody  took  the  least  notice  of  the  phenomenon,  be- 


142  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  The  very  cold,  in  the  north-east,  may  be  defined  by  running  a  line 
from  St.  Regis,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  along  the  high  land  in  the  state  of 
New  York  to  Tioga  Point,  in  Pennsylvania ;  thence  to  Stony  Point  on 

cause  the  fog  produces  in  one  year  more  eclipses  in  England  than  there  ever  were,  from 
other  causes,  perhaps,  since  the  creation  qf  the  world. 

*  One  day  I  was  strolling  in  Hyde  Park,  in  company  with  a  Peruvian  :  it  was  one  of 
the  fine  days  of  London,  but  the  sun  was  so  obscured  by  the  fog,  that  it  had  taken  the 
form  of  a  great  globe  of  fire.  "What  do  you  think  of  the  sun  to-day?"  said  I  to  my 
companion.  "  I  thought,"  replied  the  adorer  of  the  true  sun,  "  that  the  end  of  the  world 
was  come !  Was  it  not  a  singular  caprice  of  fortune,  that  where  there  is  the  least  light, 
the  great  Newton  should  have  been  born  to  analyze  it?"  It  appears  to  me  like  the  other 
singularity,  that  Alfieri,  who  analyzed  liberty  so  well,  should  have  been  born  in  Italy, 
where  they  have  less  of  it,  perhaps,  than  any  where  else.  After  all,  what  of  it?  The 
English,  by  force  of  industry,  have  contrived  to  manufacture  for  themselves  even  a  sun. 
Is  it  not  indeed  a  sun — that  gas,  which,  running  under  ground  through  all  the  island, 
illuminates  the  whole  in  a  fiat  lux  ?  It  is  a  sun,  without  twilight,  and  without  sitting ; 
that  rises  and  disappears  like  a  flash  of  lightning,  and  that  too  just  when  we  want  it. 
The  gas  illumination  of  London  is  so  beautiful,  that  M.  Sismondi  had  good  reason  to 
say,  that,  in  London,  in  order  to  see,  you  must  wait  till  night.  The  place  of  St.  Antonio, 
at  Cadiz,  on  a  stormy  summer's  evening — the  noisy  Strado  Toledo  of  Naples,  silvered 
by  the  moon — the  Parisian  Tivoli,  blazing  with  fire-works  ; — none  of  them  can  sustain 
a  comparison  with  the  Regent-street  of  London,  lighted  by  gas.  Nor  is  this  artificial 
sun  an  exclusive  advantage  of  the  capital ;  it  shines  every  where  with  the  impartiality 
of  the  great  planet,  illuminating  alike  the  palace  and  the  hovel.  Whoever  travels  in 
England  by  night,  in  the  country  around  Leeds,  Nottingham,  Derby  or  Manchester, 
imagines  he  sees,  on  every  side,  the  enchanting  palaces  of  the  fairies,  shining  in  the  light 
of  a  thousand  torches ;  but  they  are,  in  reality,  no  other  than  very  large  and  very  lofty 
manufactories  of  cotton,  woollen,  or  linen. 

'But  the  English  have  another  remedy  for  the  scarcity  of  sun.  They  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  poets  and  philosophers,  who,  when  they  are  deficient  in  riches,  take  to  praising 
poverty ; — not  being  able  to  praise  the  sun,  they  sing  the  praises  of  the  fireside,  and  the 
delights  of  winter.  Ossian,  (or  rather  Macpherson,  the  author  of  Ossian,)  instead  of  the 
sun,  apostrophises  the  moon.  He  takes  pleasure  in  describing,  as  if  they  were  delight- 
ful, the  whistling  of  the  winds,  and  the  roaring  of  the  torrents.  He  compares  the  locks 
of  a  youthful  beauty  to  mist  gilded  by  the  sun.  Instead  of  depicting  a  valley  enamelled 
with  flowers,  he  spurns  so  soft  and  effeminate  an  image,  to  paint  the  aspect  of  a  frozen 
lake,  and  the  shaking  thistle  on  its  banks.  Cowper,  in  his  poem  of  The  Task,  seems 
completely  to  enjoy  himself  in  describing  a  winter's  evening,  when  the  rain  rattles  down, 
the  wind  whistles,  and  the  wagoner  growls  and  grumbles  on  his  way ;  whilst  in  doors, 
the  fire  burns,  the  newspaper  arrives,  the  exhilarating  tea  glows  on  the  table,  and  the 
family  are  all  collected  round  the  hearth. 

'  Some  poet,  whose  name  I  forget,  (I  think  it  is  Byron,)  even  gives  to  darkness  the 
epithet  "  lovely."  Thomson,  the  bard  of  the  seasons,  was  a  better  poet  than  usual,  when 
he  sung  of  winter.  He  calls  the  horrors  of  winter  "congenial  horrors;"  and  after  de- 
scribing the  mountains  of  snow,  that,  with  the  roar  of  thunder,  dart  from  precipice  to 
precipice,  to  the  bottom  of  the  Grison  valleys,  destroying  and  burying  in  the  depth  of 
night,  shepherds  and  their  flocks,  huts  and  villages,  single  tiavellers  and  whole  troops  of 
marching  soldiers,  he  imagines  himself,  with  epicurean  voluptuousness,  in  a  solitary  and 
well  sheltered  country-house,  before  a  blazing  fire,  and  lighted  by  splendid  chandeliers, 
reading  at  his  ease  the  finest  works  of  the  ancients. 

'  Thus  all  the  poets  have  conspired  to  make  their  countrymen  in  love  with  their  cloudy 
heavens,  and  induce  them  to  believe  themselves  fortunate  that  they  are  born  in  a  de- 
lightful climate.  And  what  matter  is  it  that  it  is  not  true  ?  Are  not  the  tricks  and 
illusions  of  the  imagination  as  substantial  as  actual  reality  ?  Montesquieu  said,  "  If  the 
English  are  not  free,  at  least  they  believe  they  are,  which  is  much  the  same."  So  we 
may  say,  if  the  English  have  not  a  fine  climate,  they  believe  they  have,  and  that  is  as 
good.  I  was  once  praising  to  a  young  English  lady,  the  pure,  lofty,  mother-of-pearl 
heavens  of  Madrid,  of  Naples,  of  Athens,  of  Smyrna.  She  replied,  "  I  should  be  tired 
to  death  by  such  a  perpetual  sunshine  ;  the  variety  and  phantasmagoria  of  our  cloud 
must  surely  be  much  more  beautiful."  ' — Observations  of  an  Italian  Exile. 


SOGRAPHY.  143 


M 


Hudson's  river,  and  thence  to  Cape  Cod  in  Massachusetts.  In  this  region 
the  summers  continue  from  June  through  August,  and  the  winters  from 
November  to  the  middle  of  April.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are 
great,  and  the  changes  sudden,  but  the  country  is,  notvvithstanding,  healthy. 
To  the  westward,  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake 
Huron  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  climate  is  also  very  cold,  and  the 
northern  extremity  in  the  winter  is  excessively  so. 

The  winters  of  Maine  are  long  and  severe,  with  clear  settled  weather, 
which  generally  continues  from  the  middle  of  December,  till  the  latter  end 
of  March ;  during  which  time,  the  ponds  and  fresh  water  rivers  are  passa- 
ble on  the  ice.  There  is  scarcely  any  spring  season  ;  the  summer  is  short, 
and  warm;  but  autumn  is  in  general  pure,  healthy,  and  pleasant. 

The  climate  of  New  Hampshire  is  highly  favorable  to  health  ;  but  the 
winters  are  long  and  severe.  Cattle  are  housed  about  the  first  of  Novem- 
ber. Snow  lies  on  the  ground  from  four  to  five  months,  and  the  use  of 
sleighs  during  that  period  is  general.  The  spring  is  rapid,  and  the  heat 
of  summer  great,  but  of  short  duration  ;  autumn  is  very  pleasant.  Morning 
and  evening  fires  are  needed  as  early  as  the  first  of  September,  and  as  late 
as  the  first  of  June. 

The  climate  of  Vermont  differs  little  from  that  of  New  Hampshire,  and 
is  extremely  healthy.  The  earth  is  generally  covered  with  snow  from  the 
middle  of  December  till  the  end  of  March ;  but  the  winter  seasons  may 
be  said  to  continue  from  the  beginning  of  November  till  the  middle 
of  April,  during  which,  the  inhabitants  enjoy  a  serene  sky  and  a  keen  cold 
air.  The  ground  is  seldom  frozen  to  any  great  depth,  being  covered  with 
a  great  body  of  snow,  in  some  high  lands  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  feet, 
before  the  severe  frosts  begin.  In  this  way  the  earth  is  enriched  and 
moistened,  and  in  the  spring  vegetation  advances  with  great  rapidity. 

The  climate  of  Masachusetts  is  perhaps  more  variable  than  that  of  any 
other  of  the  New  England  states ;  not  having  the  steady  winter  cold  of 
those  to  the  north,  nor  the  general  mildness  in  summer  of  those  immediately 
south.  Fires  are  necessary  from  November  to  May ;  and  there  are  days, 
even  in  June,  when  they  are  not  only  comfortable,  but  indispensable  for 
comfort.  Cattle  are  housed  in  November.  In  winter,  travelling  is  not  often 
impeded  by  great  falls  of  snow;  though  heavy  and  severe  snow  storms 
occur.  The  rivers  and  ponds  are  frozen  three  months  in  the  year ;  and 
the  harbors  are  usually  closed  a  week  or  fortnight,  and  sometimes  for  a 
much  longer  time.  As  there  are  many  cold  days  in  summer,  so  also  there 
are  many  warm  days  in  winter ;  and  the  field  which  is  at  night  soft  enough 
to  receive  the  plough,  may  be  chained  with  frost  and  buried  in  snow  before 
morning.  Winter  sets  in  late  ;  frequently  not  till  December,  but,  recently, 
it  has  gone  quite  through  the  spring  months.  Indeed,  the  most  disagreea- 
ble portion  of  the  year,  is  during  March  and  April  and  part  of  May,  when 
the  east  are  prevailing  winds.  In  autumn  there  is  much  weather  truly 
delightful.  Apples  and  pears  flourish  well  in  Massachusetts,  peach  trees 
sometimes  suffer  from  the  late  spring  and  the  early  autumnal  frosts.  It  is 
difficult  to  find  an  accurate  description  of  so  variable  a  climate ;  as  no 
tolerably  correct  account  of  it  could  be  given,  except  in  the  details  of  a 
meteorological  table. 

The  climate  of  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  does  not  differ  very  materi- 
ally from  that  of  Massachusetts.     In  the  southern  parts  of  these  states, 


144  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

summer  may  set  in  a  few  days  earlier,  and  the  winter  be  generally  a  little 
more  temperate,  Jbut  the  change  of  climate  is  slight. 

In  the  very  cold  tract  are  included  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  New 
York,  being  the  mountainous  country,  and  the  region  lying  to  the  east  of 
it.  Here  the  winters  are  long  and  severe,  being  more  so  as  you  proceed 
to  the  north.  The  climate  of  this  region  may  be  generally  described  as 
similar  to  that  of  the  New  England  states,  which  lies  in  the  same  latitude. 
In  the  parts  of  Michigan  territory,  lying  within  this  region,  the  climate  re- 
sembles that  of  Canada. 

In  the  region  we  have  called  very  cold,  the  range  of  the  thermometer  is 
from  thirty  degrees  below  zero  to  ninety-eight  above  it ;  including  great 
extremes  both  of  heat  and  cold. 

2.  The  cold  region  comprehends  a  great  and  very  unequal  range  of 
country.  In  the  eastern  division  it  extends  from  the  foregoing  line,  to 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  westward ;  and  south,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  to 
about  Cape  Henlopen  on  the  Delaware.  Hence  a  line  may  be  protracted 
to  Washington,  and  along  by  the  foot  of  the  first  mountains  in  Virginia  to 
about  Morgantown,  North  Carolina;  thence  through  the  mountains  to 
Kenaway  river,  and  north-east  on  the  west  side  of  the  mountains  to  the 
upper  part  of  Chesnut  Ridge,  in  Pennsylvania.  In  the  westward,  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  very  cold  region  before-mentioned,  may  be  as- 
sumed as  the  northern  boundary  of  the  cold  ;  and  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  cold  may  be  protracted  westward  from  the  head  of  Chesnut  Ridge  to 
the  high  lands,  dividing  the  waters  falling  into  the  Ohio  from  those  falling 
into  the  great  lakes,  and  along  in  a  northern  and  western  direction,  cross- 
ing the  Mississippi  about  thirty  miles  below  Praire  des  Chiens,  thence 
south  and  west,  crossing  the  Missouri  about  thirty  miles  below  the  Platte 
river  ;  thence  southward  to  the  west  of  the  Great  Osage  village,  and  then 
eastward  to  the  Arkansas  river,  above  the  Hot  Springs.  In  this  division 
the  winters  commence  in  December  and  end  in  March,  and  the  heat  of 
summer  commences  in  May  and  ends  in  September.  The  heat  and  cold 
here  also  go  to  great  extremes ;  but  the  weather  is  very  changeable,  par- 
ticularly in  winter,  so  that  neither  severe  heat  nor  severe  cold  lasts  long  at 
a  time.     The  country  in  this  division  is  also  generally  healthy. 

In  this  division  are  comprehended  the  south-eastern  and  western  parts 
of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  Pennsylvania, 
most  of  Delaware  and  Maryland,  the  central  and  mountainous  parts  of 
Virginia,  the  southern  portion  of  Michigan  territory,  the  northern  extremi- 
ties of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  and  portions  of  the  Missouri  and  Arkan- 
sas territories. 

In  the  south-eastern  parts  of  New  York  the  prevailing  winds,  during  the 
summer,  are  southerly  ;  the  weather  is  variable,  and  the  change  of  tempe- 
rature sudden  and  frequent.  The  mild  and  damp  sea  air  penetrates  far 
inland;  indeed,  as  far  as  the  Highlands,  the  climate  differs  little  from  that 
of  the  seacoast.  In  the  parts  of  New  York  west  of  the  mountains,  the 
average  temperature  is  about  three  degrees  higher  than  in  the  same  lati- 
tude farther  east.  South-westerly  winds  prevail  through  most  of  the  year ; 
and  the  chill  easterly  wind  is  nearly  unknown.^ 

*  There  were  several  severe  thunder-storms  while  we  were  in  the  neighborhood  of 
New- York,  very  different  in  their  appearance  from  those  which  occur  in  Britain,  but 
not  attended  with  more  accidents.    One  of  them,  in  the  middle  of  June,  was,  howevo^ 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  145 

The  climate  of  Pennsylvania  is  very  various.  On  the  east  side  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  it  differs  little  from  that  of  Connecticut.  It  is,  like 
the  other  countries  east  of  the  mountains,  subject  to  great  and  sudden 
changes ;  but  on  the  west  side,  it  is  much  more  agreeable  and  temperate, 
with  a  greater  portion  of  cloudy  weather,  and  winters  milder  and  more 
humid  than  on  the  Atlantic.  The  winter  season  commences  about  the 
twentieth  of  December,  and  the  spring  sets  in  about  two  weeks  earlier  than 
in  the  eastern  parts  of  New  York.  There  is  frost  almost  every  month  in 
the  year  in  some  places,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  considera- 
ble. The  keenness  of  the  north-west  wind  in  winter  is  excessive,  but 
the  state  is,  upon  the  whole,  extremely  healthy,  and  numerous  instances  of 
longevity  occur. 

The  climate  of  New  Jersey  is  dissimilar  in  different  sections  of  the  state. 
In  the  northern  parts,  there  is  clear,  settled  weather,  and  the  winters  are 
exceedingly  cold;  but  the  whole  is  very  healthy.  In  the  districts  towards 
the  south,  particularly  near  the  extremity,  the  weather  approaches  more 
nearly  to  that  of  the  southern  states,  and  is  subject  to  very  sudden  changes. 
The  climate  of  Delaware  is  much  influenced  by  the  face  of  the  country ; 
for  the  land  being  low  and  flat,  the  waters  stagnate,  and  the  inhabitants  are 
consequently  subject  to  intermittent  fevers  and  agues.  The  northern 
parts,  however,  are  much  more  agreable  and  healthy  than  those  to  the 
south. 

Among  the  mountains  of  Virginia  the  summers  are  delightful,  and  the 
heat  is  never  found  to  be  so  oppressive  as  it  is  in  the  Atlantic  districts ; 
the  winters  are  so  mild  in  general,  that  snow  seldom  lies  three  days  to- 
gether on  the  ground.  The  salubrity  of  the  climate,  also,  is  equal  to  that 
of  any  part  of  the  United  States;  and  the  inhabitants  have,  in  consequence, 
a  healthy,  ruddy  appearance.  Perhaps  there  is  no  part  of  North  America 
possessing  a  more  agreeable  climate,  than  that  section  of  Virginia  which 
lies  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge  ;  and,  in  particular,  the  fertile  county  of  Botte- 
tourt,  which  is  entirely  surrounded  by  mountains.  Here  the  frost  in  winter 
is  regular,  but  not  severe.  In  summer  the  heat  is  great ;  but  there  is  not 
a  night  in  the  year  that  a  blanket  is  not  found  comfortable.  Before  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning  the  heat  is  greatest ;  at  that  hour  a  breeze  generally 
springs  up  from  the  mountains,  and  renders  the  air  agreeable  the  whole 
day.  Fever  and  ague  are  disorders  unknown  here,  and  persons  who  come 
hither  afflicted  with  them  from  the  low  country,  get  rid  of  them  in  a  very 
short  time.  Except  in  the  neighborhood  of  stagnant  waters,  Virginia  has, 
upon  the  whole,  a  healthy  climate. 

very  tremendous  ;  it  occurred  in  the  night,  and  the  flashes  of  vivid  lightning  followed 
each  other  with  so  great  rapidity,  that  the  sky  was  altogether  illuminated  for  a  long 
period,  and  until  a  violent  storm  of  wind,  accompanied  with  a  deluge  of  rain,  came  on. 
The  roaring  of  the  thunder  never  ceased  during  the  continuance  of  the  storm.  Several 
casualties  occurred  in  New  York  ;  some  trees  were  torn  up  by  the  roots,  the  shipping 
was  damaged,  one  vessel  upset,  and  the  crew  drowned.  There  is  more  appearance  of 
devastation  occasioned  by  thunder-storms  in  the  forests  and  woods  of  this  country  than 
any  where  else.  Large  portions  of  the  forest  are  sometimes  seen  almost  torn  to  pieces. 
Subsequently  to  this  period,  and  when  I  was  travelling  in  the  southern  states,  I  was 
again  and  again  witness  to  very  terrifying  and  magnificent  thunder-storms,  where  I 
have  seen  the  whole  atmosphere  illuminated  by  the  never  ceasing  balls  of  fire  bursting 
from  cloud  to  cloud,  and  the  appearance  every  moment  of  forked  flashes  of  lightning. 
Few  nights,  during:  the  summer  and  beginning  of  autumn,  in  this  country,  occur,  in 
which  lightning  is  not  visible  in  som«  part  of  the  horizon ^-Stuarfs  America. 
19  13 


146  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  climate  of  Maryland  is  various  in  different  districts,  but  for  the 
most  part  mild  and  agreeable,  well  suited  to  agricultural  productions,  and 
particularly  fruit  trees.  The  eastern  parts  are  similar  to  Delaware,  having 
large  tracts  of  marsh,  which,  during  the  day,  load  the  atmosphere  with 
vapor,  that  falls  in  dew  in  the  close  of  the  summer  and  autumn,  which 
are  unhealthy,  and  during  which  the  inhabitants  are  much  exposed  to  fever 
and  ague.  In  the  interior  hilly  country  the  climate  improves  very  much, 
and  among  the  mountains  it  is  delightful  and  healthy;  the  summers  being 
cooled  by  fine  breezes,  while  the  winters  are  tempered  by  a  southern  lati- 
tude, which  renders  them  much  milder  than  to  the  northward. 

In  the  southern  portions  of  Michigan  territory,  the  winters  are  not 
severe,  and  the  spring  sets  in  as  early  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  state 
which  lies  in  the  same  latitude.  In  1820,  at  Detroit,  the  mean  heat  of 
December  was  twenty-seven  degrees,  and  of  July  sixty-nine.  The  tem- 
perature of  this  territory  is  rendered  milder  by  the  neighborhood  of  such 
large  bodies  of  water,  and  by  the  absence  of  great  elevations.  The  portions 
of  the  Missouri  and  Arkansas  territories,  that  lie  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  cold  region,  partake  of  the  character  of  the  climate  already  described. 
As  the  country  in  these  territories  is  open  and  generally  level,  the  tempe- 
rature depends  chiefly  on  the  latitude. 

The  northern  and  north-eastern  parts  of  Illinois  are  cold  in  the  winter  ; 
the  air  from  the  great  lake  is  chill  and  bleak,  and  sensibly  affects  the 
country  exposed  to  its  influence.  In  the  region  of  Ohio,  sloping  towards 
the  lakes,  the  snow  falls  to  a  very  considerable  depth,  and  lies  long;  sleighs 
and  sledges  are  much  used.  The  transitions  during  the  winter  are  violent 
and  frequent.  That  part  of  Indiana  contiguous  to  Lake  Michigan  is  often 
exposed  to  heavy  falls  of  rain,  and  is  consequently  marshy  and  unhealthy. 

3.  The  temperate  region  is  situated  between  the  cold,  and  a  line  drawn 
from  Morgantown,  North  Carolina,  south-westward  along  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  to  their  termination  in  Georgia,  thence  in  a  north-west  direction 
by  Florence,  in  Alabama,  and  crossing  the  Mississippi  river  about  the 
upper  part  of  the  Chickasaw  Bluffs,  thence  north-west  to  the  Delaware 
towns  on  White  river,  and  thence  south-west  to  the  Arkansas,  above  the 
Hot  Springs.  The  region  described  within  these  limits  lies  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  country,  the  whole  being  on  a  considerable  elevation.  It  com- 
prehends Kentucky  and  Missouri,  with  nearly  the  whole  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  Tennessee,  the  south  part  of  Pennsylvania,  the  western  part  of 
Virginia,  and  small  portions  of  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Alabama. 
This  climate  is  distinguished  from  the  foregoing  by  an  earlier  spring,  and 
by  greater  serenity,  and  fewer  changes. 

The  climate  of  Tennessee  forms  a  medium  between  the  warmth  of  the 
south  and  the  cold  of  the  north ;  it  may  be  correctly  viewed  as  the  middle 
climate  of  the  United  States,  and  proves  peculiarly  congenial  to  northern 
constitutions.  There  is  no  country  in  America  where  diseases  are  so 
rare,  where  physicians  have  so  little  practice,  and  where  children  are  more 
robust  and  healthy.  Snow  falls  in  winter,  and  sometimes  to  a  considera- 
ble depth  ;  but  the  summer,  particularly  in  the  higher  ground,  is  mild,  and 
accompanied  with  excessive  heat.  Apples,  pears,  and  plums  are  raised 
here  in  great  perfection  ;  and  in  sheltered  situations  it  is  thought  that  the 
fig  might  be  cultivated  to  advantage.     Maize  is  planted  early  in  April ; 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  147 

cotton  is  the  staple  of  agriculture.     Within  the  limits  of  this  state,  most  of 
the  forest  trees  of  the  western  country  are  found  in  abundance. 

In  Kentucky  the  climate  is  not  so  mild  as  that  of  Tennessee.  It  is  how- 
ever mild  and  temperate.  Grape  vines  nourish  here  of  prodigious  size. 
All  the  grains,  pulses,  garden  vegetables,  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  climate 
abound.  The  wheat  of  Kentucky  is  excellent,  but  hemp  and  tobacco  are 
her  staples. 

The  climate  of  Missouri  is  temperate,  though  variable.  Winter  conti- 
nues in  its  severity  for  about  two  months,  from  the  latter  part  of  December 
to  the  last  of  February;  but  even  during  this  interval  there  are  many 
warm  and  pleasant  days.  Snow  seldom  remains  on  the  ground  more  than 
sixty  hours ;  and  its  maximum  depth  is  generally  about  six  inches.  Fre- 
quently the  rivers  are  for  weeks  frozen  sufficiently  hard  for  the  passage  of 
loaded  teams.  Trees  sometimes  blossom  in  March,  and  the  spring  months 
with  occasional  cold,  have  days  as  pleasant  as  those  of  summer.  From 
the  sandy  and  warm  texture  of  the  soil,  and  the  openness  of  the  country, 
the  heat  in  summer  is  very  great,  and  would  be  oppressive,  except  for  the 
prevalence  of  agreeable  breezes.  Another  characteristic  of  the  Missouri 
climate,  is  its  extreme  dryness ;  evaporation  is  rapid,  and  the  average 
amount  of  rain  falling  in  the  year  is  estimated  at  eighteen  inches.  Long 
and  steady  rains  so  common  in  the  eastern  states,  seldom  occur ;  the  sum- 
mer rains  are  generally  thunder  showers.  The  autumn  months  are  de- 
lightful, serene,  temperate,  and  salubrious. 

The  part  of  Ohio  lying  within  this  division  of  climate  is  moderate  in 
respect  to  climate ;  suffering  neither  from  excessive  cold  or  the  reverse. 
Along  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  river  it  is  more  mild  than  in  the  central  and 
mountainous  regions ;  and  the  difference  is  owing  to  the  difference  of  lati- 
tude and  elevation.  The  winters  vary  in  severity,  being  sometimes  quite 
mild;  in  other  years  the  rivers  are  frozen  for  eight  or  nine  weeks.  Severe 
cold  generally  continues  from  the  last  week  in  December  through  the  first 
in  February.  Summer  heat  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  is  oppressive,  but 
of  short  duration.  Autumn  is  temperate,  pleasant,  and  healthy.  Nowhere 
in  the  world,  says  Mr.  Flint,  is  the  grand  autumnal  painting  of  the  forests, 
in  the  decay  of  vegetation,  seen  in  more  beauty  than  in  the  beech  forests 
of  Ohio.  The  richness  of  the  fading  colors,  and  the  effect  of  the  mingling 
hues  baffles  all  description.  On  the  whole,  a  great  farming  community, 
like  that  of  Ohio,  could  scarcely  desire  a  better  climate  for  themselves, 
their  cattle,  and  stock  of  all  kinds ;  or  one,  in  which  a  man  can  work 
abroad,  with  comfort,  a  greater  number  of  days  in  the  year. 

Indiana  has  much  the  same  temperature  with  Illinois  and  Missouri.  The 
winters  are  mild,  and  seldom  last  in  their  severity  more  than  six  weeks ; 
during  this  period,  the  slower  streams  are  generally  frozen,  and  afford  a 
safe  passage  on  the  ice.  In  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of  the  state 
snow  seldom  falls  to  a  greater  depth  than  six  inches.  Trees  begin  to  be 
green  early  in  April,  and  the  peach  blossoms  in  March.  A  large  number 
of  shrubs  put  forth  their  flowers  before  the  leaves,  and  from  this  the  spring 
vegetation  is  singularly  beautiful.  Illinois  has  in  general  the  same  climate 
with  Missouri,  and  its  productions  are  the  same  as  those  of  that  state  ; 
being,  however,  somewhat  lower,  it  is  more  subject  to  inundation,  and  con- 
sequently the  air  is  more  humid.  The  portions  of  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Alabama,  comprehended  within  this  division, 


148  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

partake  the  general  character  of  climate  with  those  we  have  particularly 
described. 

4.  The  region  possessing  a  warm  climate  lies  between  the  temperate, 
and  a  line  drawn  from  Cape  Henry  in  a  circular  direction,  and  passing 
above  Tarboro,  and  through  Fayetteville,  Columbia,  Augusta,  Milledgeville 
and  Fort  Jackson  in  Alabama,  and  thence  a  little  south  of  west  across  the 
Mississippi,  and  on  to  the  Sabine  river,  in  the  latitude  of  Nacogdoches,  in 
Texas.  In  this  region  the  winters  continue  from  about  the  first  of  January 
to  the  first  of  March ;  and  the  summers  from  the  first  of  May  to  the  middle 
of  October.  The  weather  is  pretty  settled  and  steady,  and,  except  in 
swampy  or  marshy  situations,  the  country  is  generally  healthy.  This  re- 
gion includes  the  interior  and  central  parts  of  North  Carolina,  the  northern 
and  western  parts  of  South  Carolina,  the  northern  parts  of  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  and  Louisiana. 

In  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  South  Carolina,  the  land  is  moun- 
tainous, and  the  climate  generally  salubrious.  The  air  is  dry,  and  in 
winter  cold ;  but  it  is  generally  mild  and  delightful.  The  highlands  of 
North  Carolina  that  lie  within  this  district  are  healthy  and  pleasant ;  the 
days  in  summer  are  hot,  but  the  nights  are  refreshed  by  cool  breezes.  The 
northern  and  hilly  region  of  Georgia  is  as  healthy  as  any  part  of  the 
states.  Winter  continues  from  the  middle  of  December  to  the  middle  of 
February.  The  northern  parts  of  Alabama,  in  the  districts  of  hills,  springs, 
and  pine  forests,  are  generally  healthy.  In  winter  the  still  waters  often 
freeze ;  and  the  summers  are  not  much  hotter  than  they  are  many  degrees 
farther  to  the  north. 

The  climate  of  the  northern  part  of  Mississippi,  in  places  removed  from 
stagnant  waters,  is  healthy.  Heat  in  summer  is  intense ;  and  during  the 
latter  month  of  that  season  and  the  first  of  autumn,  even  the  residents  in 
the  healthy  districts  are  exposed  to  severe  bilious  attacks.  In  compensation, 
however,  they  are  free  from  the  pulmonary  affections  which  occasion  so 
much  destruction  in  the  more  northern  regions.  The  productions  of  this 
state  are  the  same  with  those  of  Louisiana. 

5.  The  hot  region  extends  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  warm,  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  comprises  all  Florida, 
and  the  southern  parts  of  the  Carolinas,*  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Missis- 
sippi, with  the  greater  portion  of  Louisiana. 

*  The  following  account  of  the  climate  in  the  neighborhood  of  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  is  extracted  from  a  letter  of  the  intelligent  correspondent  of  the  Portland  Ad- 
vertiser, dated  March  29,  1833. 

'  Vegetation  is  quite  advanced,  and  rapidly  advancing.  The  air  this  day  was  not  so 
warm  as  it  has  been  j  but  we  had  this  morning  copious  showers  with  loud  thunder  and 
vivid  lightning.  The  gardens  in  the  vicinity  of  Charleston  are  now  beautiful  beyond 
description.  All  vegetation  is  in  that  lively  hue,  which  charms  the  eye  and  delights  the 
feelings.  The  trees  that  border  the  wayside  are  rapidly  putting  on  their  green  covering. 
The  open  fields  are  verdant  with  the  growing  grass.  Corn  is  up  and  advanced.  The 
vegetables  in  the  gardens  are  as  forward  as  they  will  be  in  ours  the  first  of  July.  The 
market  is  well  stocked  with  the  luxuries  of  an  early  summer.  A  southern  spring  is 
spring  indeed.  There  are  music  and  life  in  every  thing.  If  they  could  have  here  our 
captivating  and  musing  scenery,  our  variety  of  hill  and  dale,  it  would  be  at  this  season 
another  paradise  on  earth. 

1  Charleston  is  considered  healthy  by  the  inhabitants.  They  boast  of  their  exemption 
from  diseases,  and  say  their  bill  of  mortality  is  not  so  fatal  as  that  of  New  York  and 
Philadelphia.    The  city  itself  may  be  thus  healthy  when  the  yellow  fever  does  not  pre- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  149 

The  cumate  of  Florida  may  be  considered  in  some  respects  as  a  trcpical 
climatp.  From  the  first  of  July  to  the  first  of  October,  the  air  is  sultry, 
and  the  heat  exceedingly  oppressive.  This  may  be  considered  the  un- 
healthy season,  during  which  fpvers  are  prevalent,  but  even  at  this  time 
the  climate  of  St.  Augustine  is  salubrious  and  pleasant,  and  is  a  place  of 
resort  for  those  who  are  desirous  of  avoiding  sickness.  During  this  period 
the  range  of  the  thermometer  is  between  eighty-four  and  eighty-eight  de- 
grees, and  it  sometimes  rises  above  one  hundred.  Even  in  winter,  the 
influence  of  the  clear  vertical  sun  is  always  uncomfortable ;  in  the  penin- 
sular parts,  water  never  freezes,  though  there  are  sometimes  slight  frosts. 
In  this  climate  the  most  delicate  orange  trees  flourish  and  bear  delicious 
fruits ;  the  air  is  generally  pure  and  mild,  and  the  breeze  pleasant.  Heavy 
dews  fall,  and  the  night  air  is  exceedingly  humid.  The  rainy  season  com- 
mences early  in  winter ;  in  February  and  March  there  are  severe  thunder 
storms  by  night,  followed  by  days  of  great  clearness  and  beauty.  The 
peninsular  is  visited  by  tornadoes,  and  at  the  time  of  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox, hurricanes  and  destructive  gales  occur. 

In  the  southern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  Carolinas,  the  summers  are 
very  hot,  sultry,  moist  and  unhealthy.  The  extensive  and  rapid  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter  engenders  exhalations,  which  unite  with  the 
miasmata  of  the  swamps,  and  create  an  atmosphere  loaded  with  the  most 
deleterious  qualities.  Intermittent  and  bilious  fevers  are  frequent  and 
severe.  In  the  low  country  the  summer  lasts  seven  or  eight  months  ;  and 
though  the  winter  frost  is  sometimes  severe  enough  to  kill  the  tender  plants, 
it  seldom  lasts  more  than  three  or  four  days,  or  penetrates  the  ground  above 

vail,  but  it  is  as  much  as  one's  life  is  worth  to  venture  into  the  lowlands  in  the  vicinity, 
in  the  country  round.  No  resident  of  Charleston,  even  those  born  Carolinians,  or  the 
best  acclimated,  dare  run  the  risk.  For  a  citizen  to  sleep  in  the  country  in  the  summer 
months,  is  considered  almost  certain  death,  for  the  country  fever,  as  it  is  termed,  imme- 
diately  seizes  him.  The  country,  this  side  of  the  middle  region — a  rolling  country  of 
South  Carolina  for  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  seacoast — is  swampy,  or  a  pine 
barren.  There  is  in  the  swamps  a  ?nal-aria,  very  fatal  to  health,  the  effects  of  which  no 
white  man  is  willing  to  run  the  risk  of  encountering.  Hence  the  planters  in  the  low- 
lands, particularly  such  as  live  on  the  rice  plantations,  remove  in  the  sickly  months  to 
the  seacoast.  or  go  back  into  the  country,  to  Buncumbe  county  in  North  Carolina,  near 
the  Saluda  Gap,  or  to  the  Virginia  Springs,  or  to  the  seacoast,  or  to  the  northern  states. 
The  slaves  on  the  rice  plantations  are  said  to  be  healthy  and  happy,  and  to  suffer  no 
affliction  from  the  burning  sun  of  August,  or  the  noxious  effluvia  from  the  rice  grounds. 
1 A  white  overseer  is  usually  left  in  care  of  the  plantation  and  the  negroes,  who, 
though  born  in  the  country,  often,  and  commonly,  has  a  fever  every  year.  I  am  told 
that  many  of  them  die  at  middle  age,  and  that  few  seldom  obtain  an  old  age.  If  such 
be  the  fact,  it  would  seem  that  negroes  are  necessary  to  cultivate  the  rice  grounds, 
though  it  is  with  difficulty  that  I  can  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  white  man,  well 
acclimated,  is  not  as  well  fitted  by  nature  to  cultivate  the  land  he  lives  on  as  the  negro. 
But  the  universal  opinion  is,  that  it  is  exceedingly  hazardous  for  a  planter  to  continue 
with  his  family  on  his  estate,  and  hence,  no  matter  what  the  expense,  the  estates  are 
deserted  from  June  to  the  first  frost  in  autumn,  and  the  planter  dare  not  visit  his  pro< 
peny,  nor  sleep  in  his  house  in  that  time,  though  he  may  be  on  the  seacoast  but  a  few 
miles  ott,  c:r  in  a  settlement  on  a  pine  barren,  which  is  considered  healthy.  The 
swampy  rice  groarAs  no  doubt  are  sickly.  The  effluvia  from  so  much  putrid  water 
must  be  noxious.  The  pallor  and  ghastliness  of  many  of  the  overseers  bear  testimony 
to  the  truth  of  the  general  assertion.  And  it  is  probable,  yea,  certain,  that  the  habits, 
the  manners,  the  long  practice  of  the  negroes,  have  better  fitted  them  to  undergo  the 
danger  than  the  white  man  is  or  can  be,  with  his  training.  Hence,  one  of  the  great 
arguments  in  favor  of  slaver}-  here,  is,  "we  cannot  do  without  the  negroes."  ' 

13* 


150  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

two  inches.  Spring  commences  about  the  middle  of  February,  and  green 
peas  are  often  in  the  market  by  the  middle  of  March ;  but  the  weather 
varies  very  much  till  about  the  first  of  May,  when  it  becomes  steadily 
warm,  and  continues  increasing  in  heat  till  September,  when  it  begins  to 
moderate.  Almost  every  person  whose  circumstances  permit,  removes  to 
a  more  healthy  situation  during  this  period,  and  a  vast  number  go  to  the 
northern  states  in  the  summer,  and  return  in  the  fall.  The  period  of  going 
north  is  mostly  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  July,  and  of  re- 
turning, from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  November.  The 
anxiety  that  prevails  during  that  period  is  extreme,  and  when  it  is  over,  the 
inhabitants  congratulate  one  another  with  the  full  prospect  of  ten  or  eleven 
months  being  added  to  their  lives. 

The  climate  of  Georgia  diners  little  from  that  already  described  of  the 
Carolinas.  The  rice  swamps,  and  the  low  country  in  general,  are  very 
unhealthy,  and  the  planters  are  obliged,  during  the  sickly  season,  to  retire 
to  the  elevated  parts  of  the  state.  A  near  approach  to  the  tropical  tempera- 
ture is  found  in  some  portions  of  Georgia,  where  the  cane,  the  olive,  and 
sweet  orange  flourish  luxuriantly.  The  climate  of  the  southern  part  of 
Alabama,  and  of  Mississippi,  resembles  that  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina 
in  the  same  latitudes.  In  the  thirty-first  degree  of  latitude,  the  thermometer 
stands  in  spring  water  at  sixty-nine  degrees,  which  is  nearly  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  year.  A  series  of  themometrical  observations  is  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Flint,  which  gave  the  following  result.  The  warmest  part  of 
the  warmest  day  in  April,  gave  eighty-two  degrees  ;  mean  heat  of  July  of  the 
same  year,  eighty-six  ;  coldest  in  January,  fifty-four  ;  coldest  in  February, 
forty-three;  warmest  in  March,  eighty-five  degrees.  In  the  same  year, 
trees  even  in  swamps,  where  the  vegetation  is  most  tardy,  were  in  full  leaf 
by  the  second  of  April ;  at  which  time  peach  blossoms  were  gone.  Peas 
were  in  pod  by  the  twelfth  of  April ;  when  peaches  were  of  the  size  of  a 
hazel-nut,  and  the  fig  trees  in  full  leaf.  Green  peas  were  on  the  table,  and 
strawberries  ripe  by  the  second  of  May,  and  on  the  sixteenth  of  the  same 
month,  mulberries,  dewberries,  and  whortleberries  were  ripe. 

The  climate  of  Louisiana  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  Florida. 
All  the  northern  fruits  come  to  perfection  here,  with  the  exception  of  apples. 
The  pumpkin  and  melon  tribe  flourish,  and  the  common  garden  vegetables 
are  cultivated  in  abundance.  Figs  of  different  kinds  might  be  extensively 
raised  for  exportation,  but  are  much  neglected.  On  the  rich  alluvial  lands 
maize  thrives  wonderfully;  but  wheat  and  rye  do  not  flourish.  In  the 
region  of  the  sugar-cane,  along  the  whole  shore  of  the  gulf,  and  on  the 
lower  courses  of  the  rivers  of  Louisiana,  the  orange  tree  flourishes  and 
bears  a  delicious  fruit.  In  the  year  1822,  a  severe  frost  destroyed  these 
trees  while  in  full  bearing,  but  the  roots  have  thrown  out  new  trees.  The 
cultivated  grape,  and  various  wild  grapes  abound.  Berries  are  neither 
common  nor  good.  Cotton  grows  to  the  height  of  six  feet ;  and  tobacco  of 
the  first  quality  is  extensively  raised. 


In  addition  to  the  views  of  climate  already  given,  we  may  add  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  that  of  Mississippi  Valley,  for  which  we  have  been 
indebted  to  the  industrious  observation  of  Mr.  Flint.  '  We  may  class  four 
distinct  climates,  between  the  sources  and  the  outlet  of  the  Mississippi. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  151 

The  first,  commencing  at  its  sources,  and  terminating  at  Prairie  du  Chien, 
corresponds  pretty  accurately  to  the  climate  between  Montreal  and  Boston  ; 
with  this  difference,  that  the  amount  of  snow  falling  in  the  former  is  much 
less  than  in  the  latter  region.  The  mean  temperature  of  a  year  would  be 
something  higher  on  the  Mississippi.  The  vegetables  raised,  the  time  of 
planting,  and  the  modes  of  cultivating  them,  would,  probably,  be  nearly  the 
same.  Vegetation  will  have  nearly  the  same  progress  and  periodical 
changes.  The  growing  of  gourd  seed  corn,  which  demands  an  increase 
of  temperature  to  bring  it  to  maturity,  is  not  planted  in  this  region.  The 
Irish  potatoe  is  raised  in  this  climate  in  the  utmost  perfection.  Wheat  and 
cultivated  grasses  succeed  well.  The  apple  and  the  pear  tree  require 
fostering,  and  southern  exposure,  to  bring  fruit  in  perfection.  The  peach 
tree  has  still  more  the  habits  and  the  fragile  delicacy  of  a  southern  stranger, 
and  requires  a  sheltered  declivity,  with  a  southern  exposure,  to  succeed  at 
all.  Five  months  in  the  year  may  be  said  to  belong  to  the  dominion  of 
winter.  For  that  length  of  time,  the  cattle  require  shelter  in  the  severe 
weather,  and  the  still  waters  remain  frozen. 

•  The  next  climate  includes  the  opposite  states  of  Missouri  and  Illinois,  in 
their  whole  extent,  or  the  country  between  forty-one  and  thirty-seven  de- 
grees. Cattle,  though  much  benefited  by  sheltering,  and  often  needing  it, 
seldom  receive  it.  It  is  not  so  favorable  for  cultivated  grasses,  as  the  pre- 
ceding region.  Gourd  seed  corn  is  the  only  kind  extensively  planted.  The 
winter  commences  with  January,  and  ends  with  the  second  week  in  Feb- 
ruary. The  ice,  in  the  still  waters,  after  that  time  thaws.  Wheat,  the 
inhabitant  of  a  variety  of  climates,  is  at  home,  as  a  native,  in  this.  The 
persimon  and  the  papaw  are  found  in  its  whole  extent.  It  is  the  favored 
region  of  the  apple,  the  pear,  and  peach  tree.  Snows  neither  fall  deep,  nor 
lie  long.  The  Irish  potato  succeeds  to  a  certain  extent,  but  not  as  well,  as 
in  the  former  climate ;  and  this  disadvantage  is  supplied  by  the  sweet 
potato,  which,  though  not  at  home  in  this  climate,  with  a  little  care  in  the 
cultivation,  flourishes.  The  grandeur  of  vegetation,  and  the  temperature  of 
March  and  April,  indicate  an  approach  towards  a  southern  climate. 

'  The  next  climate  extends  from  thirty-seven  to  thirty-one  degrees.  Below 
thirty-five  degrees,  in  the  rich  alluvial  soils,  the  apple  tree  begins  to  fail  in 
bringing  its  fruit  to  perfection.  We  have  never  tasted  apples  worth  eating, 
raised  much  below  New  Madrid.  Cotton,  between  this  point  and  thirty- 
three  degrees,  is  raised,  in  favorable  positions,  for  home  consumption; 
but  is  seldom  to  be  depended  upon  for  a  crop.  Below  thirty-three  degrees 
commences  the  proper  climate  for  cotton,  and  it  is  the  staple  article  of 
cultivation.  Festoons  of  long  moss  hang  from  the  trees,  and  darken  the 
forests.  The  palmetto  gives  to  the  low  alluvial  grounds  a  grand  and 
striking  verdure.  The  muscadine  grape,  strongly  designating  climate,  is 
first  found  here.  Laurel  trees  become  common  in  the  forest,  retaining 
their  foliage  and  their  verdure  through  the  winter.  Wheat  is  no  longer 
seen,  as  an  article  of  cultivation.  The  fig  tree  brings  its  fruit  to  full 
maturity. 

'  Below  this  climate,  to  the  gulf,  is  the  region  of  the  sugar-cane  and  the 
sweet  orange  tree.  It  would  be,  if  it  were  cultivated,  the  region  of  the  olive. 
Snow  is  no  longer  seen  to  fall,  except  a  few  flakes  in  the  coldest  storms. 
The  streams  are  never  frozen.  Winter  is  only  marked  by  nights  of  white 
frost,  and  days  of  north-west  winds,  which  seldom  last  longer  than  three 


152  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

days  in  succession,  and  are  followed  by  south  winds  and  warm  days. 
The  trees  are  generally  in  leaf  by  the  middle  of  February,  and  always  by 
the  first  of  March.  Bats  are  hovering  in  the  air  during  the  night.  Fire- 
flies are  seen  in  the  middle  of  February.  Early  in  March  the  forests  are 
in  blossom.  The  margins  of  the  creeks  and  streams  are  perfumed  with 
the  meadow  pink,  or  honeysuckle,  yellow  jessamine,  and  other  fragrant 
flowers.  During  almost  every  night  a  thunder-storm  occurs.  Cotton  and 
corn  are  planted  from  March  to  July.  In  these  regions  the  summers  are 
uniformly  hot,  although  there  are  days  when  the  mercury  rises  as  high  in 
New  England,  as  in  Louisiana.  The  heat,  however,  is  more  uniform  and 
sustained,  commences  much  earlier,  and  continues  much  later.  From 
February  to  September  thunder-storms  are  common,  often  accompanied 
with  severe  thunder,  and  sometimes  with  gales,  or  tornadoes,  in  which  the 
trees  of  the  forest  are  prostrated  in  every  direction,  and  the  tract  of  country, 
which  is  covered  with  the  fallen  trees,  is  called  a  '  hurricane.'  The  de- 
pressing influence  of  the  summer  heat  results  from  its  long  continuance, 
and  equable  and  unremitting  tenor,  rather  than  from  the  intensity  of  its 
ardor  at  any  given  time.  It  must  however  be  admitted,  that  at  all  times 
the  unclouded  radiance  of  the  vertical  sun  of  this  climate  is  extremely  op- 
pressive.— Such  are  the  summers  and  autumns  of  the  southern  divisions  of 
this  valley. 

■  The  winters,  in  the  whole  extent  of  the  country,  are  variable,  passing 
rapidly  from  warm  to  cold,  and  the  reverse.  Near  the  Mississippi,  and 
where  there  is  little  to  vary  the  general  direction  of  the  winds,  they  ordi- 
narily blow  three  or  four  days  from  the  north.  In  the  northern  and  middle 
regions,  the  consequence  is  cold  weather,  frost  more  or  less  severe,  and  per- 
haps storm,  with  snow  and  sleet.  During  these  days  the  rivers  are  covered 
with  ice.  The  opposite  breeze  alternates.  There  is  immediately  a  bland 
and  relaxing  feeling  in  the  atmosphere.  It  becomes  warm  ;  and  the  red- 
birds  sing  in  these  days,  in  January  and  February,  as  far  north  as  Prairie 
du  Chien.  These  abrupt  and  frequent  transitions  can  hardly  fail  to  have 
an  unfavorable  influence  upon  health.  From  forty  to  thirty-six  degrees 
the  rivers  almost'  invariably  freeze,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  through 
the  winter.  At  St.  Louis  on  the  Mississippi,  and  at  Cincinnati  on  the 
Ohio,  in  nearly  the  same  parallels,  between  thirty-eight  and  thirty-nine 
degrees,  the  two  rivers  are  sometimes  capable  of  being  crossed  on  the  ice 
for  eight  weeks  together. 

*  Although  the  summers  over  all  this  valley  must  be  admitted  to  be  hot, 
yet  the  exemption  of  the  country  from  mountains  and  impediments  to  the 
free  course  of  the  winds,  and  the  circumstance,  that  the  greater  proportion 
of  the  country  has  a  surface  bare  of  forests,  and,  probably,  other  unex- 
plained atmospheric  agents,  concur  to  create,  during  the  sultry  months, 
almost  a  constant  breeze.  It  thence  happens,  that  the  air  on  these  wide 
prairies  is  rendered  fresh,  and  the  heats  are  tempered,  in  the  same  manner, 
as  is  felt  on  the  ocean.' 

The  annual  and  mean  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  United  States  is 
much  greater  than  in  most  countries  of  Europe,  certain  mountainous  re- 
gions and  heads  of  gulfs  excepted.  This  has  been  ascertained  by  nume- 
rous and  accurate  observations  made  on  different  parts  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 
It  is  said,  on  the  authority  of  tabular  views,  that,  on  a  medium,  one  third 
less  rain  falls  in  Europe  than  in  the  United  States;  yet  Dr.  Holyoke 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  153 

mentions,  in  his  memoir  on  the  climate  of  the  United  States,  twenty  cities 
in  Europe,  which,  at  a  mean  of  twenty  years,  have  had  one  hundred  and 
twenty  days  of  rain ;  while  Cambridge  has  had  but  eighty-eight  days, 
Salem  ninety-five  days  of  rain,  and  Philadelphia  seventy-six  days,  at  a 
medium  of  twenty  years.  The  mean  annual  quantity  of  rain  at  Philadel- 
phia is  very  little  more  than  the  mean  annual  quantity  at  Glasgow  for  a 
term  of  thirty  years  preceding  1790.  The  above  greater  quantity  of  rain, 
in  fewer  days,  in  America,  indicates  the  rain  to  be  much  heavier  there  than 
in  Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  well  ascertained,  that  the 
evaporation  of  these  rains  proceeds  much  quicker  in  America  than  in 
Europe ;  and  that,  consequently,  the  air  is  habitually  drier,  and  less  calm, 
unless  Charleston  be  taken  as  an  exception.  It  has  been  found,  that  the 
mean  annual  quantity  of  evaporation  at  Cambridge,  near  Boston,  was  fifty- 
six  inches,  for  a  term  of  seven  years;  while  in  seven  German  and  Italian 
cities,  on  a  mean  of  twenty  years,  the  annual  evaporation  was  forty-nine 
inches,  or  seven  of  difference;  although  the  Italian  cities  are  in  a  much 
more  favorable  situation  for  evaporation  than  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  adja- 
cent to  the  Atlantic  ocean.  The  same  fact  of  greater  evaporation  was  also 
observed  to  take  place  in  Upper  Louisiana,  and  along  the  higher  Missouri, 
as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains,  by  Captain  Lewis. 

The  habitual  dryness  of  the  American  climate  increases,  as  we  advance 
west  and  north-west  from  the  Missouri,  where  there  frequently  is  not  a 
drop  of  rain  for  six  months.  This  is  owing  to  the  great  distance  from  any 
sea,  the  superior  elevation,  and  the  comparative  want  of  timber,  combined 
with  the  greater  intensity  and  longer  duration  of  the  north-west  wind,  which 
sweeps  with  unobstructed  force  over  the  naked  plains.  It  appears,  then, 
that  more  rain  falls  in  fewer  days,  in  America,  than  in  Europe;  and  that 
there  are  fewer  cloudy  days,  more  fair  days,  and  quicker  evaporation.  It 
is  to  this  last  circumstance  we  must  ascribe  those  immense  dews,  unknown 
in  European  climates,  which  occur  in  America,  and  which  are  so  copious 
in  summer,  as  to  resemble  heavy  showers  of  rain.  But  it  must  also  be 
observed,  that  dews  are  comparatively  unknown  in  the  tract  watered  by 
the  Upper  Missouri ;  and  which,  in  all  probability,  is  owing  to  the  want  of 
timber,  wood  being  limited  to  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  which  are  commonly 
bordered  with  trees. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CLIMATE. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Professor  Leslie,  that  all  the  varieties  of  climate  are  reducible  to 
two  causes  ;  distance  fro»  the  equator,  and  height  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  '  Lati- 
tude and  local  elevation  form,  indeed/  says  he,  '  the  great  basis  of  the  law  of  climate, 
and  any  other  modifications  have  only  a  partial  and  very  limited  influence.' 

Climate  is  generally  treated  of  under  four  divisions  :  the  cold  and  humid  ;  cold  and 
dry  ;  warm  and  humid  ;  hot  and  dry.  But  these  climates  do  not  always  exist  accord- 
ing to  the  full  import  of  the  terms  by  which  they  are  designated.  They  are  subject  to 
modifications,  principally  of  two  kinds ;  the  one  arising  from  the  alternation  of  two 
different  climates  in  the  same  region,  the  other  from  the  greater  or  less  prevalence  of 
either  of  the  four  elements.  Thus  when  heat,  dryness,  and  humidity  are  duly  combined, 
they  render  the  climate  comparatively  temperate.  In  Egypt,  for  instance,  the  combi- 
nations of  heat  and  humidity,  during  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  and  of  heat  and  dryness 
during  the  rest  of  the  year,  temper  a  climate,  without  which  these  alternations  would  be 
insupportable.  In  Holland  the  cold  humidity  of  the  autumn  is  succeeded  by  frost,  which 
increases  the  salubrity  of  the  climate,  that  would  not  otherwise  be  so  healthy. 

The  sea  exercises  an  important  equalizing  influence  on  the  temperature  of  the  globe. 
In  the  tropical  regions  a  large  extent  of  ocean  spreads  coolness  on  every  side,  and 


154  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

affords  a  perpetual  succession  of  refreshing  breezes.  Islands  are  always,  comparatively, 
of  more  temperate  climates  than  continents,  and  those  scattered  over  the  expanse  of  the 
Pacific  may  be  said  to  enjoy  almost  a  perpetual  spring.  The  influence  of  the  winds  is 
also  very  important ;  particularly  that  of  the  trade-winds.  Blowing  from  east  to  west 
across  the  sands  of  Africa,  the  latter  produce,  on  its  western  coast,  a  most  intense  heat, 
much  greater  than  is  experienced  on  the  eastern.  In  passing  the  Atlantic  they  are  con- 
siderably cooled;  and  though  their  temperature  is  again  raised  in  traversing  South 
America,  yet,  before  reaching  the  opposite  coast,  they  meet  the  tremendous  snow-clad 
Andes,  which  stop  their  progress  and  diffuse  a  wide  coolness. 

Again,  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  earth  not  only  present  and  retain  on  their  sides  a 
refreshing  coolness,  but,  by  the  mighty  rivers  to  which  they  give  rise,  diffuse  a  great 
amelioration  of  the  temperature  through  extensive  regions.  They  are  particularly  of 
this  character,  and  give  rise  to  the  largest  rivers  in  the  torrid  and  burning  zones  of  the 
earth.  In  the  temperate  climate,  and  those  approaching  to  the  poles,  mountains  are  of 
moderate  elevation,  are  almost  always  barren,  and  give  rise  to  few  considerable 
streams. 

It  appears  probable  that  the  climates  of  European  countries  were  more  severe  in 
ancient  times  than  they  are  at  present.  Caesar  says  that  the  vine  could  not  be  culti- 
vated in  Gaul  on  account  of  its  winter  cold.  The  reindeer,  now  found  only  in  the 
zone  of  Lapland,  was  then  an  inhabitant  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  Tiber  was  frequently 
frozen  over,  and  the  ground  about  Rome  covered  "with  snow  for  several  weeks  together, 
which  very  rarely  happens  in  our  time.  The  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  was  generally  frozen  over  for  several  months  of  winter.  The  barbarians  who 
overran  the  Roman  empire  a  few  centuries  afterwards,  transported  their  armies  and 
wagons  across  the  ice  of  these  rivers.  Though  the  fact  is  well  established,  the  causes 
of  this  change  of  climate  do  not  seem  to  be  satisfactorily  explained. 


155 


CHAPTER  XV.— MINERALS. 

In  the  ordinary  mineral  productions,  such  as  brick-earth,  stone  adapted 
to  building,  as  well  as  for  any  kind  of  workmanship,  and  in  sand  of  all 
qualities,  the  resources  of  the  United  States  are  inexhaustible.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  many  minerals  of  less  universal  occurrence,  that  may  seem 
to  merit  a  more  particular  description.  To  begin  with  the  precious  metals. 
The  gold  region  commences  in  Virginia,  and  extends  south-west  through 
North  Carolina,  along  the  northern  part  of  South  Carolina,  thence  north- 
westwardly into  Alabama,  and  to  its  termination  in  Tennessee.  In  1825, 
Professor  Olmsted  published  a  particular  account  of  the  gold  region  of 
North  Carolina,  as  it  was  then  explored ;  it  has  since  been  found  to  be 
vastly  more  extensive,  but  the  richest  mines  are  still  worked  in  the  region 
which  he  described,  in  the  counties  of  Mecklenburg,  Rowan,  Cabarras, 
Anson,  and  Davidson.  This  account,  which  is  quite  minute  and  interest- 
ing, we  present  slightly  abridged  in  the  following  pages : 

A  geographical  description  of  the  gold  country,  would  present  little  that 
is  interesting.  The  soil  is,  for  the  most  part,  barren,  and  the  inhabitants 
generally  poor  and  ignorant.  The  traveller  passes  a  day  without  seeing  a 
single  striking  or  beautiful  object,  either  of  nature  or  of  art,  to  vary  the 
tiresome  monotony  of  forest  and  sand-hills,  and  ridges  of  gravelly  quartz, 
either  strewed  coarsely  over  the  ground,  or  so  comminuted  as  to  form  gra- 
vel. These  ridges  have  an  appearance  of  great  natural  sterility,  which  is, 
moreover,  greatly  aggravated  by  the  ruinous  practice  of  frequently  burn- 
ing over  the  forests,  so  as  to  consume  all  the  leaves  and  undergrowth. 
The  principal  mines  are  three — the  Anson  mine,  Reed's  mine,  and  Par- 
ker's mine. 

The  Anson  Mine  is  situated  in  the  county  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
waters  of  Richardson's  creek,  a  branch  of  Rocky  river.  This  locality 
was  discovered  by  a  '  gold  hunter,'  one  of  an  order  of  people,  that  begin 
already  to  be  accounted  a  distinct  race.  A  rivulet  winds  from  north  to 
south  between  two  gently  sloping  hills  that  emerge  towards  the  south. 
The  bed  of  the  stream,  entirely  covered  with  gravel,  is  left  almost  naked 
during  the  dry  season  ;  the  period  which  is  usually  selected  by  the  miners 
for  their  operations.  On  digging  from  three  to  six  feet  into  this  bed,  the 
workman  comes  to  that  peculiar  stratum  of  gravel  and  tenacious  blue  clay, 
which  is  at  once  recognised  as  the  repository  of  the  gold.  The  stream 
itself  usually  gives  the  first  indications  of  the  richness  of  the  bed  through 
which  it  passes,  by  disclosing  large  pieces  of  the  precious  metal  shining 
among  its  pebbles  and  sands.  Pieces  unusually  large  were  found  by  those 
who  first  examined  Anson's  mine,  and  the  highest  hopes  were  inspired. 
On  inquiry,  it  was  ascertained  that  part  of  the  land  was  not  held  by  a  good 
title,  and  parcels  of  it  were  immediately  entered ;  it  has  since  been  the 
subject  of  a  constant  litigation,  which  has  retarded  the  working  of  the 
mine. 

Reed's  Mine,  in  Cabarras,  is  the  one  which  was  first  wrought ;  and  at 
this  place,  indeed,  were  obtained  the  first  specimens  of  gold  that  were 


156  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

found  in  the  formation.  A  large  piece  was  found  in  the  bed  of  a  small  creek, 
which  attracted  attention  by  its  lustre  and  specific  gravity;  but  it  was  long 
retained  in  the  hands  of  the  proprietor,  through  ignorance  whether  or  not 
it  was  gold.  This  mine  occupies  the  bed  of  a  branch  of  Rocky  river,  and 
exhibits  a  level  between  two  hillocks,  which  rise  on  either  side  of  the 
creek,  affording  a  space  between  from  fifty  to  an  hundred  yards  in  breadth. 
This  space  has  been  thoroughly  dug  over,  and  exhibits  at  present  nume- 
rous small  pits,  for  a  distance  of  about  one  fourth  of  a  mile  on  both  sides 
of  the  stream.  The  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  bed  of  the  creek,  are 
occupied  by  quartz,  and  by  sharp  angular  rocks  of  the  greenstone  family. 
The  first  glance  is  sufficient  to  convince  the  spectator,  that  the  business  of 
searching  for  gold  is  conducted  under  numerous  disadvantages,  without 
the  least  regard  to  system,  and  with  very  little  aid  from  mechanical  con- 
trivances. 

Large  pieces  of  gold  are  found  in  this  region,  although  their  occurrence 
is  somewhat  rare.  Masses  weighing  four,  five,  and  sometimes  six  hundred 
pennyweights  are  occasionally  met  with,  and  one  mass  was  found  that 
weighed  in  its  crude  state  twenty-eight  pounds  avoirdupois.  This  was 
dug  up  by  a  negro  at  Reed's  mine,  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Marvellous  stories  are  told  respecting  this  rich  mass  ;  as  that 
it  had  been  seen  by  gold  hunters  at  night  reflecting  so  brilliant  a  light,  when 
they  drew  near  to  it  with  torches,  as  to  make  them  believe  it  was  some 
supernatural  appearance,  and  to  deter  them  from  further  examination.  No 
unusual  circumstances,  however,  were  really  connected  with  its  discovery, 
except  its  being  found  unusually  near  the  surface.  It  was  melted  down 
and  cast  into  bars  soon  after  its  discovery."  The  spot  where  it  was  found 
has  been  since  subject  to  the  severest  scrutiny,  but  without  any  similar 
harvest. 

Another  mass,  weighing  six  hundred  pennyweights  was  found  on  the 
surface  of  a  ploughed  field  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Yadkin,  twenty  miles  or 
more  north  of  Reed's  mine.  Specimens  of  great  beauty  are  occasionally 
found,  but,  for  want  of  mineralogists  to  reserve  them  for  cabinets,  they  have 
always  been  melted  into  bars.  Mr.  Reed  found  a  mass  of  quartz,. having 
a  projecting  point  of  gold,  of  the  size  of  a  large  pin's  head.  On  breaking 
it  open,  a  brilliant  display  of  green  and  yellow  colors  was  presented.  The 
gold  weighed  twelve  pennyweights.  Mineralogists  may  perhaps  recog- 
nise, in  this  description,  a  congeries  of  fine  crystals,  but  on  that  point  the 
proprietor  was  uninformed.  Although  fragments  of  greenstone,  and  of 
several  argillaceous  minerals,  occur  among  the  gravel  of  the  gold  stratum 
yet,  in  the  opinion  of  the  miners,  it  is  never  found  attached  to  any  othe* 
mineral  than  quartz.  Indeed,  it  is  seldom  attached  to  any  substance,  bui 
is  commonly  scattered  promiscuously  among  the  gravel.  Its  color  is  gene 
rally  yellow,  with  a  reddish  tinge,  though  the  surface  is  not  unfrequently 
obscured  by  a  partial  incrustation  of  iron  or  manganese,  or  adhering  parti 
cles  of  sand.  The  masses  are  flattened  and  vascular,  having  angles  roundee 
with  evident  marks  of  attrition. 

Parker's  Mine  is  situated  on  a  small  stream,  four  miles  south  of  the  rivei 
Yadkin.  As  in  the  instance  already  mentioned,  excavations  were  nume- 
rous in  the  low  grounds  adjacent  to  the  stream ;  but  the  earth  for  washing, 
which  was  of  a  snuff  color,  was  transported  from  a  ploughed  field  in  the 
neighborhood,  elevated  about  fifty  or  sixty  feet  above  the  stream.     The 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  157 

earth  at  this  place,  which  contained  the  gold,  was  of  a  deeper  red  than  that 
of  either  the  other  mines.  The  gold  found  here  is  chiefly  in  flakes  and 
grains.  Occasionally,  however,  pieces  are  met  with  that  weigh  one  hun- 
dred pennyweights,  and  upwards  ;  and  one  mass  has  been  discovered  that 
weighed  four  pounds  and  eleven  ounces.  This  is  said  to  have  been  found 
at  the  depth  of  ten  feet. 

The  mines  have  given  some  peculiarities  to  the  state  of  society  in  the 
neighboring  country.  The  precious  metal  is  a  most  favorite  acquisition, 
and  constitutes  the  common  currency.  Almost  every  man  carries  about 
with  him  a  goose  quill  or  two  of  it,  and  a  small  pair  of  scales  in  a  box  like  a 
spectacle  case.  The  value,  as  in  patriarchal  times,  is  ascertained  by  weight, 
which,  from  the  dexterity  acquired  by  practice,  is  a  less  troublesome  mode 
of  counting  money  than  one  would  imagine. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  gold  collected  at  these  mines  is  bought  up,  by 
country  merchants,  at  ninety  or  ninety-one  cents  a  pennyweight.  They 
carry  it  to  market-towns,  as  Fayetteville,  Cheraw,  Charleston,  and  New 
York.  Much  of  this  is  bought  up  by  jewellers  ;  some  remains  in  the  banks  ; 
and  a  considerable  quantity  has  been  received  at  the  Mint  of  the  United 
States.  Hence  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  the  precise  amount  which  the 
mines  have  afforded.  The  value  of  that  portion  received  at  the  mint,  before 
the  year  1S20,  was  forty-three  thousand  six  hundred  and  eighty-nine  dol- 
lars. It  is  alloyed  with  a  small  portion  of  silver  and  copper,  but  is  still 
purer  than  standard  gold,  being  twenty-three  carats  fine. 

Since  the  year  1S27,  the  gold  mines  of  Virginia  have  attracted  conside- 
rable attention.  The  belt  of  country  in  which  they  are  found  extends 
through  Spotsylvania  and  some  neighboring  counties.  The  gold  region 
abounds  in  quartz,  which  contains  cubes  of  sulphuret  of  iron.  These  cubes 
are  often  partly  or  totally  decomposed ;  and  the  cells  thus  created  are 
sometimes  filled  with  gold.  The  gold  is  found  on  the  surface  and  in  the 
structure  of  quartz;  but  in  the  greatest  abundance  resting  upon  slate  and  in 
its  fissures.  It  is  diffused  over  a  large  extent,  and  has  not  yet  been  found 
sufficiently  in  mass,  except  in  a  few  places,  to  make  mining  profitable. 
The  method  of  obtaining  the  metal  is  by  filtration,  or  washing  the  earth, 
and  by  an  amalgam  of  quicksilver.  The  average  value  of  the  earth  yielding 
gold,  is  stated  at  twenty  cents  a  bushel. 

Habersham  and  Hall  counties  are  the  chief  seat  of  the  gold  mines  of 
Georgia,  and  its  discovery  there  has  been  very  recent.  The  search  was 
commenced  by  a  gentleman  of  the  name  of  Wilhero,  and  proved  eminently 
successful ;  deposits  of  gold  were  found  in  the  counties  mentioned,  and 
discovery  followed  discovery.  In  the  Cherokee  nation,  which  was  separat- 
ed by  the  Chestetee  river,  the  indications  of  gold  were  not  strong,  but 
report  exaggerated  them,  and  this  unfortunate  nation  was  intruded  upon  as 
a  common  ;  at  one  time,  about  five  thousand  adventurers  were  engaged  in 
digging  up  the  face  of  the  country.  The  owners  of  the  gold  lands  in  Ha- 
bersham and  Hall  counties  were  many  of  them  poor  and  destitute,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  deposits,  the  most  valuable  tracts  were  sold  to 
speculators.  Many  of  these  have  frequently  changed  owners  at  increased 
prices,  and  four  companies  have  regularly  commenced  mining  operations.^ 

*  The  first  notice  of  gold  from  North  Carolina,  on  the  record  of  the  United  States' 
Mint,  occurs  in  the  year  1814,  when  it  was  received  to  the  amount  of  eleven  thousand 
dollars.     In  1825  the  amount  received  was  seventeen  thousand  dollars  j  in  1826,  twenty 

14 


158  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Silver  and  its  ores  are  not  of  frequent  or  extensive  occurrence  in  the 
United  States.  Doctor  Dana  states  the  curious  fact,  that  a  mass  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter,  composed  principally  of  native  silver  in  filaments, 
was  found  on  the  top  of  a  wall  near  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire  ;  the 
surrounding  hills  are  chiefly  greenstone.  Mercury,  which  has  been  found 
native  in  Kentucky,  occurs  more  plentifully  as  a  sulphuret  in  Ohio  and  the 
Michigan  territory,  more  particularly  on  the  shores  of  lakes  Michigan, 
Huron,  St.  Clair,  Detroit  river,  and  Lake  Erie,  to  the  mouth  of  Vermilion 
river.  It  occurs  in  the  soil  in  the  form  of  a  black  and  red  sand,  but  is 
usually  more  abundant  in  banks  of  fine  ferruginous  clay.  Near  the  mouth 
of  Vermilion  river,  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  very  fine  powder,  or  in  grains  and 
small  masses,  disseminated  in  clay.  It  yields  by  distillation  about  sixty 
per  cent,  of  mercury. 

Copper,  in  various  forms,  is  found  in  the  United  States,  but  the  ores  do 
not  appear  to  be  brought  into  use.  It  is  not  found  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior  so  abundantly  as  was  anticipated ;  but  many  specimens  of  copper 
ore  have  been  found  at  different  points  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  Speci- 
mens of  pure  and  malleable  copper  have  been  obtained ;  one  of  which, 
said  to  have  been  found  in  Illinois,  weighed  three  pounds.  Iron  ores  are 
abundant  in  the  United  States.  Those  hitherto  worked  are  chiefly  the 
magnetic  oxide,  brown  hematite,  and  the  argillaceous  oxide,  particularly 
bog  ore.  The  more  important  ores  are  the  following,  viz  :  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, the  magnetic  oxide  ;  in  Vermont,  brown  hematite  and  bog  ore ;  in 
Massachusetts,  bog  ore  ;  in  Rhode  Island,  brown  hematite  ;  in  Connecticut, 
brown  hematite  and  bog  ore ;  in  New  York,  the  magnetic,  specular,  and 
argillaceous  oxides  ;  in  New  Jersey,  the  magnetic  and  argillaceous  oxides  ; 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  states  south  and  west,  the  magnetic  oxide,  brown 
hematite,  and  the  argillaceous  oxide. 

To  these  may  now  be  added  the  carbonate  of  iron,  which  has  recently 
been  successfully  smelted,  and  which  produces  iron  having  the  carbona- 
ceous impregnation  of  steel,  whence  it  bas  been  called  steel  ore.  In  New 
York,  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  the  ore  is  found  in  abundance,  and 
of  a  quality  not  exceeded  in  Sweden.  The  Connecticut  and  Virginia  iron 
is  highly  esteemed. 

Ores  of  lead  are  extensively  found  in  the  territories  ;  and  in  Ohio  it  is 
said  to  have  been  met  with  native,  forming  slips,  or  slender  prismatic 
masses,  in  crystallized  galena.  This  mineral  is  found  in  various  places, 
from  the  Arkansas  river  to  the  North- West  territory,  the  precise  line  of  the 
Ozark  and  Shawnee  Mountains,  a  tract  which  seems  to  constitute  one  of 
the  most  important  and  extensive  deposits  of  lead  hitherto  known.  On 
the  Arkansas,  the  ore  is  smelted  by  the  Osage  Indians  for  bullets.     To  the 

thousand,  in  1828,  nearly  forty-six  thousand,  and  in  1829,  one  hundred  and  twenty* 
eight  thousand  dollars.  In  the  year  1830,  gold  to  the  value  of  four  hundred  and  sixty-six 
thousand  dollars  was  coined  at  the  mint,  received  from  the  gold  region  of  the  southern 
states.  Of  this  amount,  two  hundred  and  twelve  thousand  dollars  were  received  from 
Georgia,  a  state  which  had  not  furnished  even  a  specimen  in  any  previous  year.  In  the 
year  1831,  the  southern  gold  region  furnished  the  mint  with  gold  to  the  value  of  more 
than  half  a  million  j  of  this,  two  hundred  and  ninety-four  thousand  dollars  were  received 
from  North  Carolina,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-six  thousand  from  Georgia.  But  a 
small  part  of  the  gold  obtained  at  these  mines  is  received  at  the  United  States'  Mint ; 
by  far  the  larger  part  is  sent  to  Europe,  particularly  to  Paris.  It  is  stated  that  thd 
Whole  number  of  men  employed  in  the  mines  of  the  southern  states,  is  twenty  thousand 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  159 

northward,  some  valuable  mines  at  Prairie  du  Chien  are  imperfectly 
worked  by  the  proprietors  of  the  soil.  But  the  most  important  mines 
are  those  of  Cape  Girardeau  district,  commonly  known  as  the  lead  mines  of 
Missouri.  The  mining  district  is  situated  between  two  prominent  ridges 
of  sandstone  which  bound  the  valley  of  Grand  river,  or  the  basin  of  Potosi. 
These  ridges  diverge  in  their  course  northward,  and  are  intercepted  by  the 
Merameg,  which  receives  the  waters  of  Grand  river,  and  forms  a  boundary 
to  the  mining  district  in  that  direction. 

In  Illinois  are  the  richest  lead  mines  in  the  world.  The  district  which 
furnishes  the  ore,  lies  in  the  north-west  part,  and  extends  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  state.  It  comprises  a  tract  of  above  two  hundred  miles  in  extent. 
The  ore  is  inexhaustible.  It  lies  in  beds  or  horizontal  strata,  varying  in 
thickness  from  one  inch  to  several  feet.  It  yields  seventy-five  per  cent,  of 
pure  lead.  For  many  years  the  Indians  and  hunters  were  accustomed  to 
dig  for  the  metal ;  they  never  penetrated  much  below  the  surface,  but  ob- 
tained great  quantities  of  the  ore,  which  they  sold  to  the  traders.  The 
public  attention  was  drawn  to  this  quarter,  and,  from  1826  to  1828,  the 
country  was  rilled  with  miners,  smelters,  merchants,  speculators,  and  ad- 
venturers. Vast  quantities  of  lead  were  manufactured  ;  the  business  was 
overdone,  and  the  markets  nearly  destroyed.  At  present,  the  business  is 
reviving,  and  in  1830,  there  were  eight  million  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-eight  pounds  of  lead  made  at  the 
mines.  The  whole  quantity  obtained,  from  1821  to  1830,  was  forty 
million  eighty-eight  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty  pounds.  The 
principal  mines  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  Galena. 

Coal  is  found  in  the  United  States  in  great  quantities,  though  the  abun- 
dance of  wood  has  hitherto  impeded  the  working  of  the  mines  to  their  full 
capability.  The  coal  found  at  different  localities  has  been  classed  by  Pro- 
fessor Eaton  under  the  following  heads  :  first,  the  genuine  anthracite,  or 
glance  coal,  found  in  the  transition  argillite,  as  at  Worcester  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Newport  in  Rhode  Island  ;  also  in  small  quantities  in  the 
north  and  south  range  of  argillites  along  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  river 
Hudson.  Second,  coal  destitute  of  bitumen,  usually  called  anthracite, 
but  differing  greatly  in  its  character  from  the  anthracite  found  in  argil- 
lite.  It  may  be  called  anasphaltic  coal.  This  is  embraced  in  slate  rock, 
being  the  lowest  of  the  lower  series  of  secondary  rocks.  This  coal  forma- 
tion is  equivalent  to  the  great  coal  measures  of  Europe.  The  principal 
localities  of  this  coal  are  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania ;  as  at  Carbondale, 
Lehigh,  Lackawanna,  and  Wilkesbarre.  Third,  the  proper  bituminous  coal, 
as  at  Tioga  and  Lyocoming.  This  coal  is  embraced  in  a  slate  rock,  which 
is  the  lowest  of  the  series  of  upper  secondary  rocks.  The  fourth  formation 
is  the  lignite  coal,  which  is  found  in  a  very  extensive  stratum  in  the  state 
of  New  Jersey,  along  the  south  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Amboy. 

The  anthracite  of  Pennsylvania  is  found  in  the  Wyoming  and  Lacka- 
wanna valley,  situated  between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Susquehanna. 
The  coal  district  is  chiefly  occupied  by  mountains  which  run  parallel  to  the 
Blue  Ridge,  and  are  fifteen  hundred  feet  high.  But  little  of  this  surface, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  narrow  valleys,  invites  cultivation.  These 
mountains  are  mostly  in  a  wild  state,  and  offer  a  secure  retreat  to  cougars, 
wolves,  bears,  and  other  animals. 

The  rocks  of  the  above  described  region  are  of  a  transition  class,  and 


160  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

present  little  diversity.  Gray  wacke  slate  occurs  in  abundance,  loose  on 
the  surface  and  in  ledges.  It  is  sometimes  based  on  old  red  sand-stone, 
and  surmounted  by  unstratified  rock,  and  aggregate  of  quartz,  pebbles 
of  various  dimensions,  with  a  cement  principally  sil'icious.  In  the  Blue 
Ridge,  in  addition  to  the  above  described  rock,  a  sicilious  gray  wacke, 
resembling  fine  grained  granular  quartz,  is  common.  It  appears  in  some 
places  massive,  but  is  often  slaty.  Its  cement  is  chiefly  silicious;  some 
alumine,  however,  is  indicated  in  its  composition. 

The  beds  and  veins  of  anthracite  range  from  north-east  to  south-west,  and 
may  often  be  traced  for  a  considerable  distance  by  the  compass.  The 
veins  have  the  inclination  of  the  adjacent  strata  of  gray  wacke,  with  which 
they  often  alternate,  usually  between  twenty  and  forty-five  degrees.  In  a 
few  places  they  are  horizontal  and  vertical.  The  beds  and  veins  of 
anthracite  have  narrow  strata  of  dark  colored,  fine  grained,  argillaceous 
schist,  for  the  roof  and  floor.  This  slate  generally  contains  sulphuret  of 
iron,  and  disintegrates  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  sulphates  of  iron 
and  alumine  are  often  observed  in  the  schist,  and  it  frequently  presents 
impressions  of  plants  and  sometimes  of  marine  shells.  Impure  pulveru- 
lent coal  is  usually  connected  with  this  slate,  and  is  said  to  be  a  good 
material  for  printers'  ink. 

Anthracite  has  been  found  in  the  greatest  quantity  in  sections  of  coal 
regions  most  accessible  by  water.  Extensive  beds  and  veins  range  from 
the  Lehigh  to  the  Susquehanna,  crossing  the  head-waters  of  the  Schuyl- 
kill and  Swatara,  about  ten  miles  north-west  of  Blue  Ridge,  and  it  abounds 
contiguous  to  the  Susquehanna  and  Lackawanna.  But  in  no  part  of  the 
district  does  anthracite  occur  in  such  apparently  inexhaustible  beds,  or  is 
so  abundantly  raised,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  Mauch  Chunk,  a  village  situated 
on  the  Lehigh,  thirty-five  miles  from  Easton,  and  one  hundred  and  eight 
by  water  from  Philadelphia. 

The  coal  is  there  excavated  on  the  flat  summit  of  a  mountain  that  rises 
nearly  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  ocean.  It  is  of  good  quality,  and 
presents  beds  of  unparalleled  extent ;  is  disclosed  for  several  miles  on  the 
summit,  wherever  excavations  have  been  made,  and  is  indicated  in  many 
places  by  coal  slate  in  a  pulverulent  state,  on  the  surface.  The  mountain 
rises  with  a  steep  acclivity,  particularly  on  the  north-west  side,  and  when  pe- 
netrated at  various  altitudes,  discloses  coal  at  about  the  same  distance  from 
the  surface.  Strata  of  grey  wacke  slate,  containing  mica,  sometimes  rest 
on  the  coal,  parallel  with  the  mountain  side.  In  the  deep  excavations  made 
en  the  summit,  no  termination  of  the  coal  bed  has  been  found,  and  it  is 
not  improbable  that  the  anthracite  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  mountain  for  a 
considerable  distance. 

This  coal  mountain  range  is  described  as  extending  in  a  south-west  di- 
rection to  the  Susquehanna.  To  the  north-east,  beyond  the  Lehigh,  it  is 
connected  with  the  Broad  Mountain,  the  first  considerable  elevation  west 
of  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  Lehigh  from  Mauch  Chunk  to  the  water  gap, 
eleven  miles,  winds  between  rocky  mountains,  with  a  brisk  current,  but 
presents  no  falls.  The  road  usually  runs  near  the  stream,  and  sometimes 
at  a  considerable  elevation  above,  on  the  side  of  the  steep  mountain.  In 
its  passage  through  the  Kittetany,  or  Blue  Ridge,  the  river  has  a  tranquil 
but  slightly  inclined  course.  On  the  adjacent  elevation,  yellow  pine,  hem- 
lock, and  spruce,  are  interspersed  with  deciduous  trees.     From  the  water 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  161 

gap  to  the  Delaware,  the  river  pursues  its  course  in  a  deep  ravine,  seldom 
with  alluvial  borders  of  much  extent.  In  this  district  of  country,  the  soil 
generally  rests  on  limestone  sinks,  indicating  caves ;  and  fissures  in  the 
rocks  are  often  observed,  that  must,  in  some  places,  render  canalling  diffi- 
cult. From  the  confluence  of  the  Lehigh  with  the  Delaware  to  tide-water, 
the  descent  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet. 

The  village  of  Mauch  Chunk  is  situated  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Lehigh,  in  a  deep  romantic  ravine,  between  rocky  mountains  that  rise  in 
some  parts  precipitously  to  eight  hundred  or  one  thousand  feet  above  the 
stream.  Space  was  procured  for  dwellings,  by  breaking  down  the  adjacent 
rocks  and  filling  up  a  part  of  the  ravine  of  Mauch  Chunk  Creek.  A  portion 
of  this  stream  has  been  transferred  to  an  elevated  railway,  and  is  used  to 
propel  a  grist-mill.  Within  a  few  years  the  Lehigh  Company  have  erected, 
and  are  proprietors  of,  a  large  number  of  dwellings  and  buildings  of  every 
description,  including  a  spacious  hotel,  a  store,  furnaces,  grist-mills,  and 
several  saw-mills :  about  eight  hundred  men  are  employed  by  the  com- 
pany. * 

*  The  coal  is  conveyed  to  Mauch  Chunk  village,  in  wagons  running  upon  the  rail- 
way. Fourteen  of  them,  containing  each  one  ton  and  a  half  of  coal,  are  connected  by 
iron  bars,  admitting  of  a  slight  degree  of  motion  between  two  contiguous  wagons  ;  a 
single  man  rides  on  one  of  the  wagons,  and,  by  a  very  simple  contrivance,  regulates 
their  movement :  a  perpendicular  lever  causes  a  piece  of  wood  to  press  against  the 
circumference  of  each  wheel  on  the  same  side  of  the  car,  acting  both  ways  from  the 
central  point  between  them,  so  that,  by  increasing  the  pressure,  the  friction  retards  or 
stops  the  motion,  and  as  all  the  levers  are  connected  by  a  rope,  they  are  made  to  act  in 
concert.  The  traveller  is  much  interested  in  seeing  the  successive  groups  of  wagons 
moving  rapidly  in  procession  and  without  apparent  cause ;  they  are  heard,  at  a  con. 
siderable  distance,  as  they  come  thundering  along  with  their  dark  burdens,  and  give  an 
impression  of  irresistible  energy  :  at  a  suitable  distance  follows  another  train,  and  thus 
three  hundred  tons  a  day,  and  some  days  three  hundred  and  forty  tons,  are  regularly 
discharged  into  the  boats  as  already  described.  At  first,  they  descended  at  the  rate  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  miles  an  hour,  but  they  were  obliged  to  reduce  the  speed,  as  it  injured 
the  machines,  and,  by  agitating  and  wearing  the  coal,  involved  the  driver  in  a  cloud  of 
black  dust.  The  empty  wagons  are  drawn  back  by  mules  ;  fourteen  wagons  to  eight 
mules ;  twenty-eight  mules  draw  up  forty-two  coal  and  seven  mule  wagons,  and  the 
arrangement  is  so  made,  that  the  ascending  parties  shall  arrive  in  due  season  at  the 
proper  places  for  turning  out.  The  same  is  true  of  the  pleasure  cars,  which  are  allowed 
to  use  the  rail-way ;  only  they  must  not  interfere  with  its  proper  business,  and  should 
they  do  it,  it  would  be  at  their  peril,  as  they  might  be  crushed  by  the  momentum  of  the 
descending  wagons.  When  they  happen  to  be  caught  out  of  their  proper  place,  the 
drivers  make  all  possible  haste  to  remove  them  out  of  the  rail-way  track ;  but  they 
carefully  avoid  these  meetings,  and  they  rarely  happen,  unless  the  cars  go  out  of  their 
proper  time. 

The  mules  ride  down  the  rail-way ;  they  are  furnished  with  provender  placed  in 
proper  mangers,  four  of  them  being  inclosed  in  one  pen  mounted  on  wheels  ;  and  seven 
of  these  cars  are  connected  into  one  group,  so  that  twenty-eight  mules  constitute 
the  party,  which,  with  their  heads  all  directed  down  the  mountain,  and  apparently 
surveying  its  fine  landscapes,  are  seen  moving  rapidly  down  the  inclined  plane  with  a 
ludicrous  gravity,  which,  when  observed  for  the  first  time,  proves  too  much  for  the 
severest  muscles. 

They  readily  perform  their  duty  of  drawing  up  the  empty  cars,  but  having  once 
experienced  the  comfort  of  riding  down,  they  appear  to  regard  it  as  a  right,  and  neither 
mild  nor  severe  measures,  not  even  the  sharpest  whipping,  can  ever  induce  them  to 
descend  in  any  other  way. 

The  return  of  the  traveller,  in  the  pleasure  cars,  is  so  rapid  that  it  is  not  easy  entirely 
to  suppress  the  apprehension  of  danger :  we  perform  the  eight  miles  from  the  summit 
in  thirty-three  minutes;  should  an  axle-tree  break— an  accident  which  sometimes 
21  14* 


162  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Next  to  Mauch  Chunk,  Mount  Carbon,  or  Pottsville,  as  it  is  now  called, 
situated  at  the  head  of  the  Schuylkill  canal,  has  been  the  principal  source 
of  the  supply  of  anthracite.  Many  large  veins  are  worked  within  three 
miles  of  the  landing;  and  some  have  been  opened  seven  miles  to  the 
north-east ;  in  the  direction  of  the  Lehigh  beds. 

On  almost  every  eminence  adjacent  to  Pottsville,  indications  of  coal  are 
disclosed.  The  veins  generally  run  in  a  north-east  direction,  with  an  in- 
clination of  about  forty-five  degrees,  and  are  from  three  to  nine  feet  in 
thickness  ;  commencing  at  or  near  the  surface  they  penetrate  to  an  unknown 
depth,  and  can  often  be  traced  on  hills  for  a  considerable  distance,  by  sound- 
ing in  a  north-east  or  south-west  direction.  Some  veins  have  been  wrought 
to  the  depth  of  two  hundred  feet  without  the  necessity  of  draining ;  the  in- 
clined slate  roof  shielding  them  from  water. 

Where  the  ground  admits,  it  is  considered  the  best  mode  of  working 
veins,  to  commence  at  the  back  of  a  coal  eminence,  or  as  low  as  possible, 
and  work  up,  filling  the  excavation  with  slate  and  fine  coal,  leaving  a  hori- 
zontal passage  for  the  coal  barrows.  A  section  of  a  wide  vein  near 
Pottsville,  has  been  wrought  by  this  mode  several  hundred  feet  into  the 
hill.  The  same  vein  is  explored  from  parts  of  the  summit  by  vertical  and 
inclined  shafts.  The  coal  and  slate  handled,  are  raised  by  horse-power, 
in  wagons  by  a  rail-way  that  has  the  inclination  of  the  vein.  Veins  of 
coal  alternate  with  gray  wacke  slate  in  the  hill.  Vegetable  impression 
sometimes  occur  in  the  argillaceous  schist  that  forms  the  roof  of  the  Potts- 
ville coal  veins. 

The  western  part  of  Pennsylvania  is  abundantly  supplied  with  bitumi- 
nous coal,  as  the  eastern  is  with  anthracite.  It  is  found  on  the  rivers 
Conemaugh,  Alleghany,  and  Monongahela,  and  in  numerous  places  to  the 
west  of  the  Alleghany  ridge,  which  is  generally  its  eastern  boundary ;  it 
occurs  on  this  mountain  at  a  considerable  elevation,  and  elsewhere,  in  nearly 
a  horizontal  position,  alternating  with  gray  sand-stone  that  is  often  mica- 
ceous and  bordered  by  argillaceous  schist.  The  veins  are  generally  narrow, 
rarely  over  six  feet  in  width.  This  mineral  is  abundant  and  of  good 
quality  near  Pittsburg,  where  it  is  valuable  for  their  extensive  manufactures. 
Beds  of  bituminous  coal  are  reported  as  occurring  in  Bedford  county,  in 
the  north-west  part  of  Luzerne,  and  in  Bradford  county.  In  the  last  county, 
nine  miles  from  the  Susquehanna,  there  is  an  extensive  bed  of  coal,  regarded 
as  bituminous.  It  has  been  penetrated  thirty  feet  without  fathoming  the 
debth  of  the  strata. 

Bituminous  coal  is  abundant  in  Tioga  county,  state  of  New  York.  The 
summit  level  is  forty-four  feet  above  the  river,  and  upwards  of  four  hundred 
above  the  lake.     It  occurs  on  the  Tioga,   and  on  the  Chemung,  a  branch 

happens  with  the  coal  wagons — it  would  be  impossible  that  the  passengers  should 
escape  unhurt,  especially  in  the  turnings  of  the  road,  and  in  places  where  trees,  rocks 
and  precipices  allow  no  safe  place  of  landing.  All  danger  would  however  be  avoided 
by  checking  the  motion,  so  that  it  should  not  exceed  eight  or  ten  miles  an  hour,  and 
this  is  easily  done  in  the  same  way  as  that  practised  in  the  coal  wagons.  Happily,  no 
accident  has  yet  occurred.  It  would  be  prudent,  at  least,  to  require  the  manager  to  check 
the  motion  of  the  car  at  the  steepest  places ;  but  these  are  the  very  situations  where  he 
chooses  to  make  a  display  of  cracking  his  whip  and  cheering  his  wheels,  instead  of  his 
horses,  and  the  increased  impulse,  given  by  gravity,  as  he  relaxes  the  pressure  of  the 
lever,  when  the  car  springs  forward  like  spirited  horses  at  the  word  of  their  master 
makes  the  illusion  almost  complete. — SillimarCs  Journal. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  163 

of  that  river.  Bituminous  coal  exists  on  the  numerous  streams  that  de- 
scend the  western  side  of  the  extensive  peninsula,  situated  between  the 
north  and  west  branches  of  the  Susquehanna. 

The  appearance  of  the  Tioga,  or  bituminous  coal,  diners  but  little  from 
the  best  Liverpool  or  Newcastle  coal.  Its  color  is  velvet  black,  with  a 
slight  resinous  lustre,  its  structure  is  slaty  or  foliated,  and  its  layers  as  in 
the  best  English  coal,  divided  in  prismatic  solids,  with  bases  slightly  rhom- 
boidal ;  it  is  easily  frangible,  and  slightly  soils  the  finger.  It  burns  with 
a  bright  flame  and  considerable  smoke,  with  a  slight  bituminous  smell,  a 
sort  of  ebullition  taking  place,  and,  as  the  heat  increases,  an  appearance  of 
semi-fusion  leaving  a  slight  residue  or  scoria. 

Graphite  or  plumbago,  commonly  but  improperly  called  black  lead,  occurs 
extensively  in  primitive  and  transition  rocks ;  from  that  which  is  obtained 
in  New  York,  excellent  pencils  have  been  made.  There  are  also  nume- 
rous localities  of  petroleum,  or  mineral  oil.  It  usually  floats  on  the  sur- 
face of  springs,  which  in  many  cases  are  known  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of 
coal.  It  is  sometimes  called  Seneca  or  Gennessee  oil.  In  Kentucky,  it 
occurs  on  a  spring  of  water  in  a  state  sufficiently  liquid  to  burn  in  a  lamp ; 
it  is  collected  in  considerable  quantities. 

Salt  appears  to  be  abundant  in  the  United  States,  but  it  has  not  been 
found  in  the  mass.  It  is  principally  obtained  from  the  springs  which  have 
been  noticed  in  another  part  of  the  work.  Professor  Eaton  has  suggested 
doubts  whether  masses  of  salt  really  exist.  He  conceives  that  an  appara- 
tus for  the  spontaneous  manufacture  of  salt  may  be  found  within  the  bo- 
som of  the  earth,  in  those  rocks  which  contain  the  necessary  elements, 
and  in  this  opinion  he  is  supported  by  experiment.  Subsequently,  how- 
ever, Mr.  Eaton  had  reason  to  think  that  salt  has  existed  in  a  solid  state  in 
cubical  crystals,  the  hollow  forms  of  which  he  discovered  abundantly  in  the 
lias  and  saline  rocks  of  the  west,  and  it  seems  still  to  be  highly  probable 
that  masses  of  salt  exist  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  salt  springs.  The 
brine  contains,  besides  the  muriate  of  soda,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
muriate  of  lime  and  magnesia.  Recently,  also,  bromine  has  been  detected 
in  the  brine  of  salina,  by  Dr.  Silliman.  Saltpetre  is  abundant  in  the 
west,  being  found  in  numberless  caves  along  the  Missouri ;  and  the  shores 
of  the  Arkansas  are  almost  covered  with  nitre.  The  testimony  of  Mr. 
Schoolcraft,  in  relation  to  the  recent  formation  of  quartz  crystals,  is  very 
striking.  They  have  been  found,  it  appears,  upon  the  handle  of  a  spade, 
and  the  edge  of  some  old  shoes,  which  had  been  left  for  some  years  in  an 
abandoned  lead  mine  of  the  Shawnee  Mountains.  Crystals  of  great  beau- 
ty and  dimensions  have  been  found  in  numerous  localities.  Many  mine- 
rals which  are  rare  in  Europe,  are  found  abundantly,  and  often  in  finer 
forms,  in  the  United  States ;  some,  which  have  subsequently  been  detected 
elsewhere,  were  first  discovered  here,  and  not  a  few  may  still  be  claimed 
as  the  peculiar  treasure  of  our  country. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  MINERALS. 

It  is  observed  by  Dr.  Mead,  that  a  general  resemblance  can  be  traced  between  the 
minerals  of  North  America,  and  those  which  have  been  found  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
particularly  in  Norway  and  Sweden.  This  resemblance  is  stated  to  exist,  not  merely 
in  the  properties  of  the  minerals  themselves,  but  in  the  geological  character,  and  geo- 
gnostic  situation  throughout  the  whole  series.  It  is  observed  more  particularly  in  those 
specimens  which  are  found  to  accompany  the  primitive  formation  at  Arendal,  in  No* 


164  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

way ;  it  is  not  confined,  however,  to  the  primitive  range  of  mountains  alone,  as  th* 
same  resemblance  can  be  frequently  traced,  on  comparing  American  minerals  with 
those  of  Piedmont,  and  even  of  the  Hartz  Mountains.  Among  the  principal  minerals 
of  the  north  of  Europe,  there  are  none  of  more  importance  than  the  ores  of  iron  for 
which  Norway  and  Sweden  are  so  remarkable ;  and  every  variety  of  this  mineral 
which  has  been  met  with  there,  has  been  found  in  the  same  class  of  rocks  in  America, 
in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  of  equally  good  quality.  Titanium  is  one  of 
those  metals  which  have  been  found  more  particularly  in  the  north  of  Europe.  It  is 
said  to  occur  frequently  in  those  primitive  aggregates  which  contain  beds  of  magnetic 
iron  ore,  associated  with  augite,  scapolite,  epidote  and  hornblende,  precisely  the  same 
rocks  in  which  we  find  it  in  this  country.  There  is  scarcely  any  part  of  Europe  where 
a  greater  variety  of  augites  are  found  than  in  Norway  and  Sweden  j  nor  can  there  be 
any  class  of  minerals  in  which  the  similitude  between  the  specimens  from  those  coun- 
tries and  America  is  more  striking. 

Mineralogy,  considered  as  a  pure  science,  is  of  very  recent  date.  Early  observations 
related  merely  to  the  usefulness  of  minerals  to  the  purposes  of  society,  and  it  was  not 
before  the  lapse  of  many  ages  that  they  came  to  be  investigated  on  account  of  their 
great  variety,  and  the  beautiful  arrangements  of  which  they  are  susceptible.  No  at- 
tempt was  made  to  classify  them  before  the  introduction  of  alchemy  into  Europe  by  the 
Arabians ;  and  to  Avicenna  belongs  the  merit  of  the  first  arrangement.  He  divided 
minerals  into  stones,  metals,  sulphurous  fossils,  and  salts.  In  1774,  Werner  published 
his  great  work  on  the  External  Properties  of  Minerals,  which  was  of  eminent  service 
in  first  calling  the  attention  of  naturalists  to  the  only  correct  method  of  arriving  at  a 
knowledge  of  this  department  of  nature.  The  study  of  minerals  has  received  con- 
siderable attention  during  the  last  twenty  years  in  the  United  States. 


165 


CHAPTER  XVI.— ANIMALS. 

I.  QUADRUPEDS. 

The  Black  Bear  (ursus  Americanus)  is  found  in  considerable  numbers 
in  the  northern  districts  of  America.  In  size  and  form  he  approaches 
nearest  to  the  Brown  Bear  ;  but  his  color  is  a  uniform  shining  jet  black, 
except  on  the  muzzle,  where  it  is  fawn  colored  ;  on  the  lips  and  sides  of 
the  mouth  it  is  almost  gray.     The  hair,  except  on  the  muzzle,  is  long  and 


Black  Bear. 

straight,  and  is  less  shaggy  than  in  most  other  species.  The  forehead  h<ts 
a  slight  elevation,  and  the  muzzle  is  elongated,  and  somewhat  flattened 
above.  The  young  ones,  however,  are  first  of  a  bright  ash  color,  which 
gradually  changes  into  a  deep  brown,  and  ends  by  becoming  a  deep  black. 

The  American  Black  Bear  lives  a  solitary  life  in  forests  and  uncultivat- 
ed deserts,  and  subsists  on  fruits,  and  on  the  young  shoots  and  roots  of 
vegetables.  Of  honey  he  is  exceedingly  fond,  and  as  he  is  a  most  expert 
climber,  he  scales  the  loftiest  trees  in  search  of  it.  Fish,  too,  he  delights 
in,  and  is  often  found  in  quest  of  it  on  the  borders  of  lakes  and  on  the  sea- 
shore. When  these  resources  fail,  he  will  attack  small  quadrupeds,  and 
even  animals  of  some  magnitude.  As,  indeed,  is  usual  in  such  cases,  the 
love  of  flesh  in  him  grows  with  the  use  of  it. 

As  the  fur  is  of  some  value,  the  Indians  are  assiduous  in  the  chase  of 
the  creature  which  produces  it.  '  About  the  end  of  December,  from  the 
abundance  of  fruits  they  find  in  Louisiana  and  the  neighboring  countries, 
the  bears  become  so  fat  and  lazy  that  they  can  scarcely  run.  At  this  time 
they  are  hunted  by  the  American  Indians.  The  nature  of  the  chase  is 
generally  this :  the  bear  chiefly  adopts  for  his  retreat  the  hollow  trunk  of  an 
old  cypress  tree,  which  he  climbs,  and  then  descends  into  the  cavity  from 
above.  The  hunter,  whose  business  it  is  to  watch  him  into  this  retreat, 
climbs  a  neighboring  tree,  and  seats  himself  opposite  to  the  hole.  In  one 
hand  he  holds  his  gun,  and  in  the  other  a  torch,  which  he  darts  into  the 
cavity.     Frantic  with  rage  and  terror,  the  bear  makes  a  spring  from  his 


166  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

station ;  but  the  hunter  seizes  the  instant  of  his  appearance,  and  shoots 
him. 

The  black  bear,  says  Godman,  like  all  the  species  of  this  genus,  is  very 
tenacious  of  life,  and  seldom  falls  unless  shot  through  the  brain  or  heart 
An  experienced  hunter  never  advances  on  a  bear  that  has  fallen,  without 
first  stopping  to  load  his  rifle,  as  the  beast  frequently  recovers  to  a  consi- 
derable degree,  and  would  then  be  a  most  dangerous  adversary.  The 
skull  of  the  bear  appears  actually  to  be  almost  impenetrable,  and  a  rifle 
ball,  fired  at  a  distance  of  ninety-six  yards,  has  been  flattened  against  it, 
without  appearing  to  do  any  material  injury  to  the  bone.  The  best  place 
to  direct  blows  against  the  bear  is  upon  his  snout ;  when  struck  elsewhere, 
his  dense  woolly  coat,  thick  hide,  and  robust  muscles,  render  manual  vio- 
lence almost  entirely  unavailing. 

When  the  bear  is  merely  wounded,  it  is  very  dangerous  to  attempt  to 
kill  him  with  such  a  weapon  as  a  knife  or  tomahawk,  or  indeed  any  thing 
which  may  bring  one  within  his  reach.  In  this  way  hunters  and  others 
have  paid  very  dearly  for  their  rashness,  and  barely  escaped  with  their 
lives  ;  the  following  instance  may  serve  as  an  example  of  the  danger  of 
such  an  enterprise : 

1  Mr.  Mayborne,  who  resides  in  Ovid  township,  Cayuga  county,  between 
the  Seneca  and  Cayuga  lakes,  in  the  state  of  New-York,  went  one  after- 
noon through  the  woods  in  search  of  his  horses,  taking  with  him  his  rifle 
and  the  only  load  of  ammunition  he  had  in  4he  house.  On  his  return 
home,  about  an  hour  before  dusk,  he  perceived  a  very  large  bear  crossing 
his  path,  on  which  he  instantly  fired,  and  the  bear  fell,  but  immediately 
recovering  his  legs,  made  for  a  deep  ravine  a  short  way  onwards.  Here 
he  tracked  him  awhile  by  the  blood,  but  night  coming  on,  and  expecting  to 
find  him  dead  in  the  morning,  he  returned  home.  A  little  before  daybreak 
the  next  morning,  taking  a  pitchfork  and  hatchet,  and  his  son,  a  boy  of  ten 
or  eleven  years  of  age,  with  him,  he  proceeded  to  the  place  in  quest  of  the 
animal.  The  glen  or  ravine  into  which  he  had  disappeared  the  evening 
before,  was  eighty  or  ninety  feet  from  the  top  of  the  bank  to  the  brook  be- 
low ;  down  this  precipice  a  stream  of  three  or  four  yards  in  breadth  is 
pitched  in  one  unbroken  sheet,  and,  forming  a  circular  basin  or  pool,  winds 
away  among  the  thick  underwood. 

1  After  reconnoitering  every  probable  place  of  retreat,  he  at  length  disco- 
vered the  bear,  who  had  made  his  way  up  the  other  side  of  the  ravine,  as 
far  as  the  rocks  would  admit,  and  sat  under  a  projecting  cliff,  steadfastly 
eyeing  the  motions  of  his  enemy.  Mayborne,  desiring  his  boy  to  remain 
where  he  was,  took  the  pitchfork,  and,  descending  to  the  bottom,  determined 
from  necessity  to  attack  him  from  below.  The  bear  kept  his  position  until 
the  man  approached  within  six  or  seven  feet,  when  on  the  instant,  instead 
of  being  able  to  make  a  stab  with  the  pitchfork,  he  found  himself  grappled 
by  the  bear,  and  both  together  rolled  towards  the  pond,  at  least  twenty  or 
twenty-five  feet,  the  bear  biting  on  his  left  arm,  and  hugging  him  almost 
to  suffocation.  By  great  exertion  he  thrust  his  right  arm  partly  down  his 
throat,  and  in  that  manner  endeavored  to  strangle  him,  but  was  once  more 
hurled  headlong  down  through  the  bushes,  a  greater  distance  than  before, 
into  the  water.  Here,  finding  the  bear  gaining  on  him,  he  made  one  des- 
perate effort,  and  drew  the  animal's  head  partly  under  water,  and  repeating 
fiis  exertions,  at  last  weakened  him  so  much,  that  calling  to  his  boy,  who 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  167 

stood  on  the  other  side,  in  a  state  little  short  of  distraction  for  the  fate  of  hig 
father,  to  bring  him  the  hatchet,  he  sunk  the  edge  of  it  by  repeated  blows 
into  the  brain  of  the  bear.  This  man,  although  robust  and  muscular,  was 
scarcely  able  to  crawl  home,  where  he  lay  for  nearly  three  weeks,  the  flesh 
of  his  arm  being  much  crushed,  and  his  breast  severely  mangled.  The 
bear  weighed  upwards  of  four  hundred  pounds.' 

Grisly  Bear. — This  animal,  like  the  species  just  described,  inha- 
bits the  northern  part  of  America ;  but,  unlike  him,  he  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  formidable  of  all  bears  in  magnitude  and  ferocity.  He  averages 
twice  the  bulk  of  the  black  bear,  to  which,  however,  he  bears  some  resem- 
blance in  his  slightly  elevated  forehead,  and  narrow,  flattened,  elongated 
muzzle.  His  canine  teeth  are  of  great  size  and  power.  The  feet  are 
enormously  large ;  the  breadth  of  the  fore  foot  exceeding  nine  inches,  and 
the  length  of  the  hind  foot  exclusive  of  the  talons,  being  eleven  inches  and 
three  quarters,  and  its  breadth  seven  inches.  The  talons  sometimes  mea- 
sure more  than  six  inches.  He  is,  accordingly,  admirably  adapted  for  dig- 
ging up  the  ground,  but  is  unable  to  climb  trees,  in  which  latter  respect  he 
differs  wholly  from  every  other  species.  The  color  of  his  hair  varies  to 
almost  an  indefinite  extent,  between  all  the  intermediate  shades  of  a  light 
gray  and  a  black  brown;  the  latter  tinge,  however, being  that  which  predo- 
minates. It  is  always,  in  some  degree,  grizzled,  by  intermixture  of  gray- 
ish hairs,  only  the  brown  hairs  being  tipped  with  gray.  The  hair  itself 
is,  in  general,  longer,  finer,  and  more  exuberant  than  that  of  the  black 
bear. 

The  neighborhood  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  one  of  the  principal 
haunts  of  this  animal.  There,  amidst  wooded  plains,  and  tangled  copses 
of  bough  and  underwood,  he  reigns  as  much  the  monarch  as  the  lion  is  of 
the  sandy  wastes  of  Africa.  Even  the  bison  cannot  withstand  his  attack. 
Such  is  his  muscular  strength,  that  he  will  drag  the  ponderous  carcass  of 
the  animal  to  a  convenient  spot,  where  he  digs  a  pit  for  its  reception.  The 
Indians  regard  him  with  the  utmost  terror.  His  extreme  tenacity  of  life 
renders  him  still  more  dangerous  ;  for  he  can  endure  repeated  wounds 
which  would  be  instantaneously  mortal  to  other  beasts,  and,  in  that  state, 
can  rapidly  pursue  his  enemy.  So  that  the  hunter  who  fails  to  shoot  him 
through  the  brain,  is  placed  in  a  most  perilous  situation. 

One  evening,  the  men  in  the  hindmost  of  one  of  Lewis  and  Clark's 
canoes,  perceived  one  of  these  bears  lying  in  the  open  ground  about  three 
hundred  paces  from  the  .river ;  and  six  of  them,  who  were  all  good  hunt- 
ers, went  to  attack  him.  Concealing  themselves  by  a  small  eminence, 
they  were  able  to  approach  within  forty  paces  unperceived ;  four  of  the 
hunters  now  fired,  and  each  lodged  a  ball  in  his  body,  two  of  which  passed 
directly  through  the  lungs.  The  bear  sprang  up  and  ran  furiously  with 
open  mouth  upon  them  ;  two  of  the  hunters,  who  had  reserved  their  fire, 
gave  him  two  additional  wounds,  and  one  breaking  his  shoulder-blade, 
somewhat  retarded  his  motions.  Before  they  could  again  load  their  guns, 
he  came  so  close  on  them,  that  they  were  obliged  to  run  towards  the  river, 
and  before  they  had  gained  it,  the  bear  had  almost  overtaken  them.  Two 
men  jumped  into  the  canoe  ;  the  other  four  separated,  and  concealing  them- 
selves among  the  willows,  fired  as  fast  as  they  could  load  their  pieces.  Seve- 
ral times  the  bear  was  struck,  but  each  shot  seemed  only  to  direct  his  fury 
towards  the  hunter ;  at  last  he  pursued  them  so  closely,  that  they  threw 


168  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

aside  their  guns  and  pouches,  and  jumped  from  a  perpendicular  bank, 
twenty  feet  high  into  the  river.  The  bear  sprang  after  them,  and  was  very- 
near  the  hindmost  man,  when  one  of  the  hunters  on  the  shore  shot  him 
through  the  head  and  finally  killed  him.  When  they  dragged  him  on 
shore,  they  found  that  eight  balls  had  passed  through  his  body  in  different 
directions. 

On  another  occasion,  the  same  enterprising  travellers  met  with  the 
largest  bear  of  this  species  they  had  ever  seen ;  when  they  fired  he  did 
not  attempt  to  attack,  but  fled  with  a  tremendous  roar,  and  such  was  his 
tenacity  of  life,  that  although  five  balls  had  passed  through  the  lungs,  and 
five  other  wounds  were  inflicted,  he  swam  more  than  half  across  the  river 
to  a  sand-bar,  and  survived  more  than  twenty  minutes, 

Mr.  John  Dougherty,  a  very  experienced  and  respectable  hunter,  who 
accompanied  Major  Long's  party  during  their  expedition  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  several  times  very  narrowly  escaped  from  the  grizzly  bear. 
Once,  while  hunting  with  another  person  on  one  of  the  upper  tributaries 
of  the  Missouri,  he  heard  the  report  of  his  companion's  rifle,  and  when  he 
looked  round,  beheld  him  at  a  short  distance  endeavoring  to  escape  from 
one  of  these  bears,  which  he  had  wounded  as  it  was  coming  towards  him. 
Dougherty,  forgetful  of  every  thing  but  the  preservation  of  his  friend,  has- 
tened to  call  off  the  attention  of  the  bear,  and  arrived  in  rifle  shot  distance 
just  in  time  to  effect  his  generous  purpose.  He  discharged  his  ball  at  the 
animal,  and  was  obliged  in  his  turn  to  fly ;  his  friend  relieved  from  imme- 
diate danger,  prepared  for  another  attack  by  charging  his  rifle,  with  which 
he  again  wounded  the  bear,  and  saved  Mr.  D.  from  further  peril.  Neither 
received  any  injury  from  this  encounter,  in  which  the  bear  was  at  length 
killed. 

The  Raccoon. — This  animal  continues  to  be  frequently  found  even  in 
the  populous  parts  of  the  United  States.     Occasionally  their  numbers  are 


Raccoon. 


so  much  increased,  as  to  render  them  very  troublesome  to  the  farmers  in 
the  low  and  wooded  parts  of  Maryland,  bordering  on  the  Chesapeak  Bay. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  169 

Being  peculiarly  fond  of  sweet  substances,  they  are  sometimes  destructive 
to  plantations  of  sugar-cane,  and  of  Indian  corn.  While  the  ear  of  this 
corn  is  still  young  and  tender,  it  is  very  sweet,  and  at  that  time  troops  of 
raccoons  frequently  enter  fields  of  maize,  and  in  a  single  night  commit  the 
most  extensive  depredations. 

The  size  of  the  raccoon  varies  with  the  age  and  sex  of  the  individual. 
When  full  grown,  the  male  is  about  a  foot  in  length,  or  a  few  inches  longer; 
the  highest  part  of  the  back  is  about  a  foot  from  the  ground,  whilst  the 
highest  part  of  the  shoulder  is  ten  inches.  The  head  is  about  five  inches, 
and  the  tail  rather  more  than  eight.  The  general  color  of  the  body  is  a 
blackish  gray,  which  is  paler  on  the  under  part.  The  feet  have  five  toes 
each,  terminated  by  strong  curved  and  pointed  claws ;  and  each  foot  is  fur- 
nished with  five  thick  and  very  elastic  tubercles  beneath.  The  fur  of  the 
raccoon  forms  an  article  of  considerable  value  in  commerce,  as  it  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats. 

'The  raccoon,' says  Godman,  'is'  an  excellent  climber,  and  his  strong 
sharp  claws  effectually  secure  him  from  being  shaken  off  the  branches  of 
tyees.  In  feet,  so  tenaciously  dees  this  animal  hold  to  any  surface  upon 
which  it  can  make  an  impression  with  its  claws,  that  it  requires  a  conside- 
rable exertion  of  a  man's  strength  to  drag  him  off;  and  as  long  as  even  a 
single  foot  remains  attached,  he  continues  to  cling  with  great  force.  I  have 
had  frequent  occasion  to  pull  a  raccoon  from  the  top  of  a  board  fence,  where 
there  was  no  projection  which  he  could  seize  by;  yet,  such  was  the  power 
and  obstinacy  with  which  the  points  of  his  claws  were  stuck  into  the  board, 
as  repeatedly  to  oblige  me  to  desist  for  fear  of  tearing  his  skin,  or  other- 
wise doing  him  an  injury  by  the  violence  necessary  to  detach  his  hold.' 

'Water  seems  to  be  essential  to  their  comfort,  if  not  of  absolute  necessity 
for  the  preparation  of  their  food.  I  have  had  for  some  time,  and  at  the 
moment  of  writing  this  have  yet,  a  male  and  female  raccoon  in  the  yard. 
Their  greatest  delight  appears  to  be  dabbling  in  water,  of  which  a  large 
tub  is  always  kept  for  their  use.  They  are  frequently  seen  sitting  on  the 
edge  of  this  tub,  very  busily  engaged  in  playing  with  a  piece  of  broken 
china,  glass,  or  a  small  cake  of  ice.  When  they  have  any  substance  which 
sinks,  they  both  paddle  with  their  fore  feet  with  great  eagerness,  until  it  is 
caught,  and  then  it  is  held  by  one,  with  both  paws,  and  rubbed  between 
them  ;  or  a  struggle  ensues  for  the  possession  of  it,  and  when  it  is  dropped 
the  same  sport  is  renewed.  The  coldest  weather  in  winter  does  not  in  the 
least  deter  them  from  thus  dabbling  in  the  water  for  amusement ;  nor  has 
this  action  much  reference  to  their  feeding,  as  it  is  performed  at  any  time, 
even  directly  after  feeding  till  satiated.  I  have  frequently  broken  the  ice 
en  the  surface  of  their  tub,  late  at  night,  in  the  very  coldest  winter  weather, 
and  they  have  both  left  their  sleeping  place  with  much  alacrity,  to  stand 
paddling  the  fragments  of  ice  about,  with  their  fore  legs  in  the  water  nearly 
up  to  the  breast.  Indeed,  these  animals  have  never  evinced  the  slightest 
dislike  to  cold,  or  suffered  in  any  degree  therefrom  ;  they  have  in  all 
weathers  slept  in  a  flour-barrel  thrown  on  its  side,  with  one  end  entirely 
open,  and  without  any  material  of  which  to  make  a  bed.  They  show  no 
repugnance  to  being  sprinkled  or  dashed  with  water,  and  voluntarily  re- 
main exposed  to  the  rain  or  snow,  which  wets  them  thoroughly,  notwith- 
standing their  long  hair,  which,  being  almost  erect,  is  not  well  suited  to 
turn  the  rain.  These  raccoons  are  very  fond  of  each  other,  and  express 
22  15 


170 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


the  greatest  delight  on  meeting,  after  having  been  separated  for  a  short 
time,  by  various  movements,  and  by  hugging  and  rolling  one  another  abooi 
on  the  ground.' 

4  My  raccoons  are,  at  the  time  of  writing  this,  more  than  a  year  old,  and 
ha\e  been  in  captivity  for  six  or  eight  months.  They  are  very  frolicsome 
and  amusing,  and  show  no  disposition  to  bite  or  injure  any  one,  except 
when  accidentally  trodden  on.  They  are  equally  free  from  any  disposition 
to  injure  children,  as  has  been  observed  of  other  individuals.  We  fre- 
quently turn  them  loose  in  the  parlor,  and  they  appear  to  be  highly  delighted, 
romping  with  each  other  and  the  children,  without  doing  any  injury  even 
to  the  youngest.  Their  alleged  disposition  to  hurt  children  especially,  may 
probably  be  fairly  explained  by  the  fact  above  mentioned,  that  they  always 
attempt  to  bite  when  suddenly  hurt,  and  few  children  touch  animals  with- 
out pinching  or  hurting  them.  They  exhibit  this  spirit  of  retaliation,  not 
only  to  man,  but  when  they  accidentally  hurt  themselves  against  an  inani- 
mate body ;  I  have  many  times  been  amused  to  observe  the  expression  of 
spite  with  which  one  of  them  has  sprung  at  and  bit  the  leg  of  a  chair  or 
table,  after  knocking  himself  against  it  so  as  to  hurt  some  part  of  his 
body. 

1  These  animals  may  be  tamed  while  young,  but  as  they  grow  to  maturity, 
most  generally  become  fierce  and  even  dangerous.  I  have  had  one  so 
tame  as  to  follow  a  servant  about  through  the  house  or  streets,  though 
entirely  at  liberty ;  this  was  quite  young  when  obtained,  and  grew  so  fond 
of  human  society  as  to  complain  very  loudly,  by  a  sort  of  chirping  or 
whining  noise,  when  left  alone.  Nothing  can  possibly  exceed  the  domes- 
ticated raccoon  in  restless  and  mischievous  curiosity,  if  suffered  to  go  about 
the  house.  Every  chink  is  ransacked,  every  article  of  furniture  explored, 
and  the  neglect  of  servants  to  secure  closet  doors,  is  sure  to  be  followed  by 
extensive  mischief,  the  evil  being  almost  uniformly  augmented  by  the  alarm 
caused  to  the  author  of  it,  whose  ill-directed  efforts  to  escape  from  supposed 
peril,  increase  at  the  same  time  the  noise  and  the  destruction.' 


£i"V 


The  Puma,  or  Cougar. 

The  Puma,  or   American  Lion  was  once  spread  over  the  new  world, 
ffom  Canada   to    Patagonia,  but    it   is   not   now  common    in  any  part 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPItffcs.y  171 


of  the  United  States,  except  the  unsettled  districts.  It  is  usually  called 
the  panther,  or  painter  by  the  common  people.  It  is  also  called  the  cata- 
mount. The  progress  of  civilization  has,  however,  circumscribed  his  range, 
and  has  rooted  him  out  in  many  places.  Notwithstanding  his  size  and 
strength,  he  is  cowardly  ;  and,  like  almost  all  cowards,  he  is  sanguinary. 
If  he  find  a  flock  of  sheep  unprotected,  he  will  destroy  the  whole,  merely  that 
he  may  enjoy  the  luxury  of  sucking  their  blood.  He  has  a  small  rounded 
head,  a  broad  and  rather  obtuse  muzzle,  and  a  body  which,  in  proportion, 
is  slenderer  and  less  elevated  than  that  of  his  more  dignified  namesake. 
*  The  upper  parts  of  his  body,'  says  Mr.  Bennett,  '  are  of  a  bright  silvery 
fawn,  the  tawny  hairs  being  terminated  by  whitish  tips :  beneath  and  on 
the  inside  of  the  limbs  he  is  nearly  white,  and  more  completely  so  on  the 
throat,  chin,  and  upper  lip.  The  head  has  an  irregular  mixture  of  black 
and  gray  ;  the  outside  of  the  ears,  especially  at  the  base,  the  sides  of  the 
muzzle  from  which  the  whiskers  take  their  origin,  and  the  extremity  of  the 
tail,  are  black.'  The  fur  of  the  cubs  has  spots  of  a  darker  hue,  which  are 
visible  Only  in  certain  lights,  and  disappear  when  the  animal  is  full  grown. 
Both  the  sexes  are  of  the  same  color.1* 

*  Cougar  Hunt.  The  hunters  made  their  appearance,  one  fine  morning,  at  the  door  of 
the  cabin,  just  as  the  sun  was  emerging  from  beneath  the  horizon.  They  were  five  in 
number,  and  fully  equipped  for  the  chase,  being  mounted  on  horses,  which  in  some 
parts  of  Europe  might  appear  sorry  nags,  but  which  in  strength,  speed  and  bottom, 
are  better  fitted  for  pursuing  a  cougar,  or  a  bear,  through  woods  and  morasses  than  any 
in  that  country.  A  pack  of  large  ugly  curs  were  already  engaged  in  making  acquain- 
tance with  those  of  the  squatter.  He  and  myself  mounted  his  two  best  horses,  whilst 
has  sons  were  bestriding  others  of  inferior  quality. 

Few  words  were  uttered  by  the  party  until  we  had  reached  the  edge  of  the  swamp, 
where  it  was  agreed  that  all  should  disperse  and  seek  for  the  fresh  track  of  the  painter, 
it  being  previously  settled  that  the  discoverer  should  blow  his  horn,  and  remain  on  the 
spot  until  the  rest  should  join  him.  In  less  than  an  hour,  the  sound  of  the  horn  was 
clearly  heard,  and,  sticking  close  to  the  squatter,  off  we  went  through  the  thick  woods, 
guided  only  by  the  now  and  then  repeated  call  of  the  distant  huntsman.  We  soon 
reached  the  spot,  and  in  a  short  time  the  rest  of  the  party  came  up.  The  best  dog  was 
sent  forward  to  track  the  cougar,  and  in  a  few  moments  the  whole  pack  were  observed 
diligently  trailing,  and  bearing  in  their  course  for  the  interior  of  the  swamp.  The  rifles 
were  immediately  put  in  trim,  and  the  party  followed  the  dogs,  at  separate  distances, 
but  in  sight  of  each  other,  determined  to  shoot  at  no  other  game  than  the  panther. 

The  dogs  soon  began  to  mouth,  and  suddenly  quickened  their  pace.  My  companion 
concluded  that  the  beast  was  on  the  ground,  and  putting  our  horses  to  a  gentle  gallop, 
we  followed  the  curs,  guided  by  their  voices.  The  noise  of  the  dogs  increased,  when  all 
of  a  sudden  their  mode  of  barking  became  altered,  and  the  squatter,  urging  me  to  push 
on,  told  me  that  the  beast  was  treed,  by  which  he  meant  that  it  had  got  upon  some  low 
branch  of  a  large  tree  to  rest  for  a  few  moments,  and  that  should  we  not  succeed  in 
shooting  him  when  thus  situated,  we  might  expect  a  long  chase  of  it.  As  we  approach- 
ed the  spot,  we  all  by  degrees  united  into  a  body,  but  on  seeing  the  dogs  at  the  foot  of  a 
large  tree,  separated  again  and  galloped  off  to  surround  it. 

Each  hunter  now  moved  with  caution,  holding  his  gun  ready,  and  allowing  the  bridle 
to  dangle  on  the  neck  of  his  horse,  as  it  advanced  slowly  towards  the  dogs.  A  shot 
from  one  of  the  party  was  heard,  on  which  the  cougar  was  seen  to  leap  to  the  ground,  and 
bound  off  with  such  velocity  as  to  show  that  he  was  very  unwilling  to  stand  our  fire 
longer.  The  dogs  set  off  in  pursuit  with  great  eagerness  and  a  deafening  cry.  The 
hunter  who  had  fired  came  up  and  said  that  his  ball  had  hit  the  monster,  and  had  pro- 
bably broken  one  of  his  fore  legs  near  the  shoulder,  the  only  place  at  which  he  could 
aim.  A  slight  trail  of  blood  was  discovered  on  the  ground,  but  the  curs  proceeded  at 
such  a  rate  that  we  merely  noticed  this,  and  put  spurs  to  our  horses,  which  galloped  on 
towards  the  centre  of  the  swamp.    One  bayou  was  crossed,  then  another  still  larger  and 


172 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.. 


American  Wild  Cat.  This  animal  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
domestic  cat,  and  its  motions  are  very  similar.  It  stands  high  upon  its 
legs,  and  has  a  short  curved  tail.  Its  principal  food  consists  of  birds,  squir- 
rels, and  other  small  animals  which  abound  in  the  woody  districts  it  in- 
habits. Though  common  in  the  western  states,  the  wild  cat  is  seldom  found 
in  New  England. 


Moose. 

The  Moose. — This  animal,  which  in  Europe  is  called  the  elk,  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  northern  parts  of  America,  but  is  found  in  no  part  of  the 

more  muddy  j  but  the  dogs  were  brushing  forward,  and  as  the  horses  began  to  pant  at 
a  furious  rate,  we  judged  it  expedient  to  leave  them  and  advance  on  foot.  These  deter- 
mined hunters  knew  that  the  cougar  being  wounded,  would  shortly  ascend  another 
tree,  where  in  all  probability  he  would  remain  for  a  considerable  time,  and  that  it  would 
be  easy  to  follow  the  track  of  the  dogs.  We  dismounted,  took  off  the  saddles  and  bri- 
dles, set  the  bells  attached  to  the  horses'  necks  at  liberty  to  jingle,  hoppled  the  animals, 
and  left  them  to  shift  for  themselves. 

Now,  reader,  follow  the  group  marching  through  the  swamp,  crossing  muddy  pools, 
and  making  the  best  of  their  way  over  fallen  trees  and  amongst  the  tangled  rushes  that 
now  and  then  covered  acres  of  ground.  If  you  are  a  hunter  yourself,  all  this  will  ap- 
pear nothing  to  you  ;  but  if  crowded  assemblies  of  '  beauty  and  fashion,'  or  the  quiet 
enjoyment  of  your  'pleasure-grounds,'  alone  delight  you,  I  must  mend  my  pen  before 
I  attempt  to  give  you  an  idea  of  the  pleasure  felt  on  such  an  expedition. 

After  marching  for  a  couple  of  hours,  we  again  heard  the  dogs.  Each  of  us  again 
pressed  forward,  elated  at  the  thought  of  terminating  the  career  of  the  cougar.  Some 
of  the  dogs  were  heard  whining,  although  the  greater  number  barked  vehemently.  We 
felt  assured  that  the  cougar  was  treed,  and  that  he  would  rest  for  some  time  to  recover 
from  his  fatigue.  As  we  came  up  to  the  dogs,  we  discovered  the  ferocious  animal  lying 
across  a  large  branch,  close  to  the  trunk  of  a  cotton-wood  tree.  His  broad  breast  lay 
towards  us  ;  his  eyes  were  at  one  time  bent  on  us  and  again  on  the  dogs  beneath  and 
around  him  ;  one  of  his  fore  legs  hung  loosely  by  his  side,  and  he  lay  crouched,  with 
his  ears  lowered  close  to  his  head,  as  if  he  thought  he  might  remain  undiscovered. 
Three  balls  were  fired  at  him,  at  a  given  signal,  on  which  he  sprang  a  few  feet  from 
the  branch,  and  tumbled  headlong  to  the  ground.  Attacked  on  all  sides  by  the  en- 
raged curs,  the  infuriated  cougar  fought  with  desperate  valor ;  but  the  squatter  ad- 
vancing in  front  of  the  party,  and  almost  in  the  midst  of  the  dogs,  shot  him  immediately 
behind  and  beneath  the  left  shoulder.  The  cougar  writhed  for  a  moment  in  agony,  and 
in  another  lay  dead. — Audubon 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  173 

United  States  excepting  Maine,  where  it  is  now  met  with  but  seldom.  Its 
figure  is  ungraceful  and  clumsy.  During  summer,  the  moose  frequents 
swampy  or  low  grounds,  on  the  borders  of  lakes,  in  which  it  is  fond  of 
bathing,  and  whose  plants  form  a  favorite  article  of  its  food.  In  winter,  the 
moose  seeks  the  depths  of  the  forest  for  shelter,  and  a  herd  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  take  possession  of  a  tract  of  about  five  hundred  acres,  where  they 
subsist  on  the  tender  twigs  and  the  mosses  of  the  trees.  To  these  places' 
the  Indians  give  the  name  of  i  moose-yards.'  Like  other  northern  animals, 
the  moose  is  much  vexed  by  insects,  which  deposit  their  eggs  in  different 
parts  of  his  body,  and  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  render  his  skin  worth- 
less to  the  hunter.  At  other  times,  the  skin  is  very  valuable,  and  serves  the 
Indians  for  clothing  and  tent  covers.  This  species  is  much  hunted,  and  has 
so  rapidly  diminished  within  a  few  years,  that  there  are  fears  it  will  be- 
come extinct. 

The  moose  is  hunted  generally  in  March,  when  the  snow  is  of  sufficient 
depth  and  hardness  to  sustain  the  weight  of  a  dog.  Five  or  six  hunters 
generally  join  in  the  pursuit  and  carry  provisions  to  last  them  nearly  a  week. 
The  chace  is  commenced  at  daybreak,  when  the  dogs  are  set  on,  and  the 
hunters  who  wear  snow-shoes  follow  as  closely  as  possible.  When  started 
and  attacked  by  the  dogs,  the  moose  attempts  to  escape  by  flight.  The 
crust  of  ice  covering  the  snow  breaks  at  every  step,  and  the  poor  creature 
cuts  his  legs  so  severely  that  he  is  obliged  to  stand  at  bay,  and  endeavors 
to  defend  himself  against  his  assailants  by  means  of  his  fore  feet.  In  this 
situation  he  is  despatched  by  the  rifle  ball  of  the  hunter. 

The  Elk. — The  elk  is  still  occasionally  found  in  the  remote  and  thinly 
settled  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  but  the  number  is  small;  it  is  only  in  the 
western  wilds  that  they  are  seen  in  considerable  herds.  They  are  fond  of 
the  great  forests,  where  a  luxuriant  vegetation  affords  them  an  abundant 
supply  of  buds  and  tender  twigs ;  or  of  the  great  plains,  where  the  soli- 
tude is  seldom  interrupted,  and  all  bounteous  nature  spreads  an  immense 
field  of  verdure  for  their  support. 

The  elk  is  shy  and  retiring;  having  acute  senses,  he  receives  early 
warning  of  the  approach  of  any  human  intruder.  The  moment  the  air  is 
tainted  by  the  odor  of  his  enemy,  his  head  is  erected  with  spirit,  his  ears 
rapidly  thrown  in  every  direction  to  catch  the  sounds,  and  his  large  dark 
glistening  eye  expresses  the  most  eager  attention.  Soon  as  the  approach- 
ing hunter  is  fairly  discovered,  the  elk  bounds  along  for  a  few  paces,  as  if 
trying  his  strength  for  flight,  stops,  turns  half  round,  and  scans  his  pursuer 
with  a  steady  gaze,  then,  throwing  back  his  lofty  horns  upon  his  neck, 
and  projecting  his  taper  nose  forwards,  he  springs  from  the  ground  and 
advances  with  a  velocity  which  soon  leaves  the  object  of  his  dread  far  out 
of  sight.* 

This  animal  appears  to  be  more  ready  to  attack  with  his  horns  than  any 
other  species  of  deer.  When  at  bay,  and  especially  if  slightly  wounded, 
he  fights  with  great  eagerness,  as  if  resolved  to  be  revenged.  The  follow- 
ing instance  from  Long's  Expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  will,  in  some 
degree,  illustrate  this  statement. 

A  herd  of  twenty  or  thirty  elk  were  seen  at  no  great  distanco  from  the 
party,  standing  in  the  water  or  lying  upon  the  sand  beach.     One  of  the 

*  Godman. 

15* 


174 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


finest  bucks  was  singled  out  by  a  hunter,  who  fired  upon  him,  whereupon 
the  whole  herd  plunged  into  the  thicket  and  disappeared.  Relying  upon 
the  skill  of  the  hunter,  and  confident  that  his  shot  was  fatal,  several  of  the 
party  dismounted  and  pursued  the  elk  into  the  woods,  where  the  wounded 
buck  was  soon  overtaken.  Finding  his  pursuers  close  upon  him,  the  elk 
turned  furiously  upon  the  foremost,  who  only  saved  himself  by  springing 
into  a  thicket,  which  was  impassable  to  the  elk,  whose  enormous  antlers 
becoming  so  entangled  in  the  vines  as  to  be  covered  to  their  tips,  he  was 
held  fast  and  blindfolded,  and  was  despatched  by  repeated  bullets  and 
stabs. 

Black-tailed  Beer.— The  habits  of  this  animal  are  similar  to  those  of  its 
kindred  species,  except  that  it  has  a  manner  of  bounding  along,  instead  of 
running  at  full  speed.  It  is  found  in  prairies  and  open  grounds,  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  but  seldom  in  the  woodlands.  It  is  larger  than 
the  common  deer,  and  its  flesh  is  considered  inferior;  its  eye  is  larger,  and 
the  hair  coarse.  The  ears  are  very  long,  being  half  the  length  of  the 
whole  antler.  It  was  first  observed  by  the  members  of  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
expedition,  and  was  described  by  Say. 


Virginia  Peer. 

Common  Beer. — This  species,  sometimes  called  the  Virginia  Deer,  is 
found  throughout  the  United  States,  with  such  varieties  in  its  size  and 
coloring,  as  naturally  arise  from  variety  of  climate.  Its  form  is  slender 
and  delicate,  and  its  whole  appearance  indicates  a  degree  of  feebleness, 
which  is  counteracted  only  by  the  agility  of  its  movements,  and  the  anima- 
tion of  its  eye.  Its  sense  of  hearing  and  seeing  is  wonderfully  acute;  and 
the  hunter  must  approach  his  intended  victim  with  the  utmost  caution,  for 
he  is  discovered  by  the  slightest  noise.  The  resort  of  this  species  is  in  the 
forests  and  plains  adjacent  to  rivers,  where  they  feed  chiefly  on  buds  and 
twigs,  and  sometimes  on  grass.  They  are  headed  by  one  of  the  largest 
and  strongest  bucks,  who  appears  to  be  the  guardian  of  the  general  safety, 
and  directs  his  followers  to  combat  or  retreat.     Though  generally  shy  and 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  175 

timid,  the  males  are  much  disposed  to  battle  during  the  season  of  the 
sexual  passion,  and  are  almost  always  inclined  to  fight  when  wounded  or 
brought  to  bay.  At  this  time  they  fight  with  their  fore  feet,  as  well  as  their 
horns,  and  inflict  severe  wounds  by  leaping  forward  and  striking  with  the 
edges  of  their  hoofs.  If  a  hunter  misses  his  aim  when  attempting  to 
despatch  a  wounded  deer  with  his  knife,  he  is  placed  in  great  peril.  To 
serpents,  of  every  description,  the  deer  is  particularly  hostile,  and  it  seems 
to  have  an  instinctive  horror  of  the  rattlesnake.  To  destroy  this  enemy, 
the  deer  leaps  into  the  air,  and  comes  down  on  him  with  its  four  feet  closed 
in  a  square,  repeating  its  violent  blows  until  the  reptile  is  killed. 

The  males  frequently  engage  in  combats,  in  which  their  horns  sometimes 
become  so  interlocked  that  neither  can  escape,  and  they  then  remain  en- 
gaged in  fruitless  struggles  till  they  perish  of  famine,  or  become  the  prey 
of  the  wolf  or  the  hunter.  Heads  of  deer  which  have  thus  perished  are 
frequently  found,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  museum  in  this  country  which 
has  not  one  or  more  specimens.  The  following  instance  is  given  by  Say  in 
Long's  Expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  '  As  the  party  were  descend- 
ing a  ridge,  their  attention  was  called  to  an  unusual  noise  proceeding  from 
a  copse  of  low  bushes,  a  few  rods  from  the  path.  On  arriving  at  the  spot, 
they  found  two  buck  deer,  their  horns  fast  interlocked  with  each  other,  and 
both  much  spent  with  fatigue,  one  in  particular  being  so  much  exhausted  as 
to  be  unable  to  stand.  Perceiving  that  it  would  be  impossible  that  they 
should  extricate  themselves,  and  must  either  linger  in  their  present  situa- 
tions or  die  of  hunger,  or  be  destroyed  by  the  wolves,  they  despatched  them 
with  their  knives,  after  having  made  an  unavailing  attempt  to  disentangle 
them.     Beyond  doubt,  many  of  these  animals  must  annually  thus  perish.' 

Prong-horned  Antelope. — This  species  was  first  described  by  the  leaders 
of  the  first  American  expedition  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It 
is  shy  and  timorous,  wonderfully  fleet,  and  with  great  acuteness  of  sight 
and  smell.  When  once  startled,  they  fly  with  the  rapidity  of  the  wind,  and 
baffle  all  pursuit.  In  one  instance,  captain  Lewis,  after  various  fruitless 
attempts,  by  winding  around  the  ridges,  succeeded  in  approaching  a  party 
of  seven  that  stood  upon  an  eminence  towards  which  the  wind  was  un- 
fortunately blowing.  The  only  male  of  the  party  frequently  encircled  the 
summit  of  the  hill,  as  if  to  announce  any  danger  to  the  group  of  females 
which  stood  upon  the  top.  Before  they  saw  captain  Lewis,  they  became 
alarmed  by  the  scent,  and  fled  while  he  was  at  the  distance  of  two  hun- 
dred yards.  He  immediately  ran  to  the  spot  where  they  had  stood ;  a 
ravine  concealed  them  from  him,  but  at  the  next  moment  they  appeared  on 
a  second  ridge,  at  the  distance  of  three  miles.  He  could  not  but  doubt 
whether  these  were  the  same  he  had  alarmed,  but  their  number  and  con- 
tinued speed  convinced  him  they  were  so,  and  he  justly  infers  that  they 
must  have  run  with  a  rapidity  equal  to  that  of  the  most  celebrated 
race  horse. 

'The  chief  game  of  the  Shoshonees,'  say  Lewis  and  Clarke,  'is  the 
antelope,  which  when  pursued  retreats  to  the  open  plains,  where  the  horses 
have  full  room  for  the  chase.  But  such  is  its  extraordinary  fleetness  and 
wind,  that  a  single  horse  has  no  possible  chance  of  outrunning  it,  or  tiring 
it  down ;  and  the  hunters  are  therefore  obliged  to  resort  to  stratagem. 
About  twenty  Indians,  mounted  on  fine  horses,  armed  with  bows  and  ar- 
rows, left  the  camp  ;  in  a  short  time  they  descried  a  herd  of  ten  antelopes  ; 


176  BOOK  OF  THE     NITED  STATES. 

they  immediately  separated  into  squads  of  two  or  three,  and  formed  a  scat 
tered  circle  round  the  herd  for  five  or  six  miles,  keeping  at  a  wary  distance, 
so  as  not  to  alarm  them  till  they  were  perfectly  inclosed,  and  usually  se  • 
lecting  some  commanding  eminence  as  a  stand.  Having  gained  theii 
positions,  a  small  party  rode  towards  the  herd,  and  with  wonderful  dexteri- 
ty the  huntsman  preserved  his  seat,  and  the  horse  his  footing,  as  he  ran  at 
full  speed  over  the  hills  and  down  the  steep  ravines,  and  along  the  borders 
of  the  precipices. 

'  They  were  soon  outstripped  by  the  antelopes,  which,  on  gaining  the 
other  extremity  of  the  circle,  were  driven  back  and  pursued  by  the  fresh 
hunters.  They  turned  and  flew,  rather  than  ran,  in  another  direction  ; 
but  there  too  they  found  new  enemies.  In  this  way  they  were  alternately 
pursued  backwards  and  forwards,  till  at  length,  notwithstanding  the  skill 
of  the  hunters,  (who  were  merely  armed  with  bows  and  arrows)  they  all 
escaped  ;  and  the  party,  after  running  for  two  hours,  returned  without 
having  caught  any  thing,  and  their  horses  foaming  with  sweat.  This 
chase,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  seen  from  the  camp,  formed  a  beauti- 
ful scene,  but  to  the  hunters  is  exceedingly  laborious,  and  so  unproductive, 
even  when  they  are  able  to  worry  the  animal  down  and  shoot  him,  that 
forty  or  fifty  hunters  will  sometimes  be  engaged  for  more  than  half  a  day, 
without  obtaining  more  than  two  or  three  antelopes.' 


Rocky  Mountain  Goat. 

Rocky  Mountain  Goat. — This  species  is  nearly  the  size  of  a  common 
sheep,  and  has  a  shaggy  appearance.  Its  hoofs  and  horns  are  black  ;  the 
latter  project  but  little,  and  are  slightly  curved.  Great  numbers  of  this 
goat  are  found  about  the  head- waters  of  the  north  fork  of  Columbia  river, 
where  they  are  much  hunted  by  the  natives,  and  form  an  abundant  though 
somewhat  unsavory  article  of  food.  They  are  seldom  seen  far  from  the 
mountains,  and  are  more  numerous  on  their  western  than  on  their  eastern 
slopes.     The  skin  is  thick  and  spongy,  and  is  used  for  moccasins.     DN 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  177 

fleece  is  said  to  be  as  fine  as  that  of  which  the  celebrated  cashmere  shawls 
are  manufactured. 

Argali. — The  argali  is  found  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  about  the 
fiftieth  degree  of  north  latitude  to  California.  Here  troops  of  twenty  or 
thirty  are  seen  together,  feeding  on  the  most  precipitous  tracts,  and  bound- 
ing with  wonderful  agility  from  rock  to  rock.  During  the  summer  months, 
the  color  of  this  animal  is  a  grayish  fawn,  with  a  reddish  line  across  the 
back.  The  male  has  very  large  twisted  horns,  fixed  near  the  eyes ;  its 
ears  are  straight,  broad  and  pointed,  and  its  tail  quite  short.  This  is  said 
to  be  the  species  from  which  all  the  varieties  of  our  domestic  sheep  are 
descended. 

Bison. — This  animal  is  found  in  herds  in  the  prairies  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Rocky  Mountains  :  it  is  continually  receding  before  the  ad- 
vance of  man,  and  will  soon  be  entirely  banished  to  the  far  west.  School- 
craft says  that  the  species  is  confined  to  the  regions  situated  between  the 
thirty-first  and  forty-ninth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, river.  The  only  part  of  the  country  east  of  this  river,  where  the 
bison  now  remains,  is  that  included  between  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony  and 
Sandy  Lake,  a  range  of  about  six  hundred  miles. 

•  Being  now  in  the  region  of  buffalo,'  says  Mr.  Schoolcraft,  '  we  con- 
cluded to  land,  in  the  course  of  the  day,  at  some  convenient  place  for  hun  V 
ing  them.  This  we  were  soon  invited  to  do  by  seeing  one  of  these  am* 
mals  along  the  shore  of  the  river,  and  on  ascending  the  bank,  we  observed, 
upon  a  boundless  prairie,  two  droves  of  them,  feeding  upon  the  grass.  All 
who  had  guns  adapted  for  the  purpose,  sallied  forth  in  separate  parties 
upon  the  prairie,  while  those  who  felt  less  ambition  to  signalize  themselves 
upon  the  occasion,  or  were  more  illy  accoutred  for  the  activities  of  the 
chase,  remained  upon  an  eminence  which  overlooked  the  plain,  to  observe 
the  movements  of  this  animal  while  under  an  attack  of  musketry,  and  to 
enjoy  the  novel  spectacle  of  a  buffalo-hunt.  The  grass  was  so  tall  as  to 
allow  an  unobserved  approach  towards  the  spot  where  they  remained  feed- 
ing, but  the  first  fire  proved  unsuccessful,  at  the  same  time  that  it  scattered 
the  herd,  which  were  now  seen  running  in  all  directions  across  the  prairie, 
and  an  incessant  fire  of  random  shots  was  kept  up  for  about  two  hours ; 
during  which  three  buffaloes  were  killed,  and  a  great  number  wounded, 
which  made  their  escape. 

'  While  thus  harrassed,  they  often  passed  within  a  few  yards  of  us,  and 
we  enjoyed  a  fine  opportunity  of  witnessing  their  form,  size,  color,  and 
speed.  The  buffalo  has  a  clumsy  gait,  like  the  domestic  ox,  which  it  also 
resembles  in  size  and  general  appearance.  Unlike  the  ox,  however,  this 
animal  exhibits  no  diversity  of  color,  being  a  uniform  dark  brown,  inclining 
to  dun.  It  is  never  spotted,  with  black,  red,  or  white.  It  has  short  black 
horns  growing  nearly  straight  from  the  head,  and  set  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance apart.  The  male  has  a  hunch  upon  its  shoulders,  covered  with  long 
flocks  of  shaggy  hair,  extending  to  the  top  of  the  head,  from  which  it  falls 
over  the  eyes  and  horns,  giving  the  animal  a  very  formidable  appearance. 
The  hoofs  are  cloven  like  those  of  the  cow,  but  the  legs  are  much  stouter, 
and  altogether,  it  is  more  clumsy  and  ill-proportioned.  The  tail  is  naked 
till  towards  the  end,  where  it  is  tufted,  in  the  manner  of  the  lion. 

'  The  general  weight  of  this  animal  is  from  eight  hundred  to  a  thousand 
pounds ;  but  they  sometimes  attain  an  enormous  size,  and  have  been  killed 
23 


178  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

upon  the  Mississippi  prairies  weighing  two  thousand  pounds.  The  skin 
of  a  buffalo  bull,  when  first  taken  off,  is  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, and  cannot  be  lifted  by  the  strongest  man.  A  hundred  and  fifty- 
pounds  of  tallow  have  been  taken  from  one  animal,  and  it  is  highly 
esteemed  by  the  Indians  in  preparing  their  hommony.  Instances  of  exces- 
sive fatness  are,  however,  rare,  and  such  over-fed  animals  become  so  un- 
wieldy that  they  often  fall  a  prey  to  wolves  ;  particularly  if  they  happen 
to  stray  a  distance  from  the  herd.  The  buffalo  is  a  timid  animal,  and  flies 
at  the  approach  of  man.  It  is  however  asserted  by  the  hunters,  that  when 
painfully  wounded,  it  becomes  furious,  and  will  turn  upon  its  pursuers. 

1  There  is  a  particular  art  in  killing  the  buffalo  with  a  rifle,  only  known 
to  experienced  hunters,  and  when  they  do  not  drop  down,  which  is  often 
the  case,  it  requires  a  person  intimately  acquainted  with  their  habits,  to 
pursue  them  with  success.  This  has  been  fully  instanced  in  the  futile  ex- 
ertions of  our  party,  upon  the  present  occasion ;  for  out  of  a  great  number 
of  shots,  few  have  reached  the  object,  and  very  few  proved  effectual,  and 
the  little  success  we  met  with  is  chiefly  attributable  to  the  superior  skill  of 
the  Indians  who  accompanied  us.  Unless  a  vital  part  is  touched,  the  shot 
proves  useless.  It  also  requires  a  larger  ball  than  the  deer  and  elk. 
Lieutenant  Pike  thinks  that  in  the  open  prairies,  the  bow  and  arrow  could 
be- used  to  better  advantage  than  the  gun,  particularly  on  horseback,  for 
you  might  ride  immediately  along  side  the  animal  and  strike  it  where  you 
pleased.  The  Indians  employ  both  the  rifle  and  arrow,  and  in  the  prai- 
ries of  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  pursue  the  herds  on  horseback ;  but  on  the 
upper  Mississippi,  where  they  are  destitute  of  horses,  they  make  amends 
for  this  deficiency  by  several  ingenious  stratagems. 

1  One  of  the  most  common  of  these  is  the  method  of  hunting  with  fire. 
For  this  purpose,  a  great  number  of  hunters  disperse  themselves  around  a 
large  prairie  where  herds  of  buffalo  happen  to  be  feeding,  and  setting  fire 
to  the  grass  encompass  them  on  all  sides.  The  buffalo,  having  a  great 
dread  of  fire,  retire  towards  the  centre  of  the  prairie  as  they  see  it  approach, 
and  here  being  pressed  together  in  great  numbers,  many  are  trampled 
under  foot,  and  the  Indians  rushing  in  with  their  arrows  and  musketry, 
slaughter  immense  numbers  in  a  short  period.  It  is  asserted  that  a  thou- 
sand animals  have  been  killed  by  this  stratagem  in  one  day.  They  have 
another  method  of  hunting  by  driving  them  over  precipices,  which  is  chiefly 
practised  by  the  bands  inhabiting  the  Missouri.  To  decoy  the  herds,  seve- 
ral Indians  disguise  themselves  in  the  skins  of  the  buffalo,  taken  off  entire, 
and  by  counterfeiting  the  lowing  of  this  animal  in  distress,  they  attract  the 
herds  in  a  certain  direction,  and  when  they  are  at  full  speed,  suddenly  dis- 
appear behind  a  cleft  in  the  top  of  a  precipice,  when  those  animals  which 
are  in  front  on  reaching  the  brink,  are  pushed  over  by  those  pressing  be- 
hind, and  in  this  manner  great  numbers  are  crushed  to  death.  These 
practices  are  less  common  now  than  formerly,  the  introduction  of  fire  arms, 
among  most  of  the  tribes,  putting  it  into  the  power  of  almost  every  indi- 
vidual to  kill  sufficient  for  the  support  of  his  family. 

'  By  a  very  bad  policy,  however,  they  prefer  the  flesh  of  the  cows,  which 
will  in  time  destroy  the  species.  Few  of  the  native  animals  of  the  Ameri- 
can forest  contribute  more  to  the  comforts  of  savage  society  than  the 
buffalo.  Its  skin,  when  dressed  by  a  process  peculiar  to  them,  forms  one 
of  the  principal  articles  of  clothing.     The  Sioux  tribes  particularly  excel  ia 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  179 

the  method  of  dressing  it,  and  are  very  much  in  the  habit  of  ornamenting 
their  dresses  with  porcupine  quills,  and  paints.  The  skin,  dressed  with  the 
hair  on,  supplies  them  with  blankets,  and  constitutes  those  durable  and 
often  beautiful  sleigh-robes  which  are  now  in  such  universal  use  in  the 
United  States  and  the  Canadas.  The  tallow  of  this  animal,  as  well  as  the 
beef,  has  also  become  an  article  of  commerce,  particularly  in  the  south- 
western states  and  territories,  and  its  horns  are  exported  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  powder-flasks.  The  tongue  is  considered  superior  in  flavor  to  that 
of  the  domestic  cow,  and  the  animal  is  often  hunted  for  no  other  purpose. 
I  have  seen  stockings  and  hats  manufactured  from  its  wool,  with  a  little 
addition  of  common  wool,  or  of  cotton.  This  practice  is  very  common 
among  the  white  hunters  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  The  flesh  of  the 
buffalo  is  not  equal,  in  its  fresh  state,  to  that  of  the  cow  or  ox,  but  is  supe- 
rior when  dried,  which  is  the  Indian  mode  of  preserving  it. 

1  The  attempts  which  have  been  made  to  domesticate  this  animal,  have 
not  been  attended  with  success.  Calves  which  have  been  taken  in  the 
woods  and  brought  up  with  the  tame  breed,  have  afterwards  discovered 
a  wild  and  ungovernable  temper,  and  manifested  their  savage  nature  by 
breaking  down  the  strongest  enclosures,  and  enticing  the  tame  cattle  into 
the  woods.  The  mixed  breed  is  said  to  be  barren,  like  the  mule.  The 
period  of  gestation  is  ascertained  to  be  twelve  months,  whereas  that  of  the 
cow  is  nine.  A  remarkable  proof  of  the  little  affinity  existing  between  it, 
and  the  domestic  breed  of  cattle,  was  exhibited  a  few  years  ago  in  Canada, 
where  the  connexion  resulted  in  the  death  of  the  cows  submitted  to  the 
experiment.' 

American  Wolf. — The  common  wolf  of  America  is  considered  as  the 
same  species  with  the  wolf  of  Europe.  Richardson  remarks  that  he  has 
travelled  over  thirty  degrees  of  latitude  in  America,  and  has  never  seen 
there  any  wolves  which  had  the  gaunt  appearance,  the  comparatively  long 
jaw  and  tapering  nose,  the  high  ears,  long  legs,  slender  loins,  and  narrow 
feet  of  the  Pyrenean  wolf.  He  adds,  that  the  American  animal  has  a 
more  robust  form  than  the  European  wolf.  Its  muzzle  is  thicker  and  more 
obtuse,  its  head  larger  and  rounder,  and  there  is  a  sensible  depression  at 
the  union  of  the  nose  and  forehead.  He  notices  six  varieties  of  the  wolf 
in  North  America :  common  gray  wolf,  white,  pied,  dusky,  black,  and 
prairie.  There  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  all  the  wolves  of  America  are 
of  one  species ;  and  the  variations  of  size,  color,  and  habits,  are  to  be  re- 
ferred to  diversities  of  climate  which  have  been  gradually  impressed  upon 
these  animals. 

Prairie  Wolf. — This  species  is  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  prairies 
to  the  west  of  the  Missouri,  and  also  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Colum- 
bia river.  Its  general  color  is  gray,  mixed  with  black ;  the  ears  are  erect, 
rounded  at  the  tip,  and  lined  with  gray  hair.  It  is  about  three  feet  and  a 
half  in  length,  and  bears  a  very  strong  resemblance  to  the  domestic  dog,  so 
common  in  the  Indian  villages.  Its  bark  is  also  similar  to  that  of  the  dog. 
It  resembles  the  other  species  of  wolves  in  rapacity  and  cunning,  being 
very  suspicious  and  mistrustful  and  shunning  pitfalls  and  snares  with  in- 
tuitive sagacity.* 

*  The  prairie  wolves  are  much  smaller  than  those  which  inhabit  the  woods.  They 
generally  travel  together  in  numbers,  and  a  solitary  one  is  seldom  met  with.    Two  o* 


180  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Horses* — The  number  of  horses  among  the  various  tribes  on  the  Columbia, 
and  its  tributary  streams,  differs  with  the  circumstances  of  the  country. 

three  of  us  have  often  pursued  from  fifty  to  one  hundred,  driving  them  before  us  as 
quickly  as  our  horses  could  charge. 

Their  skins  are  of  no  value,  and  we  do  not  therefore  waste  much  powder  and  ball  in 
shooting  them.  The  Indians,  who  are  obliged  to  pay  dear  for  their  ammunition,  are 
equally  careful  not  to  throw  it  away  on  objects  that  bring  no  remunerating  value.  The 
natural  consequence  is,  that  the  wolves  are  allowed  to  multiply ;  and  some  parts  of  the 
country  are  completely  overrun  by  them.  The  Indians  catch  numbers  of  them  in  traps, 
which  they  set  in  the  vicinity  of  those  places  where  their  tame  horses  are  sent  to  graze. 
Tke  traps  are  merely  excavations  covered  over  with  slight  switches  and  hay,  and  bated 
with  meat,  &c,  into  which  the  wolves  fall,  and  being  unable  to  extricate  themselves, 
they  perish  by  famine,  or  the  knife  of  the  Indian.  These  destructive  animals  annually 
destroy  numbers  of  horses  ;  particularly  during  the  winter  season,  when  the  latter  get 
entangled  in  the  snow ;  in  which  situation  they  become  an  easy  prey  to  their  lightfooted 
pursuers,  ten  or  fifteen  of  which  will  often  fasten  on  one  animal,  and  with  their  long 
fangs  in  a  few  minutes  separate  the  head  from  the  body.  If,  however,  the  horses  are 
nvA  prevented  from  using  their  legs,  they  sometimes  punish  the  enemy  severely ;  as  an 
instance  of  this,  I  saw  one  morning  the  bodies  of  two  of  our  horses  which  had  been 
killed  the  night  before,  and  around  were  lying  eight  dead  and  maimed  wolves ;  some 
with  their  brains  scattered  about,  and  others  with  their  limbs  and  ribs  broken  by  the 
hoofs  of  the  furious  animals  in  their  vain  attempts  to  escape  from  their  sanguinary 
assailants. 

While  I  was  at  Spokan,  I  went  occasionally  to  the  horse  prairie,  which  is  nearly  sur 
rounded  by  partially  wooded  hills,  for  the  purpose  of  watching  the  manoeuvres  of  thf: 
wolves  in  their  combined  attacks.  The  first  announcement  of  their  approach  was  a 
few  shrill  currish  barks  at  intervals,  like  the  outpost  firing  of  skirmishing  parties. 
These  were  answered  by  similar  barking  from  an  opposite  direction,  until  the  sounds 
gradually  approximated,  and,  at  length,  ceased  on  the  junction  of  the  different  parties. 
We  prepared  our  guns,  and  concealed  ourselves  behind  a  thick  cover.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  horses,  sensible  of  the  approaching  danger,  began  to  paw  the  ground,  snort, 
toss  up  their  heads,  look  wildly  about  them,  and  exhibit  all  the  symptoms  of  fear. 
One  or  two  stallions  took  the  lead,  and  appeared  to  wait  with  a  degree  of  comparative 
composure  for  the  appearance  of  the  enemy. 

The  allies,  at  length,  entered  the  field  in  a  semicircular  form,  with  their  flanks  extend- 
ed for  the  evident  purpose  of  surrounding  their  prey.  They  were  between  two  and 
three  hundred  strong.  The  horses,  on  observing  their  movement,  knew  from  experience 
its  object,  and  dreading  to  encounter  so  numerous  a  force,  instantly  turned  round,  and 
galloped  off  in  a  contrary  direction.  Their  flight  was  the  signal  for  the  wolves  to  ad- 
vance ;  and  immediately  uttering  a  simultaneous  yell,  they  charged  after  the  fugitives, 
still  preserving  their  crescent  form.  Two  or  three  of  the  horses,  which  were  not  in  the 
best  condition,  were  quickly  overtaken  by  the  advance  guard  of  the  enemy.  The  for- 
mer, finding  themselves  unable  to  keep  up  with  the  band,  commenced  kicking  at  their 
pursuers,  several  of  which  received  some  severe  blows  ;  but  these  being  reinforced  by 
others,  they  would  have  shortly  despatched  the  horses,  had  we  not,  just  in  time,  emerged 
from  our  place  of  concealment,  and  discharged  a  volley  at  the  enemy's  centre,  by  which 
a  few  were  brought  down.  The  whole  battalion  instantly  wheeled  about,  and  fled  to- 
wards the  hills  in  the  utmost  disorder ;  while  the  horses,  on  hearing  the  fire,  changed 
their  course,  and  galloped  up  to  us.  Our  appearance  saved  several  of  them  from  the 
fangs  of  their  foes  ;  and  by  their  neighing  they  seemed  to  express  their  joy  and  grati- 
tude at  our  timely  interference. 

Although  the  wolves  of  North  America  are  the  most  daring  of  all  the  beasts  of  prey 
on  that  continent,  they  are  by  no  means  so  courageous  or  ferocious  as  those  of  Europe, 
particularly  in  Spain  or  the  south  of  France,  in  which  countries  they  commit  dreadful 
ravages  both  on  man  and  beast :  whereas  an  American  wolf,  except  forced  by  despera- 
tion, will  seldom  or  never  attack  a  human  being ;  a  remarkable  instance  of  which  is 
mentioned  in  the  detail  of  my  wanderings,  in  the  eighth  chapter.  The  lynxes  are  by  no 
means  so  numerous  as  the  wolves,  but  they  are  equally  destructive,  and  individually 
more  daring.  They  generally  travel  alone,  or  in  couples,  and  seldom  fly,  as  the  wolves 
do,  on  the  first  approach  of  man.  The  largest  American  lynx  does  not  exceed  in  size 
an  English  mastiff. — Ross  Cox. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


181 


Among  the  Flat-heads,  Cootonais,  and  Spokans,  whose  lands  are  rather 
thickly  wooded,  there  are  not  more  than  sufficient  for  their  actual  use,  and 
every  colt,  on  arriving  at  the  proper  age,  is  broken  in  for  the  saddle.  But 
in  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  Wallah  Wallahs,  Nez  Perces,  and  Shosho- 
nes,  which  chiefly  consist  of  open  plains,  well  watered  and  thinly  wooded, 
they  are  far  more  numerous,  and  thousands  are  allowed  to  go  wild.  Their 
general  height  is  about  fifteen  hands,  which  they  seldom  exceed;  and  ponies 
are  very  scarce.  Those  reared  in  the  plains  are  excellent  hunters,  and  the 
swiftest  racers ;  but  are  not  capable  of  enduring  the  same  hardships  as 
those  bred  in  the  vicinity  of  the  high  and  woody  districts.  Seven  hundred 
or  a  thousand  wild  horses  are  sometimes  seen  in  a  band ;  and  it  is  said 
that  in  parts  of  the  country  belonging  to  the  Snake  Indians,  bands  varying 
from  three  to  four  thousand  are  frequently  seen ;  and  further  to  the  south- 
ward, they  are  far  more  numerous. 


Wild  Horses. 

The  Indian  horses  are  never  shod ;  and  owing  to  this  circumstance,  their 
hoofs,  particularly  of  such  as  are  in  constant  work,  are  nearly  worn  away 
before  they  are  ten  or  eleven  years  old,  after  which  they  are  unfit  for  any- 
labor  except  carrying  children.  They  are  easily  managed,  and  are  seldom 
vicious.  An  Indian  horse  is  never  taught  to  trot.  "The  natives  dislike 
this  pace,  and  prefer  to  it  the  canter  or  light  gallop.  They  are  hard  task- 
masters; and  the  hair-rope  bridles,  with  the  padded  deer-skin  saddles  which 
they  use,  lacerate  the  mouths  and  backs  of  the  unfortunate  animals  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  render  them  objects  of  commiseration.  In  summer  they 
have  no  shelter  from  the  heat,  in  winter  no  retreat  from  the  cold ;  and 
their  only  provender  throughout  the  year  is  the  wild  loose  grass  of  the 

16 


182  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

fairies,  which,  in  the  latter  season,  is  generally  covered  with  snow,  and 
In  the  former  is  brown  and  arid,  from  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun. 

Foxes. — The  Gray  Fox  is  found  in  great  numbers  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  ventures  more  boldly  than  any  other  species  into  the  neighborhood 
of  human  habitations.  It  exhibits  different  colors  at  different  seasons  and 
ages ;  its  general  color  is  grizzly,  growing  gradually  darker  from  the  fore 
shoulders  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  back.  The  inferior  parts  of  the  body 
are  white,  tinged  slightly  with  faint  reddish  brown.  The  tail  is  thick  and 
bushy.  The  Red  Fox  is  a  very  beautiful  species,  and  abounds  in  the  mid- 
dle and  southern  states,  where  it  proves  very  troublesome  to  poultry-yards. 
In  summer,  its  fur  is  long,  fine,  and  brilliant ;  in  winter,  it  becomes  longer 
and  more  thick.  The  length  of  this  species  is  about  two  feet,  and  of  its 
tail,  nearly  a  foot  and  a  half.  Its  fur  is  valuable,  and  much  used.  When 
caught  young,  the  red  fox  is  very  playful,  and  may  be  domesticated  to  a 
considerable  degree ;  we  have  known  it  to  live  in  perfect  friendship  with 
a  number  of  dogs,  and  to  take  much  pleasure  in  tumbling  about  and  sport- 
ing with  them.^ 

The  Black  Fox  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  common  fox,  from 
which  it  has  nothing  to  distinguish  it  but  its  abundant  and  beautiful  black 


Black  Fox. 

fur.  Its  color  is  rich  and  lustrous,  having  a  small  quantity  of  white  ming- 
led with  the  prevailing  black  on  different  parts  of  its  body.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  northern  parts  of  America,  but  no  where  in  great  numbers. 
The  Swift  Fox  is  a  very  interesting  species,  inhabiting  the  open  plains 
which  stretch  from  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  towards  the  Mis- 
sissippi. 

*  A  very  young  whelp  of  this  fox  was,  some  time  ago,  brought  to  the  Philadelphia 
Museum  in  company  with  its  foster  mother,  a  common  cat,  which  had  adopted  and 
(appeared  to  be  very  fond  of  it.  She  continued  to  nurse  the  little  fox  for  several  weeks, 
expressing  much  affectionate  solicitude  when  he  wandered  from  her,  notwithstanding 
the  frequent  ungrateful  bites  inflicted  by  her  vicious  foundling.  How  long  this  singu- 
lar relation  might  have  continued,  or  to  what  result  it  would  have  led,  is  unknown. 
*The  fox  strayed  too  far  from  his  cautious  nurse,  fell  from  the  platform  of  a  tall  stair- 
case to  the  ground,  and  was  killed ;  the  poor  cat  evinced  as  much  sorrow  for  her  loss  a* 
if  it  had  been  really  her  own  offspring. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  183 

Opossum. — This  animal  is  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  easily  distinguished  from  all  others  by  two  peculiarities  :  the 
first  is,  that  the  female  has  a  cavity  under  the  belly  in  which  she  receives 
and  suckles  her  young ;  the  second  is,  that  the  male  and  the  female  have 
no  claws  on  the  great  toe  of  the  hind  feet,  which  is  separated  from  the 


Virginia  Opossum. 

others  as  a  man's  thumb  is  separated  from  his  fingers.  The  opossum  pro- 
duces often,  and  a  great  number  of  young  at  a  time.  It  walks  awkwardly, 
and  seldom  runs  ;  but  it  climbs  trees  with  great  facility,  and  hangs  from 
the  branches  by  means  of  a  very  flexible  and  muscular  tail.  Though 
voracious  and  greedy  of  blood,  it  also  feeds  on  reptiles,  insects,  sugar-canes, 
potatoes,  and  even  leaves  and  bark  of  trees.  It  may  be  easily  domesticated  ; 
but  its  smell  is  strong  arid  offensive,  though  its  flesh  is  eatable,  and  much 
liked  by  the  Indians.  So  tenacious  is  it  of  life,  that  it  has  given  rise  to 
a  saying  in  North  Carolina,  that  if  a  cat  has  nine  lives,  an  opossum  has 
nineteen.  The  general  color  of  the  opossum  is  a  whitish  gray  ;  the  tail  is 
thick  and  black,  for  upwards  of  three  inches  at  its  base,  and  is  covered  by 
small  scales,  interspersed  with  white,  short,  rigid  hairs.  It  is  a  timid  and 
nocturnal  animal,  depending  for  its  safety  more  on  cunning  than  strength. 

American  Hare. — This  species,  improperly  called  rabbit,  is  found 
throughout  the  states,  and  in  some  parts  is  exceedingly  common.  Its  flesh 
is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  During  the  summer  it  is  tough, 
but  after  the  first  frosts  of  autumn,  it  is  fat  and  delicate.  In  the  north, 
during  winter  the  hare  feeds  on  the  twigs  of  pine  and  fir,  and  is  fit  for  the 
table  during  the  season.  It  never  burrows  in  the  ground,  but  in  the  day 
time  remains  crouched,  within  its  form,  which  is  a  mere  spot  of  ground 
cleared  of  grass  and  sheltered  by  an  overhanging  plant.  Sometimes  it 
lives  in  the  trunk  of  a  hollow  tree,  or  under  a  pile  of  stones.  It  wanders 
out  at  night,  and  makes  sad  havoc  among  the  turnip  and  cabbage  fields, 
and  the  young  trees  in  nurseries.  It  is  not  hunted  in  this  country  as  in 
Europe,  but  is  caught  in  a  trap,  or  roused  by  a  dog  and  shot. 

Varying  Hare. — This  animal  appears  to  inhabit  a  great  portion  of 
North  America,  as  it  has  been  found  in  Virginia,  and  as  far  north  as  fifty- 
five  degrees,  whilst  eastward  it  is  found  on  the  great  plains  of  the 
Columbia.     It  appears  generally  to  frequent  plains  and  low  grounds,  where 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

lives  like  the  common  hare,  never  burrowing,  but  not  resorting  to  the 
thick  woods.  The  variabilis  of  Europe,  on  the  contrary,  is  described  as 
always  inhabiting  the  highest  mountains,  and  never  descending  into  the 
plains,  except  when  forced  to  seek  for  food,  when  the  mountains  are 
covered  with  snow.  The  American  species  is  remarkably  swift,  never 
taking  shelter  when  pursued,  and  capable  of  most  astonishing  leaps ; 
Captain  Lewis  measured  some  of  these,  and  found  their  length  to  be  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  feet.  From  the  middle  of  November  to  the  middle  of 
April,  this  animal  is  of  a  pure  white,  with  the  exception  of  the  black  and 
reddish  brown  of  the  ears.  During  the  rest  of  the  year,  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body  are  of  a  lead  color;  the  under  parts  white,  with  a  light  shade 
of  lead  color. 

Beaver. — The  general  appearance  of  the  beaver  is  that  of  a  large 
rat,  and  seen  at  a  little  distance,  it  might  be  readily  mistaken  for  the  com- 
mon musk-rat.  But  the  greater  size  of  the  beaver,  the  thickness  and 
breadth  of  its  head,  and  its  horizontally  flattened,  broad,  and  scaly  tail, 


Beaver 

render  it  impossible  to  mistake  it  for  any  other  creature  when  closely 
examined.  In  its  movements,  both  on  shore  and  in  the  water,  it  also 
closely  resembles  the  musk-rat,  having  the  same  quick  step,  and  swimming 
with  great  vigor  and  celerity,  either  on  the  surface  or  in  the  depths  of  the 
water.  * 

Musk-Rat. — This  animal  is  closely  allied  in  form  and  habits  to  the 
beaver,  and  is  found  in  the  same  parts  of  America  as  that  animal,  from 
thirty  to  sixty-nine  or  seventy  degrees  of  latitude.  But  it  is  more  familiar 
in  its  habits,  as  it  is  to  be  found  only  a  short  distance  from  large  towns. 
The  musk-rat  is  a  watchful,  but  not  a  very  shy  animal.  It  may  be  fre- 
quently seen  sitting  on  the  shores  of  small  muddy  islands,  not  easily  to  be 
distinguished  from  a  piece  of  earth,  till,  on  the  approach  of  danger,  it 
suddenly  plunges  into  the  water.  It  forms  burrows  on  the  banks  of  streams 
and  ponds,  the  entrance  to  which  is  in  deep  water.     These  burrows  extend 

*  For  a  very  full,  minute,  and  interesting  account  of  the  beaver,  we  refer  our  readers  to  the 
second  volume  of  Godman's  Natural  History. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  185 

to  great  distances,  and  do  extensive  injury  to  the  farms,  by  letting  in  the 
water  upon  the  land.  In  some  situations,  these  animals  build  houses 
of  a  conical  form,  resembling  those  of  the  beaver,  formed  of  mud, 
grass  and  reeds,  plastered  together.  They  feed  upon  the  roots  and 
tender  shoots  of  aquatic  plants  and  on  the  leaves  of  grasses.  They  are 
excellent  swimmers,  dive  well,  and  can  remain  for  a  long  time  under 
water.  It  is  *rare  to  have  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  animal  during 
the  day,  as  it  then  lies  concealed  in  its  burrow,  and  it  is  not  till  night, 
that  it  issues  forth  for  food  or  recreation.  It  does  not,  like  the  beaver,  lay 
up  a  store  of  provision  for  the  winter ;  but  it  builds  a  new  habitation 
every  season. 

This  animal  is  common  in  the  Atlantic  states,  and  its  fur  being  valuable 
for  hats,  it  is  much  hunted.  The  Indians  kill  them  by  spearing  them 
through  the  walls  of  their  houses.  Between  four  and  five  thousand  skins 
are  annually  imported  into  Great  Britain  from  North  America. 

The  American  Badger,  as  compared  with  the  European,  is  smaller  and 
lighter,  with  different  markings  on  its  fur,  and  with  a  head  less  sharp 
towards  the  nose.  It  frequents  the  prairies  and  sand  plains  at  the  base  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  as  far  north  as  latitude  fifty-eight  degrees.  It 
abounds  on  the  plains  watered  by  the  Missouri.  Timid  and  slow,  the 
badger,  on  being  pursued,  takes  to  the  earth  like  a  mole,  and  makes  his 
way  with  great  rapidity.  It  is  caught  in  spring,  when  the  ground  is  frozen, 
by  filling  its  hole  with  water,  when  the  tenant  is  obliged  to  come  out. 

The  Ermine  Weasel  is  known  in  the  middle  and  eastern  states,  by  the 
name  of  weasel :  farther  north,  it  is  called  stoat  in  summer,  and  ermine  in 
its  winter  dress.  In  its  habits  it  resembles  the  common  weasel  of  Europe. 
It  is  courageous,  active,  and  graceful.  His  long  and  slender  body,  bright 
and  piercing  eye,  sharp  claws  and  teeth,  and  great  strength,  indicate  that 
he  is  dangerous  and  destructive  to  the  smaller  animals,  which  he  can  follow 
into  their  smallest  hiding  places,  from  his  peculiar  flexibility  of  body.  This 
animal  frequents  barns  and  out-houses,  and  is  the  particular  enemy  of 
mice,  and  other  depredators  upon  the  granary.  To  compensate  for  the 
service  he  thus  renders  the  farmer,  he  helps  himself  without  ceremony  to 
a  number  of  his  fowls,  and  the  henroost  sometimes  exhibits  a  sad  proof  of 
the  value  he  sets  upon  his  labors,  in  exterminating  the  mice.  In  winter, 
the  fur  of  the  weasel  is  much  longer,  thicker  and  finer,  than  in  summer. 

Pennant's  Marten  is  found  in  various  parts  of  North  America,  from  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania,  to  as  far  north  as  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  where  it 
was  seen  by  captain  Franklin.  It  is  easily  domesticated,  becomes  fond  of 
tea  leaves,  is  very  playful,  and  has  a  pleasant  musky  smell.  This  species 
is  not  very  scarce,  as  Pennant  says  that  five  hundred  and  eighty  skins  were 
sent^  in  one  year  from  the  states  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania ;  and 
Sabine  remarks  that  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  sent  eighteen  hundred 
skins  to  England  in  one  year. 

The  length  of  this  marten  is  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  without 
the  tail,  which  is  from  thirteen  to  seventeen  inches  long.  The  feet  are 
very  broad,  and  covered  with  hair,  which  conceals  the  sharp,  strong,  white 
claws.  The  fur  on  the  head  is  short,  but  gradually  increases  in  length 
towards  the  tail,  and  its  color  changes,  losing  much  of  the  yellowish,  and 
assuming  a  chestnut  hue.  The  tail  is  full,  bushy,  black  and  lustrous,  being 
smallest  at  the  end. 

24  16* 


18G  BOOK  OF  THE  UNTTED  STATES. 

The  Maryland  Marmot,  or  Woodckuck,  is  common  in  all  the  temperate 
parts  of  America.  It  does  great  injury  to  the  farmers,  as  the  quantity  of 
herbage  it  consumes1  is  really  surprising.  It  burrows  in  the  ground  on  the 
sides  of  hills,  and  these  extend  to  great  distances  under  ground,  and  ter- 
minate in  various  chambers.  Here  the  marmot  makes  himself  a  comforta- 
ble bed  of  dry  leaves,  grass,  and  any  soft  rubbish,  where  he  sleeps  from  the 
close  of  day,  till  the  next  morning  is  far  advanced. 

The  Maryland  marmot  eats  with  great  greediness,  and  in  large  quanti- 
ties. It  is  fond  of  cabbage,  lettuce,  and  other  garden  vegetables.  When 
in  captivity,  it  is  exceedingly  fond  of  bread  and  milk. 

At  the  commencement  of  cold  weather,  the  marmot  gees  into  winter 
quarters,  blocks  up  the  door  within,  and  remains  torpid  till  the  warm  sea- 
son.    It  is  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  and  of  a  dark  brown  color. 

The  Prairie  Marmot,  commonly  called  Prairie  Dog,  builds  his  dwelling 
in  the  barren  tracts  of  the  western  country,  and  may  often  be  seen  sitting 
by  the  small  mounds  of  earth,  which  indicate  his  abode,  in  an  attitude  of 
profound  attention.  Whole  acres  of  land  are  occupied  by  these  little 
tenants,  and  villages  are  found,  containing  thousands  of  inhabitants.  Near 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  these  villages  are  found  to  reach  several  miles. 
The  burrow  extends  under  ground,  but  to  what  distance  has  not  been 
determined. 

This  marmot,  like  the  rest  of  the  species,  remains  torpid  during  the 
winter.  It  is  very  much  annoyed  in  its  habitation  by  owls,  rattlesnakes, 
lizards,  and  land  tortoises,  who  appropriate  these  comfortable  dwellings  for 
their  own  use,  and  frequently  destroy  the  young  marmots. 

The  Fox  Squirrel  is  found  throughout  the  southern  states,  where  it  fre- 
quents the  pine  forests  in  considerable  numbers,  and  derives  its  principal 


Black  Squirrel 

subsistence  from  the  seed  of  the  pine.  Its  color  varies  from  white  to  pale 
gray  and  black,  and  is  sometimes  mottled,  with  various  shades  of  red. 
The  Cat  Squir?-el  is  one  of  the  largest  species,  and  is  found  in  great  abun- 
dance in  the  oak  and  chesnut  forests  of  this  country.  It  is  a  very  heavy 
animal,  and  is  slow  in  its  movements,  seldom  leaping  from  tree  to  tree, 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  187 

unless  it  is  alarmed  or  closely  pursued.  It  is  found  of  almost  every  variety 
of  color.  The  Black  Squirrel  is  very  common,  but  is  often  confounded 
with  the  black  varieties  of  the  squirrels  before  described.  In  the  winter, 
this  animal  is  of  a  pure  black ;  in  the  summer,  it  is  of  a  grayish  black,  in- 
termingled with  a  dark  reddish  brown.  It  is  found  in  the  United  States, 
and  inhabits  the  northern  shores  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior. 

The  Common  Gray  Squirrel  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  activity, 
and  is  common  throughout  the  United  States.  It  is  generally  found  in 
hickory  and  chesnut  woods,  where  it  feeds  on  nuts,  and  lays  up  a  hoard  for 
the  winter.  It  is  very  easily  domesticated,  and  in  captivity  is  very  playful 
and  mischievous.  The  Great-tailed  Squirrel,  so  called  from  the  length 
of  its  tail,  is  common  on  the  Missouri.  It  is  of  a  grayish  black  color,  and 
is  very  graceful  and  active.  The  Line-tail  Squirrel  inhabits  the  Missouri 
country,  where  it  builds  its  nest  in  the  holes  and  crevices  of  rocks.  It  is 
fond  of  the  naked  cliffs,  where  there  are  but  few  bushes,  and  very  rarely 
ascends  a  tree.  It  feeds  on  the  buds,  leaves,  and  fruits  of  plants.  It  is 
of  an  ash  color,  intermixed  with  white  hairs.  Its  fur  is  coarse,  and  the  tail, 
which  is  very  long,  is  marked  with  three  black  lines  on  each  side.  The 
Four-lined  Squirrel  is  found  on  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Its  nest  is  com- 
posed of  a  great  quantity  of  the  branches  of  different  kinds  of  trees,  and 
of  other  vegetable  productions.     It  does  not  ascend  trees  by  choice. 

The  Columbian  Pine  Squirrel  was  seen  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  on  the 
banks  of  the  Columbia  river,  but  is  supposed  by  Richardson  to  be  a  variety 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Squirrel,  its  habits  being  similar. 

The  Common  Red  Squirrel  is  abundant  in  most  parts  of  North  America. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  lively  and  nimble  of  the  squirrel  race.  It  digs  burrows 
at  the  roots  of  large  trees,  to  which  it  forms  four  or  five  entrances.  It  does 
not  leave  its  tree  in  cold  and  stormy  weather,  but  when  it  is  sporting  in  the 
sunshine,  if  any  one  approaches,  it  conceals  itself,  and  makes  a  loud  noise, 
similar  to  a  watchman's  rattle.  From  this  circumstance  it  has  received  the 
name  of  Chickaree.  When  pursued,  it  makes  long  leaps  from  tree  to  tree, 
and  seeks  for  shelter  as  soon  as  possible  in  its  burrow.  The  skin  of  this 
animal  is  of  no  value.  It  is  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  shaded  with  black. 
The  tail  is  long  and  beautiful. 

The  Growid  or  Striped  Squirrel  is  abundant  in  all  our  woods.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Harkee,  and,  in  New  England,  is  usually  denominated 
the  Chip  Squirrel.  It  differs  very  much  from  other  squirrels  in  its  habits. 
It  never  makes  its  nest  in  the  branches  of  trees,  but  burrows  in  the  ground 
near  the  roots.  These  burrows  extend  a  considerable  distance  under 
ground,  and  are  always  provided  with  two  openings.  The  general  color 
of  this  animal  is  of  a  reddish  brown.  The  Common  Flying  Squirrel*  is 
very  abundant  in  the  United  States,  and  is  much  admired  for  the  softness 
of  its  fur,  and  the  gentleness  of  its  disposition.  The  skin  of  the  sides  is 
extended  from  the  fore  to  the  hind  limbs,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  sail,  which 
enables  it  to  descend  swiftly  from  a  great  height,  in  the  easiest  and  most 
pleasant  manner,  often  passing  over  a  considerable  space.  This  squirrel  is 
small,  of  an  ash  color  above,  and  white  beneath,  with  large,  prominent 
black  eyes.  It  builds  its  nest  in  hollow  trees.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Fly- 
ing Squirrel  lives  in  thick  pine  forests,  and  seldom  leaves  its  retreats  ex- 
cept at  night. 

*  Fljdng  squirrels  are  said  to  be  found  in  the  north  of  Europe,  but  they  are  very  scarce. 


188  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Urson,  or  Canada  Porcupine,  exhibits  none  of  the  long  and  large 
quills  which  are  so  conspicuous  and  formidable  in  the  European  species, 
and  the  short  spines  or  prickles  which  are  thickly  set  over  all  the  superior 
parts  of  its  body,  are  covered  by  a  long  coarse  hair,  which  almost  entirely 
conceals  them.  These  spines  are  not  more  than  two  inches  and  a  half  in 
length,  yet  form  a  very  efficient  protection  against  every  other  enemy  but 
man.  This  animal  dislikes  water,  sleeps  very  much,  and  chiefly  feeds 
upon  the  bark  of  the  juniper.  His  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  savages  and 
American  traders.  He  is  still  found  in  the  remote  and  unsettled  parts  of 
Pennsylvania,  but  south  of  this  state  is  almost  unknown.  It  was  formerly 
found,  but  very  rarely,  in  Virginia.  The  porcupine  is  much  prized  by  the 
aborigines,  both  for  its  flesh,  and  quills,  which  are  used  as  ornaments  to 
their  pipes,  weapons,  and  dresses.  A  large  collection  of  dresses,  thus  orna- 
mented, is  exhibited  in  the  Philadelphia  Museum. 

The  Mink  is  found  throughout  the  country,  from  Carolina  to  Hudson's 
Bay,  and  in  its  habits  and  appearance  strongly  resembles  the  otter.  It  lives 
in  the  neighborhood  of  mill-seats,  or  farm-houses,  frequenting  holes  near 
the  water,  or  in  the  ruins  of  old  walls.  It  feeds  upon  frogs  and  fish,  and, 
like  the  weasel,  sometimes  pays  an  unwelcome  visit  to  the  poultry-yard. 
The  length  of  this  animal  is  about  twenty  inches  ;  its  feet  are  broad,  webb- 
ed, and  covered  with  hair.     Hats  are  made  of  its  fur. 

The  Skunk  is  of  a  brown  color,  marked  sometimes  with  two  white 
stripes.  The  faculty  this  animal  possesses,  of  annoying  its  enemies  by  the 
discharge  of  a  noisome  fluid,  causes  it  to  be  rather  shunned  than  hunted, 
which  the  value  of  its  skin  would  otherwise  be  sure  to  occasion.  The 
smallest  drop  of  this  fluid  is  sufficient  to  render  a  garment  detestable  for  a 
great  length  of  time.  Washing,  smoking,  baking,  or  burying  articles  of 
dress,  seems  to  be  equally  inefficient  for  its  removal.  The  skunk  is  gene- 
rally found  in  the  forests,  having  its  den  either  in  the  stump  of  an  old  tree, 
or  in  an  excavation  in  the  ground.  It  feeds  on  the  young  of  birds,  and 
upon  small  quadrupeds,  eggs,  and  wild  fruits.  It  also  does  much  mischief 
in  the  poultry-yard. 

The  American  Otter  is  about  five  feet  in  length,  including  the  tail, 
the  length  of  which '  is  eighteen  inches.  The  color  of  the  whole  of  the 
body,  (except  the  chin  and  throat,  which  are  dusky  white)  is  a  glossy 
brown.  The  fur  throughout  is  dense  and  fine.  The  differences  between 
this  species  and  the  European  otter,  are  thus  pointed  out  by  Captain  Sa- 
bine :  '  The  neck  of  the  American  otter  is  elongated,  not  short,  and  the 
head  narrow  and  long  in  comparison  with  the  short,  broad  visage  of  the 
European  species ;  the  ears  are  consequently  much  closer  together  than  in 
the  latter  animal.  The  tail  is  more  pointed  and  shorter,  being  considerably 
less  than  one  half  of  the  length  of  the  body,  whilst  the  tail  of  the  Euro- 
pean otter  is  more  than  half  the  length  of  its  body.'  The  fur  of  the  otter 
is  much  valued  by  the  hatters  and  other  consumers  of  peltries,  and  this 
animal  must  ultimately  become  as  rare  in  North  America  as  the  kindred 
species  has  long  since  become  in  Europe. 

II.    BIRDS. 

The  Ornithology  of  the  United  States  is  exceedingly  rich  and  interesting. 
For  their  beauty  of  plumage,  variety  and  melody  of  song,  diversity  of 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  189 

form,  habits,  disposition  and  faculties,  our  birds  well  merit  the  industrious 
observation  which  has  been  bestowed  upon  them.  They  have  been  highly- 
fortunate  in  their  historians,  for  no  department  of  our  animal  kingdom  has 
been  so  thoroughly  investigated  as  this ;  and  the  indefatigable  labor,  science 
and  genius  of  such  men  as  Wilson,  Audubon,  Bonaparte,  and  Nuttall,  have 
left  us  but  little  to  expect  from  future  researches. 

The  vulture  called  Turkey  Buzzard,  is  found  in  large  numbers  in  the 
southern  states,  where  he  is  protected  by  law,  on  account  of  his  services  in 
the  removal  of  carrion.  This  bird  has  never  been  known  to  breed  in  any 
of  the  Atlantic  states  north  of  New  Jersey.  In  the  southern  cities,  dur- 
ing the  winter,  they  pass  the  night  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  are  fond  of 
warming  themselves  in  the  smoke  that  issues  from  the  chimneys.  This 
bird  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  and  six  in  breadth ;  the  upper 
plumage  is  glossed  with  green  and  bronze,  the  fore  part  of  the  neck  is  bare. 
The  Black  Vulture  is  smaller,  and  flies  in  flocks  ;  the  range  of  this  bird  is 
confined  by  very  narrow  limits  to  the  southern  states.  The  Condor  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  but  his  peculiar  residence  is  among 
the  precipitous  cliffs  of  the  majestic  Andes. 

The  Common  or  Wandering  Falcon  lives  along  the  seacoast  of  the 
country,  and  is  said  to  breed  in  the  cedar  swamps  of  New  Jersey.  The 
American  Sparrow  Hawk  is  found  principally  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
states,  and  builds  its  nest  in  a  hollow  or  decayed  tree,  on  some  elevated 
place.  In  the  winter  it  becomes  familiar,  and  approaches  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  man ;  at  this  time  it  lives  on  such  small  game  as  it  can  find  in  the 


American  Sparrow  Hawk. 

way  of  mice  or  lizards.  The  flight  of  this  bird  is  irregular.  It  perches 
on  the  top  of  a  dead  tree  or  pole  in  the  middle  of  a  field,  and  sits  there  in 
an  almost  perpendicular  position  for  an  hour  together,  reconnoitering  the 
ground  below  in  every  direction  for  the  favorite  articles  of  its  food.  The 
bluejays  have  a  particular  antipathy  to  this  bird,  who  punishes  their  enmity 
by  occasionally  making  a  meal  of  one  of  them. 

The  American  Fish  Hawk  is  a  formidable,  vigorous-winged,  and  well- 
known  bird,  which  subsists  altogether  on  the  fishes  that  swarm  in  our  bays, 


190  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

rivers,  and  creeks.  It»is  doubtless  the  most  numerous  of  its  genus  in  the 
United  States,  and  besides  lining  our  seacoast  from  Georgia  to  Canada,  it 
penetrates  far  into  the  interior. 


Fish  Hawk. 

f  The  motions  of  the  fish  hawk,'  says  Mr.  Audubon,  '  in  the  air  are 
graceful,  and  as  majestic  as  those  of  the  eagle.  It  rises  with  ease  to  a 
great  height  by  extensive  circlings,  performed  apparently  by  mere  inclina- 
tions of  the  wings  and  tail.  It  dives  at  times  to  some  distance  with  the 
wings  partially  closed,  and  resumes  its  sailing,  as  if  these  plunges  were 
made  for  amusement  only.  Its  wings  are  extended  at  right  angles  to  the 
body,  and  when  thus  flying,  it  is  easily  distinguishable  from  all  other  hawks 
by  the  eye  of  an  observer,  accustomed  to  note  the  flight  of  birds.  Whilst 
in  search  of  food,  it  flies  with  easy  flappings  at  a  moderate  height  above 
the  water,  and  with  an  apparent  listlessness,  although  in  reality  it  is 
keenly  observing  the  objects  beneath.  No  sooner  does  it  spy  a  fish  suited 
to  its  taste,  than  it  checks  its  course  with  a  sudden  shake  of  its  wings  and 
tail,  which  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  poised  in  the  air  for  a  moment, 
after  which  it  plunges  headlong  with  great  rapidity  into  the  water,  to 
secure  its  prey,  or  continue  its  flight,  if  disappointed  by  having  observed 
the  fish  sink  deeper. 

*  When  it  plunges  into  the  water  in  pursuit  of  a  fish,  it  sometimes  pro- 
ceeds deep  enough  to  disapppear  for  an  instant.  The  surge  caused  by  its 
descent  is  so  great  as  to  make  the  spot  around  it  present  the  appearance  of 
a  mass  of  foam.  On  rising  with  its  prey,  it  is  seen  holding  it  in  the  man- 
ner represented  in  the  plate.  It  mounts  a  few  yards  into  the  air,  shakes 
the  water  from  its  plumage,  squeezes  the  fish  with  its  talons,  and  immedi- 
ately proceeds  towards  its  nest,  to  feed  its  young,  or  to  a  tree,  to  devour 
the  fruit  of  its  industry  in  peace.  When  it  has  satisfied  its  hunger,  it  does 
not,  like  other  hawks,  stay  perched  until  hunger  again  urges  it  forth,  but 
usually  sails  about  at  a  great  height  over  the  neighboring  waters. 

'  The  fish  hawk  has  a  great  attachment  to  the  tree  to  which  it  carries 
its  prey,  and  will  not  abandon  it,  unless  frequently  disturbed,  or  shot  at 
whilst  feeding  there.  It  shows  the  same  attachment  to  the  tree  on  which 
it  has  built  its  first  nest,  and  returns  to  it  year  after  year.' 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  191 

The  Sivalloiv-tailed  Hawk. — This  beautiful  kite  breeds  and  passes  the 
summer  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  also  probably- 
resident  in  all  tropical  and  temperate  America,  migrating  into  the  southern 
at  well  as  the  northern  hemisphere.  In  the  former,  according  to  Viellot, 
it  is  found  in  Peru,  and  as  far  as  Buenos  Ayres ;  and  though  it  is  extremely 


Swallow-tailed  Hawk. 

rare  to  meet  with  this  species  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  forty  degrees  in  the 
Atlantic  states,  yet,  tempted  by  the  abundance  of  the  fruitful  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  individuals  have  been  seen  along  that  river  as  far  as  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony,  in  the  forty-fourth  degree  of  north  latitude.  Indeed, 
according  to  Fleming,  two  stragglers  have  even  found  their  devious  way 
to  the  strange  climate  of  Great  Britain. 

They  appear  in  the  United  States  about  the  close  of  April  or  beginning 
of  May,  and  are  very  numerous  in  the  Mississippi  territory,  twenty  or 
thirty  being  sometimes  visible  at  the  same  time,  often  collecting  locusts  and 
other  large  insects,  which  they  are  said  to  feed  on  from  their  claws  while 
flying ;  at  times  also  seizing  upon  the  nests  of  locusts  and  wasps,  and  like 
the  honey-buzzard,  devouring  both  the  insects  and  their  larvae.  Snakes 
and  lizards  are  their  common  food  in  all  parts  of  America.  In  the  month 
of  October  they  begin  to  retire  to  the  south,  at  which  season  Mr.  Bartram 
observed  them  in  great  numbers  assembled  in  Florida,  soaring  steadily  at 
great  elevations  for  several  days  in  succession,  and  slowly  passing  towards 
their  winter  quarters  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.^ 

Other  hawks  in  the  United  States  are  the  Sharp-shinned,  the  Great- 
footed  or  Duck,  the  Pigeon,  Cooper's  White-tailed,  Red-tailed,  Broad-winged, 
Mississippi  Kite,  Black,  Marsh,  Stanley's,  Red-shouldered,  Ash-colored,  and 
Slate-colored  Haivks. 

Washington  Eagle. — For  the  first  accurate  observation  of  this  bird,  we 
have  been  indebted  to  the  untiring  study  and  genius  of  Audubon,  who  first 
noticed  it  in  the  year  1814.  He  is  three  feet  and  seven  inches  long ;  the 
extent  of  his  wings  is  ten  feet  two  inches.  His  plumage  is  compact 
■and  glossy,  the  upper  parts  being  of  a  dark,  shining  coppery  brown ;  the* 

*  Nuttall. 


192  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

i 

throat,  breast  and  belly  of  a  bright  rich  cinnamon  color.  He  lives  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  seashore,  lakes  and  rivers,  and  subsists  chiefly  on  fish. 
4  The  name  which  I  have  chosen  for  this  new  species  of  eagle,'  says  ijs 
great  discoverer,  ■  the  "  Bird  of  Washington,"  may,  by  some,  be  considered 
as  preposterous  and  unfit ;  but  as  it  is  indisputably  the  noblest  bird  of  its 
genus  that  has  yet  been  discovered  in  the  United  States,  I  trust  I  shall  be 
allowed  to  honor  it  with  the  name  of  one  yet  nobler,  who  was  the  savior 
of  his  country,  and  whose  name  will  ever  be  dear  to  it.  To  those  who 
may  be  curious  to  know  my  reasons,  I  can  only  say,  that,  as  the  new  world 
gave  me  birth  and  liberty,  the  great  man  who  insured  its  independence  is 
next  to  my  heart.  He  had  a  nobility  of  mind  and  a  generosity  of  soul, 
such  as  are  seldom  possessed.  He  was  brave,  so  is  the  eagle  ;  like  it,  too, 
he  was  the  terror  of  his  foes ;  and  his  fame,  extending  from  pole  to  pole, 


Washington  Eagle. 

resembles  the  majestic  soarings  of  the  mightiest  of  the  feathered  tribe.  If 
America  has  reason  to  be  proud  of  her  Washington,  so  has  she  to  be  proud 
of  her  great  eagle.' 

White-headed  or  Bald  Eagle. — This  bird  is  abundant  in  all  the  latitudes 
of  the  United  States,  but  shows  a  predilection  for  the  warmer  climates. 
He  lives  near  the  seacoast,  where  he  usually  selects  some  lofty  pine  or 
cypress  for  his  eyry,  which  he  builds  of  large  sticks,  sods,  moss,  reeds, 
pine  tops  and  other  coarse  materials,  arranged  in  a  sort  of  level  bed.  This 
breeding  place  is  never  deserted  as  long  as  the  tree  lasts.  Fish  constitutes 
the  chief  article  of  food  of  this  bird,  and  he  usually  obtains  it  by  cunning  and 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  193 

rapine,  seldom  by  the  exercise  of  honest  industry.     His  principal  occupa- 
tion is  to  rob  the  osprey  of  the  fruits  of  his  labor,  and  he  has  sometimes 


White  -headed  or  Bald  Eagle. 

been  known   to   attack   the    vulture,    and    oblige    him    to    disgorge   his 
carrion.* 

*  The  figure  of  this  noble  bird  is  well  known  throughout  the  civilized  world,  embla 
zoned  as  it  is  on  our  national  standard,  which  waves  in  the  breeze  of  every  clime,  bear- 
ing to  distant  lands  the  remembrance  of  a  great  people  living  in  a  state  of  peaceful 
freedom.     May  that  peaceful  freedom  last  forever  ! 

The  great  strength,  daring,  and  cool  courage  of  the  white-headed  eagle,  joined  to 
his  unequalled  power  of  flight,  render  him  highly  conspicuous  among  his  brethren. 
To  these  qualities  did  he  add  a  generous  disposition  towards  others,  he  might  be 
looked  up  to  as  a  model  of  nobility.  The  ferocious,  overbearing,  and  tyrannical  tern- 
per  which  is  ever  and  anon  displaying  itself  in  his  actions,  is,  nevertheless,  best 
adapted  to  his  state,  and  was  wisely  given  him  by  the  Creator  to  enable  him  to  perform 
the  office  assigned  to  him. 

To  give  you  some  idea  of  the  nature  of  this  bird,  permit  me  to  place  you  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi, on  which  you  may  float  gently  along,  while  approaching  winter  brings  millions 
of  water-fowl  on  whistling  wings,  from  the  countries  of  the  north,  to  seek  a  milder 
climate  in  which  to  sojourn  for  a  season.  The  eagle  is  seen  perched,  in  an  erect  atti- 
tude, on  the  highest  summit  of  the  tallest  tree  by  the  margin  of  the  broad  stream.  His 
glistening  but  stern  eye  looks  over  the  vast  expanse.  He  listens  attentively  to  every 
sound  that  comes  to  his  quick  ear  from  afar,  glancing  now  and  then  on  the  earth  be- 
neath, lest  even  the  light  tread  of  the  fawn  may  pass  unheard.  His  mate  is  perched  on 
the  opposite  side,  and  should  all  be  tranquil  and  silent,  warns  him  by  a  cry  to  continue 
Patient.  At  this  well-known  call,  the  male  partly  opens  his  broad  wings,  inclines  his 
body  a  little  downwards,  and  answers  to  her  voice  in  tones  not  unlike  the  laugh  of 
a  maniac.  The  next  moment,  he  resumes  his  erect  attitude,  and  again  all  around 
is  silent. 

Ducks  of  many  species,  the  teal,  the  wigeon,  the  mallard  and  others,  are  seen 
passing  with  great  rapidity,  and  following  the  course  of  the  current ;  but  the  eagle 
needs  them  not :  they  are  at  that  time  beneath  his  attention.  The  next  moment,  how- 
ever, the  wild  trumpet-like  sound  of  a  yet  distant  but  approaching  swan  is  heard.  A 
shriek  from  the  female  eagle  comes  across  the  stream, — for  she  is  as  fully  on  the  alert 
as  her  mate.  The  latter  suddenly  shakes  the  whole  of  his  body,  and  with  a  few  touches 
of  his  bill,  aided  by  the  action  of  his  cuticular  muscles,  arranges  his  plumage  in  an  in- 
stant. The  snow-white  bird  is  now  in  sight :  her  long  neck  is  stretched  forward,  her 
eye  is  on  the  watch,  vigilant  as  that  of  her  enemy  :  her  large  wings  seem  with  difficulty 
25  17 


194  BOOK  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

Royid  or  Golden  Eagle. — This  bird  is  found  in  all  the  cold  and  temperate 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  It  is  supposed  to  live  for  a  century, 
and  is  about  three  years  in  gaining  its  complete  growth  and  permanent 
plumage.  The  neighborhood  of  Hudson's  Bay  is  more  frequented  by  this 
eagle  than  any  part  of  the  United  States,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
great  plains  of  the  larger  western  rivers*  '  The  lofty  mountains  of  New 
Hampshire,'  says  Mr.  Nuttall,  '  afford  suitable  situations  for  the  eyry  of 
this  eagle,  over  Whose  snow-clad  summits  he  is  seen  majestically  soaring 
in  solitude  and  grandeur.  A  young  bird  from  this  region,  which  I  have 
in  a  state  of  domestication,  showed  considerable  docility.  He  had,  how- 
ever, been  brought  up  from  the  nest,  in  which  he  was  found  in  the  month 
of  August ;  he  appeared  even  playful,  turning  his  head  about  in  a  very 
antic  manner,  as  if  desirous  to  attract  attention ;  still  his  glance  was  quick 
and  fiery.  When  birds  were  given  to  him,  he  plumed  them  very  clean 
before  he  began  his  meal,  and  picked  the  subject  to  a  perfect  skeleton.' 


Ring-tailed  Eagle. 

The  lling-tailed  Eagle  is  now  found  to  be  the  young  of  this  bird,  as 
has  been  long  supposed.  Its  tail  feathers  are  highly  valued  by  the  abo* 
rigines  as  they  serve  for  ornamenting  their  calumets. 

to  support  the  weight  of  her  body,  although  they  flap  incessantly.  So  irksome  do  her 
exertions  seem,  that  her  very  legs  are  spread  beneath  her  tail,  to  aid  her  in  her  flight* 
She  approaches,  however.  The  eagle  has  marked  her  for  his  prey.  As  the  swan  is 
passing  the  dreaded  pair,  the  male  bird,  in  full  preparation  for  the  chase,  starts  from 
his  perch  with  an  awful  scream>  that  to  the  swan's  ear  brings  more  terror  than  the  re* 
port  of  the  large  duck^gun. 

Now  is  the  moment  to  witness  the  display  of  the  eaglet  powers*  He  glides  through 
the  air  like  a  falling  star,  and,  like  a  flash  of  lightning,  comes  upon  the  timorous  quar- 
ry, which  now,  in  agony  and  despair,  seeks,  by  various  manoeuvres,  to  elude  the  grasp 
of  his  cruel  talons *  It  mounts,  doubles,  and  willingly  would  plunge  into  the  stream, 
<WTere  it  riot  prevented  by  the  eagle,  which,  long  possessed  of  the  knowledge  that  by  such 
fc  stratagem  the  swan  might  escape  him,  forces  it  to  remain  in  the  air  by  attempting  to 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  195 

Owls. — One  of  the  most  common  species  of  this  bird  in  the  United  States 
is  the  Little  Screech  Owl,  which  is  found  throughout  the  country.  It  is 
noted  for  the  melancholy  wailing,  which  is  heard  in  the  evenings  in  autumn 
and  the  latter  part  of  summer.  On  clear  moonlight  nights,  they  answer 
each  other  from  the  various  parts  of  the  fields  or  orchards,  roost  during 
the  day  in  thick  evergreens,  and  are  rarely  seen  abroad  during  the  sun- 
shine. They  construct  their  nests  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  frequently 
in  an  orchard. 

The  Great-horned  Owl  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try. '  All  climates  are  alike,'  says  Mr.  Nuttall, '  to  this  eagle  of  the  night, 
the  king  of  the  nocturnal  tribe  of  American  birds.  The  aboriginal  in- 
habitants of  the  country  dread  his  boding  howl,  dedicating  his  effigies  to 
their  solemnities,  and,  as  if  he  were  their  sacred  bird  of  Minerva,  forbid  the 
mockery  of  his  ominous,  dismal,  and  almost  supernatural  cries.  His  fa- 
vorite resort,  in  the  dark  and  impenetrable  swampy  forests,  where  he  dwells 
in  chosen  solitude  secure  from  the  approach  of  every  enemy,  agrees  with 
the  melancholy  and  sinister  traits  of  his  character.  To  the  surrounding 
feathered  race  he  is  the  Pluto  of  the  gloomy  wilderness,  and  would  scarcely 
be  known  out  of  the  dismal  shades  where  he  hides,  but  to  his  victims,  were 
he  as  silent  as  he  is  solitary.  Among  the  choaking,  loud,  guttural  sounds 
which  he  sometimes  utters,  in  the  dead  of  night,  and  with  a  suddenness 
which  always  alarms,  because  of  his  noiseless  approach,  is  the  'waugh  ho  ! 
'waugh  ho !  which,  Wilson  remarks,  was  often  uttered  at  the  instant  of 
sweeping  down  round  his  camp  fire.  Many  kinds  of  owls  are  similarly 
dazzled  and  attracted  by  fire-lights,  and  occasionally  finding,  no  doubt,  some 
offal  or  flesh,  thrown  out  by  those  who  encamp  in  the  wilderness,  they  come 
round  the  nocturnal  blaze  with  other  motives  than  barely  those  of  curiosity.' 

The  Burroiving  Owl  differs  essentially  from  all  others  in  his  habits  and 
manners.  Instead  of  hiding  his  head  in  the  daylight,  he  fearlessly  flies 
abroad  in  search  of  prey,  in  the  broadest  glare  of  the  sun ;  and  far  from 
seeking  abodes  of  solitude  and  silence,  he  lives  in  company  with  animals  in 
the  recesses  of  the  earth,  where  they  all  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  fellowship 
and  good  harmony.  The  mounds  of  the  prairie  dog  or  marmot,  which  are 
thrown  up  in  such  numbers  near  the  Rocky  Mountains,  are  about  eighteen 
inches  in  height.  The  entrance  is  by  a  passage  two  feet  in  length,  which 
terminates  in  a  comfortable  cell  composed  of  dry  grass,  where  the  marmot 
takes  up  his  winter  abode.     Around  these  villages,  the  burrowing  owls 

strike  it  with  his  talons  from  beneath.  The  hope  of  escape  is  soon  given  up  by  the 
swan.  It  has  already  become  much  weakened,  and  its  strength  fails  at  the  sight  of  the 
courage  and  swiftness  of  its  antagonist.  Its  last  gasp  is  about  to  escape,  when  the  fe- 
rocious eagle  strikes  with  his  talons  the  under  side  of  its  wing,  and  with  unresisted 
power  forces  the  bird  to  fall  in  a  slanting  direction  upon  the  nearest  shore. 

It  is  then,  reader,  that  you  may  see  the  cruel  spirit  of  this  dreaded  enemy  of  the 
feathered  race,  whilst,  exulting  over  his  prey,  he  for  the  first  time  breathes  at  ease.  He 
presses  down  his  powerful  feet,  and  drives  his  sharp  claws  deeper  than  ever  into  the 
heart  of  the  dying  swan.  He  shrieks  with  delight,  as  he  feels  the  last  convulsions  of 
his  prey,  which  has  now  sunk  under  his  unceasing  efforts  to  render  death  as  painfully 
felt  as  it  can  possibly  be.  The  female  has  watched  every  movement  of  her  mate ;  and 
if  she  did  not  assist  him  in  capturing  the  swan,  it  was  not  from  want  of  will,  but  merely 
that  she  felt  full  assurance  that  the  power  and  courage  of  her  lord  were  quite  sufficient 
for  the  deed.  She  now  sails  to  the  spot  where  he  eagerly  awaits  her,  and  when  she 
has  arrived,  they  together  turn  the  breast  of  the  luckless  swan  upwards,  and  gorge 
themselves  with  gore. — Audubon 


196  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

may  be  £een  moving  briskly  about,  singly  or  in  small  flocks.  They  seem 
to  have  very  little  fear  of  man  ;  either  soaring  to  a  distance  when  alarmed, 
or  descending  into  the  burrows,  where  it  is  very  difficult  to  come  at  them. 
In  countries  where  the  marmot  is  not  found,  this  owl  is  said  to  dig  a  hole 
for  himself.  Their  food  appears  to  consist  entirely  of  iesects.  Its  note  is 
similar  to  the  cry  of  the  marmot,  which  sounds  like  cheh,  cheh,  pronounced 
in  rapid  succession. 

The  burrowing  owl  is  nine  inches  and  a  half  long.  The  general  color 
of  the  plumage  is  a  light  burnt  umber,  spotted  with  whitish.  The  under 
parts  are  white,  banded  with  brown. ^ 

Other  birds  of  this  species  found  in  the  limits  of  the  states  are  the  Great 
Gray  or  Cinereous  Owl,  the  Long-eared  Oivl,  the  Short-eared  Owl,  the 
Acadian  Owl,  and  the  White  or  Barn  Owl. 

The  Baltimore  Oriole  is  a  gay,  lively,  and  beautiful  bird,  which  passes 
its  summers  among  us,  but  retreats  for  the  winter  to  South  America.  The 
most  remarkable  instinct  of  this  bird  is  the  ingenuity  exhibited  in  building 
its  nest,  which  is  a  pendulous  cylindric  pouch,  from  five  to  seven  inches  in 
depth,  and  usually  suspended  from  the  extremities  of  high  and  drooping 
branches  of  a  tree.     The  leaves,  as  they  grow  out  over  the  top,  form  a  pro- 


The  Baltimore  Oriole. 

tection  from  the  sun  and  rain  for  the  young.  Though  naturally  shy  and 
suspicious,  this  bird  usually  selects  his  building  place  in  the  neighborhood 
of  farm-houses,  and  along  frequented  roads.  He  is  easily  domesticated, 
becomes  playful  and  attached,  and  sings  in  confinement. 

The  Orchard  Oriole  is  a  smaller  and  plainer  species,  of  similar  habits. 
The  Red-winged  Blackbird  is  an  inhabitant  of  all  North  America,  but  is 
migratory  in  the  northern  states.  This  bird  commits  great  depredations 
on  the  unripe  corn,  and  on  the  rice  fields.  He  is  known  by  a  variety  of 
names.  His  flesh  is  tough,  and  but  little  esteemed.  The  Cow  Blackbird 
is  passing  from  one  part  of  the  states  to  another,  and  lives  in  winter  in  the 
warmer  parts.     In  the  latter  part  of  March,  he  appears  in  Pennsylvania, 

*  Bonaparte 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  197 

and  as  the  weather  becomes  milder,  he  gradually  advances  into  Canada.* 
The  Rice  Bunting  is  a  small  bird  of  beautiful  plumage  and  musical  song, 
and  as  much  of  a  favorite  with  the  sportsman  and  gourmand,  as  of  an 


The  Rice  Bunting. 

enem^  to  the  farmer  and  planter.  They  are  found  in  immense  numbers 
in  the  middle  states,  where  they  do  great  damage  to  the  barley,  Indian 
corn,  and  early  wheat. 

Blackbirds. — The  Great  Crow  Blackbird  is  found  only  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  union,  where  it  appears  early  in  February.  It  is  gregarious, 
omnivorous,  and  its  note  is  said  sometimes  to  resemble  a  watchman's 
rattle.  The  Common  Croiv  Blackbird  appears  in  every  part  of  the 
country,  at  different  seasons,  and  commits  great  havoc  among  the  fields  of 
maize.  It  is  easily  domesticated,  and  may  be  taught  to  articulate  a  few 
words.  The  numbers  in  which  this  species  are  found  are  almost  beyond 
belief;  and  the  damage  they  do  to  the  crops  is  astonishing.  Other  birds 
of  this  genus  are  the  Slender-billed  and  the  Rusty  Blackbird. 

#  AVhen  the  female  is  disposed  to  lay,  she  appears  restless  and  dejeeted,  and  separates 
from  the  unregarding  flock.  Stealing  through  the  woods  and  thickets,  she  pries  into 
the  bushes  and  brambles  for  the  nest  that  suits  her,  into  which  she  darts,  in  the  absence 
of  its  owner,  and  in  a  few  minutes  is  seen  to  rise  on  the  wing,  cheerful  and  relieved 
from  the  anxiety  that  oppressed  her,  and  proceeds  back  to  the  flock  she  had  so 
reluctantly  forsaken.  If  the  egg  be  deposited  in  the  nest  alone,  it  is  uniformly  forsaken  ; 
but  if  the  nursing  parent  have  any  of  her  own,  she  immediately  begins  to  sit.  The 
red-eyed  flycatcher,  in  whose  beautiful  basket-like  nests  I  have  observed  these  eggs, 
proves  a  very  affectionate  and  assiduous  nurse  to  the  uncouth  foundling.  In  one  of 
these  I  found  an  egg  of  each  bird,  and  the  hen  already  sitting.  I  took  her  own  egg  and 
left  the  strange  one  ;  she  soon  returned,  and,  as  if  sensible  of  what  had  happened, 
looked  with  steadfast  attention,  and  shifted  the  egg  about,  then  sate  upon  it,  but  soon 
moved  off,  again  renewed  her  observation,  and  it  was  a  considerable  time  before  she 
seemed  willing  to  take  her  seat ;  but  at  length  I  left  her  on  the  nest.  Two  or  three 
days  after,  I  found  that  she  had  relinquished  her  attention  to  the  strange  egg,  and  for- 
saken the  premises.  Another  of  these  birds,  however,  forsook  the  nest,  on  taking  out 
the  cow-bird's  egg,  although  she  had  still  two  of  her  own  left.  The  only  example, 
perhaps,  to  the  contrary  of  deserting  the  nest  when  solely  occupied  by  the  stray  egg,  is 
ia  the  blue-bird,  who,  attached  strongly  to  the  breeding  places,  in  which  it  often  conti- 

17* 


198 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  Raven  is  found  in  greater  numbers  in  the  western  than  in  the  eas- 
tern part  of  the  union ;  it  is  a  resident,  however,  in  almost  every  country 
in  the  world.  He  has  been  too  often  described  to  require  extended  notice. 
The  Crow  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  nearly  every  region.  In  most  of  the 
settled  districts  of  North  America,  he  is  frequently  met  with,  and  is  as 
little  liked  as  he  is  often  seen.  He  is  smaller  than  the  raven,  and  is  of  a 
deep  black  color,  with  brilliant  reflections.  Easily  domesticated,  and  quite 
intelligent,  he  becomes  attached  to  his  master,  and  learns  a  variety  of 
amusing  tricks,  though  he  is  apt  to  be  thievish,  and  is  sometimes  noisy 
and  disagreeable.  The  Fish  Crow  resembles  the  rook ;  it  is  peculiar  to 
this  coun'  -y,  and  is  met  with  along  the  coast  of  Georgia,  and  as  far  north 
as  New  ^ersey.  The  Columbian  Crow  is  another  variety  frequenting  the 
shores  of  Columbia  river. 


Magpie. 

The  Magpie  is  found  in  the  western  parts  of  America,  and  is  very 
numerous  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.     He  is  a  restless,  active, 

nues  for  several  years,  has  been  known  to  lay,  though  with  apparent  reluctance,  after 
the  deposition  of  the  cow-bird's  egg.  My  friend,  Mr.  C.  Pickering,  found  two  nests  of 
the  blue-eyed  yellow  warbler,  in  which  had  been  deposited  an  egg  of  the  cow-bird  pre- 
viously to  any  of  their  own ;  and  unable  to  eject  it,  they  had  buried  it  in  the  bottom  of 
the  nest,  and  built  over  it  an  additional  story !  I  also  saw,  in  the  summer  of  1830,  a 
similar  circumstance  with  the  same  bird,  in  which  the  cow -bird's  egg,  though  incarcerat- 
ed, was  still  visible  on  the  upper  edge,  but  could  never  have  been  hatched.  At  times, 
I  think  it  probable,  that  they  lay  in  the  nests  of  larger  birds,  who  throw  out  the  egg,  or 
that  they  drop  their  eggs  on  the  ground  without  obtaining  a  deposit,  as  I  have  found  an 
egg  of  this  kind  thus  exposed  and  broken.  I  have  also  remarked  sometimes  two  of 
these  eggs  in  the  same  nest  j  but  in  this  case  one  of  them  commonly  proves  abortive.-— 
Nuttall 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  199 

and  impudent  bird,  bold,  and  easily  domesticated.  Like  the  crow,  he  is 
artful  and  thievish.  His  nest  is  built  with  great  ingenuity  and  labor,  in  a 
place  inaccessible  to  man.  The  body  of  it  is  composed  of  hawthorn 
branches,  the  thorns  sticking  outwards ;  it  is  lined  with  fibrous  roots,  wool, 
and  long  grass,  and  then  nicely  plastered  with  mud  and  clay.  A  canopy 
of  sharp  thorns  is  then  built  over  the  nest,  so  woven  together  as  to  deny 
all  entrance  except  at  the  door.  Here  the  male  and  female  bring  up  their 
young  brood  in  perfect  security. 

The  Blue  Jay  is  peculiar  to  North  America,  and  is  distinguished  as  a 
kind  of  beau  among  the  feathered  tenants  of  our  woods,  by  the  brilliancy 
of  his  dress,  and,  like  most  other  coxcombs,  makes  himself  still  more  con- 
spicuous by  his  loquacity  and  the  oddness  of  his  tones  and  gestures.      He 


Blue  Jay. 

is  an  almost  universal  inhabitant  of  the  woods,  frequenting  the  thickest 
settlements  as  well  as  the  deepest  recesses  of  the  forest,  where  his  squalling 
voice  often  alarms  the  deer,  to  the  great  disappointment  of  the  hunter.  He 
appears  to  be  among  his  fellow  musicians,  what  the  trumpeter  is  in  a  band, 
some  of  his  notes  bearing  no  distant  resemblance  to  the  tones  of  that  in- 
strument. These  he  has  the  faculty  of  changing  through  a  great  variety 
of  modulations.  When  disposed  for  ridicule,  there  is  scarcely  a  bird 
to  whose  peculiarities  of  song  he  cannot  tune  his  notes.  When  engaged 
in  the  blandishments  of  love,  they  resemble  the  soft  chatterings  of  a  duck, 
and  are  scarce  heard  at  some  paces  distant;  but  no  sooner  does  he  discover 
your  approach,  than  he  sets  up  a  sudden  and  vehement  outcry,  flying  off 
and  screaming  with  all  his  might.  His  notes  a  stranger  might  readily 
mistake  for  the  repeated  creakings  of  an  ungreased  wheelbarrow.  All 
these  he  accompanies  with  various  nods,  jerks,  and  other  gesticulations, 


200  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

for  which  the  whole  tribe  of  jays  are  so  remarkable.5*  Other  jays  are  the 
Columbia,  Canada,  and  Florida. 

The  Meadow  Lark  is  a  well-known  agreeable  bird,  living  in  meadows, 
and  is  found  throughout  the  states.  There  are  two  species  of  titmouse, 
the  Tufted,  and  the  Black-capt  Titmouse.  The  Cedar  Bird  is  a  small 
and  very  beautiful  creature,  with  a  soft  silky  plumage,  and  crest  of  a  bright 
brownish  gray ;  it  feeds  on  cherries,  and  whortle-berries,  and  late  in  the 
season  on  persimmons,  small  winter  grapes,  and  other  fruits. 

The  Great  American  Shrike  is  common  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
continent,  but  sometimes  summers  in  New  England  and  Pennsylvania. 
He  feeds  on  grasshoppers,  spiders,  and  small  birds,  and  after  satisfying 
hunger,  impales  his  remaining  victims  on  thorns.     When  his  supply  of 


Great  American  Shrike. 

fresh  game  is  abundant,  he  leaves  his  stores  to  dry  up  and  decay.  He  is 
fearless,  and  will  attack  even  the  eagle  in  defence  of  his  young.  The 
Loggerhead  Shrike  is  a  species  strongly  resembling  the  one  described. 

The  Tyrant  Flycatcher,  or  Kingbird,  is  the  field  martin  of  Maryland 
and  some  of  the  southern  states,  and  the  kingbird  of  Pennsylvania  and 
several  of  the  northern  districts.  The  trivial  name  king,  as  well  as 
tyrant,  has  been  bestowed  on  this  bird  for  its  extraordinary  behavior  in 
breeding  time,  and  for  the  authority  it  assumes  over  all  other  birds.  His 
extreme  affection  for  his  mate,  nest,  and  young,  makes  him  suspicious  of 
every  bird  that  comes  near  his  residence,  so  that  he  attacks  every  intruder 
without  discrimination ;  his  life  at  this  season  is  one  continued  scene  of 
broils  and  battles ;  in  which,  however,  he  generally  comes  off  conqueror. 
Hawks  and  crows,  the  bald  eagle,  and  the  great  black  eagle,  all  equally 
dread  a  rencontre  with  this  merciless  champion,  who,  as  soon  as  he  per- 
ceives one  of  these  last  approaching,  launches  into  the  air  to  meet  him, 
mounts  to  a  considerable  height  above  him,  and  darts  down  on  his  back, 
sometimes  fixing  there  to  the  great  annoyance  of  his  sovereign,  who,  if  no 
convenient  retreat  be  near,  endeavors  by  various  evolutions  to  rid  himself 
of  his  merciless  adversary;  but  the  kingbird  is  not  so  easily  dismounted. 
He  teazes  the  eagle  incessantly,  sweeps  upon  him  and  remounts  that  he 
may  descend  on  his  back  with  greater  violence ;  all  the  while  keeping  up 
a  shrill  and  rapid  twittering.  The  purple  martin,  however,  is  sometimes 
more  than  a  match  for  him.     The  general  color  of  this  bird  is  a  dark 

*  "Wilson. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  201 

slaty  ash,  the  throat  and  lower  parts  are  pure  white ;  the  plumage  on  the 
head,  though  not  forming  a  crest,  is  frequently  erected,  and  discovers  a 
rich  bed  of  orange  color,  called  by  the  country  peopie  his  crown ;  when 
the  feathers  lie  close,  this  is  concealed. 

The  other  principal  Flycatchers  are,  the  Great-crested,  Arkansas,  Fork- 
tailed,  Swallow-tailed,  Says,  Pewit,  and  Olive-sided;  the  last  first  described 
by  Mr.  Nuttall  in  his  valuable  work,  from  a  specimen  obtained  at  Mount 
Auburn,  now  the  celebrated  cemetery  in  the  neighborhood  of  Boston. 

The  Mocking  Bird  is  peculiar  to  the  new  world,  and  is  found  in  much 
larger  numbers  in  the  southern  than  the  northern  states  of  the  Union.  A 
warm  climate  and  low  country  seem  to  be  most  congenial  to  its  nature?. 
It  feeds  on  berries  and  insects.  '  The  mocking  bird,'  says  Wilson,  whose 
description  has  never  been  surpassed,  ■  builds  his  nest  in  different  places, 


Mocking  Birds. 

according  to  the  latitude  in  which  he  resides.  A  solitary  thorn  bush ;  an 
almost  impenetrable  thicket ;  an  orange  tree,  cedar,  or  holly  bush,  are  fa- 
vorite spots.  Always  ready  to  defend,  but  never  over  anxious  to  conceal 
his  nest,  he  very  often  builds  within  a  small  distance  of  a  house  ;  and  not 
unfrequently  in  a  pear  or  apple  tree,  rarely  higher  than  six  or  seven  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  nest  is  composed  of  dry  twigs,  weeds,  straw,  wool 
and  tow,  ingeniously  put  together,  and  lined  with  fine  fibrous  roots.  Dur- 
ing the  time  when  the  female  is  sitting,  neither  cat,  dog,  man,  or  any  ani- 
mal can  approach  the  nest  without  being  attacked.  But  the  whole  ven- 
geance of  the  bird  is  directed  against  his  mortal  enemy  the  black  snake. 
Whenever  this  reptile  is  discovered,  the  male  darts  upon  it  with  the  rapid- 
ity of  an  arrow,  dextrously  eluding  its  bite,  and  striking  it  violently  and 
incessantly  against  the  head,  where  it  is  very  vulnerable.  The  snake  soon 
becomes  sensible  of  his  danger,  and  seeks  to  escape ;  but  the  intrepid  bird 
redoubles  his  exertions,  and  as  the  snake's  strength  begins  to  flag,  he  seizes 
26 


202  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  lifts  it  up  from  the  ground,  beating  it  with  his  wings,  and  when  the 
business  is  completed,  he  returns  to  his  nest,  mounts  the  summit  of  the 
bush,  and  pours  out  a  torrent  of  song  in  token  of  victory. 

'  The  plumage  of  the  mocking  bird  has  nothing  gaudy  or  brilliant  in  it ; 
but  that  which  so  strongly  recommends  him,  is  his  full,  strong  and  musical 
voice,  capable  of  almost  every  modulation,  from  the  mellow  tones  of  the 
woodthrush,  to  the  savage  screams  of  the  bald  eagle.  In  his  native  groves, 
mounted  on  the  top  of  a  tall  bush,  in  the  dawn  of  a  dewy  morning,  while 
the  woods  are  already  vocal  with  a  multitude  of  warblers,  his  admi- 
rable song  rises  pre-eminent  over  every  competitor.  The  ear  can  listen 
to  his  music  alone.  Nor  is  the  strain  altogether  imitative.  His  own 
native  notes  are  bold  and  full,  and  varied  seemingly  beyond  all  limits. 
They  consist  of  short  expressions  of  two,  three,  or  five  and  six  syllables, 
generally  interspersed  with  imitations,  all  of  them  uttered  with  great  em- 
phasis and  rapidity,  and  continued  for  an  hour  at  a  time  with  undiminished 
ardor;  his  expanded  wings  and  tail  glistening  with  white,  and  the  buoy- 
ant gaiety  of  his  action  arresting  the  eye,  as  his  song  most  irresistibly  does 
the  ear.  He  sweeps  round  with  enthusiastic  ecstasy — he  mounts  and  de- 
scends as  his  song  swells  or  dies  away — and,  as  Mr.  Bartram  has  beauti- 
fully expressed  it,  "  he  bounds  aloft  with  the  celerity  of  an  arrow,  as  if  to 
recover  or  recall  his  very  soul,  expired  in  the  last  elevated  strain."  While 
thus  exerting  himself,  a  bystander  would  suppose  that  the  whole  feathered 
tribes  had  assembled  together  on  a  trial  for  skill — so  perfect  are  his  imita- 
tions. 

1  The  mocking  bird  loses  little  of  the  power  and  energy  of  his  song  by 
confinement.  In  his  domesticated  state,  when  he  commences  his  career 
of  song,  it  is  impossible  to  stand  by  uninterested.  He  whistles  for  the  dog; 
Caesar  starts  up,  wags  his  tail,  and  runs  to  meet  his  master.  He  squeaks 
out  like  a  hurt  chicken,  and  the  hen  hurries  about  with  hanging  wings  and 
bristling  feathers,  clucking  to  protect  her  injured  brood.  The  barking  of 
the  dog,  the  mewing  of  the  cat,  the  creaking  of  the  passing  wheelbarrow,  fol- 
low with  great  truth  and  rapidity.  He  repeats  the  tune  taught  him  by  his 
master,  though  of  considerable  length,  fully  and  faithfully.  He  runs  over 
the  quiverings  of  the  canary,  and  the  clear  whistlings  of  the  Virginia 
nightingale,  or  red  bird,  with  such  superior  execution  and  effect,  that  the 
mortified  songsters  feel  their  own  inferiority,  and  become  silent,  while  he 
seems  to  triumph  in  their  defeat  by  redoubling  his  exertions.' 

Warblers. — The  Summer  Yelloiv  Bird,  or  Warbler,  is  a  brilliant  and 
common  species,  found  in  every  part  of  the  American  continent ;  he  is 
about  five  inches  in  length,  with  an  upper  plumage  of  greenish  yellow,  and 
wings  and  tail  deep  brown,  edged  with  yellow.  He  is  a  lively  and  familiar 
bird,  and  a  great  ornament  to  the  gardens  and  orchards.  His  nest  is  built 
with  great  neatness  in  the  fork  of  a  small  shrub.  It  is  composed  of  flax 
or  tow,  strongly  twisted  round  the  twigs,  and  lined  with  hair  and  the  down 
of  fern.  This  interesting  little  bird  will  feign  lameness  to  draw  one  from 
his  nest,  fluttering  feebly  along,  and  looking  back  to  see  if  he  is  followed. 
His  notes  are  few  and  shrill,  hardly  deserving  the  name  of  a  song.  There 
is  a  very  great  variety  belonging  to  the  family  of  warblers,  of  which  we 
can  only  allude  to  the  Prairie,  Hemlock,  Pine-swamp,  Blue-mountain^ 
Chesnut-sided,  Mourning,  and  Blue-winged  Warbler. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  203 

Ferruginous  Thrush. — This  is  the  Brown  Thrush  or  Thrasher  of  the 
middle  and  eastern  states,  and  the  French  Mocking-Bird  of  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, and  the  Carolinas.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  our  thrushes,  and  is  a 
well-known  and  distinguished  songster,  and  from  the  tops  of  hedge  rows, 
apple  or  cherry  trees,  he  salutes  the  opening  morning  with  his  charming 
song,  which  is  loud,  emphatical  and  full  of  variety.  These  notes  are  not 
imitative,  but  solely  his  own.  He  is  an  active  and  vigorous  bird,  flying 
generally  low  from  one  thicket  to  another,  with  his  long  broad  tail  spread 
out  like  a  fan ;  he  has  a  single  note  or  chuck  when  you  approach  his  nest. 


Ferruginous  Thrush. 

There  is  a  very  numerous  variety  of  thrushes  in  the  states,  of  which  the 
best  known  are  the  Cat  Bird,  Robin,  Wood,  Little  or  Hermit,  Wilson's, 
and  the  Golden-crowned  Thrush. 

Wren. — The  House  Wren,  throughout  the  states,  is  a  well-known  and 
familiar  bird,  who  builds  his  nest  sometimes  under  the  eaves,  or  in  a  hol- 
low cherry  tree  ;  but  most  commonly  in  small  boxes  fixed  on  a  pole,  for  his 
accommodation.  He  will  even  put  up  with  an  old  hat,  and  if  this  also  is 
denied  him,  he  will  find  some  hole  or  crevice,  about  the  house  or  barn, 
rather  than  abandon  the  dwellings  of  man.  A  mower  once  hung  up  his 
coat,  under  a  shed  near  a  barn  ;  two  or  three  days  elapsed  before  he  had 
occasion  to  put  it  on ;  thrusting  his  arm  up  the  sleeve,  he  found  it  com- 
pletely filled  with  some  rubbish  as  he  expressed  it,  and  on  extracting  the 
whole  mass,  found  it  to  be  the  nest  of  a  wren,  completely  finished  and  lined 
with  a  large  quantity  of  feathers.  In  his  retreat  he  was  followed  by  the 
forlorn  little  proprietors,  who  scolded  him  with  great  vehemence,  for  thus 
ruining  the  whole  economy  of  their  domestic  affairs. 

The  immense  number  of  insects  which  this  sociable  little  bird  removes 
from  the  garden  and  fruit  trees  ought  to  endear  him  to  every  cultivator ; 
end  his  notes,  loud,  sprightly  and  tremulous,  are  extremely  agreeable.     Itp 


204  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

food  is  insects  and  caterpillars,  and  while  supplying  the  wants  of  its  young, 
it  destroys,  on  an  average,  many  hundreds  a  day.  It  is  a  bold  and  inso- 
lent bird  against  those  that  venture  to  build  within  its  jurisdiction  ;  attack- 
ing them  without  hesitation,  though  twice  its  size,  and  compelling  them  to 
decamp.  Even  the  blue  bird,  when  attacked  by  this  little  impertinent,  soon 
relinquishes  the  contest :  with  those  of  his  own  species,  also,  he  has  fre- 
quent squabbles.     The  varieties  of  the  wren  are  very  numerous. 

The  Blue  Bird  is  a  familiar  favorite  throughout  the  continent.  It  is 
migratory,  and  his  return  is  hailed  in  the  northern  states  as  the  first  presage 
of  spring.  '  Towards  autumn,'  says  Mr.  Nuttall,  '  in  the  month  of  October, 
his  cheerful  song  nearly  ceases,  and  is  now  changed  into  a  single  plaintive 
note.  Even  when  the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  the  forest  no  longer  affords  a 
shelter  from  the  blast,  the  faithful  blue  bird  still  lingers  over  his  native 
fields,  and  only  takes  his  departure  in  November,  when,  at  a  considerable 
elevation,  in  the  early  twilight  of  the  morning,  till  the  opening  of  the  day, 
they  wing  their  way  in  small  roving  troops  to  some  milder  regions  in 
the  south.' 

Tanagers.—The  Tanagers  are  gaudy  birds,  which  annually  visit  the 
republic  from  the  torrid  regions  of  the  south.  The  Scarlet  Tanager  is 
perhaps  the  most  showy.  He  spreads  himself  over  the  United  States,  and 
is  found  even  in  Canada.  He  rarely  approaches  the  habitations  of  man, 
unless  perhaps  in  the  orchard,  where  he  sometimes  builds ;  or  in  the  cherry 
trees  in  search   of  fruit ;  the   depth  of  the  wood  is  his  favorite  abode. 


Tanager, 

Among  all  the  birds  that  inhabit  our  woods,  there  is  none  that  strikes  the 
eye  of  a  stranger,  or  even  a  native,  with  so  much  brilliancy  as  this.  Seen 
among  the  green  leaves,  with  the  light  falling  strongly  on  his  plumage,  he 
is  really  beautiful.  Another  species,  the  summer  red  bird,  delights  in  a 
flat  sandy  country,  covered  with  wood,  and  interspersed  with  pine  trees ; 
and  is,  consequently,  more  numerous  towards  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
than  in  the  interior. 

Finches. — The  Song  Sparrow  is  the  most  generally  diffused  over  the  Unit- 
ed States,  and  is  the  most  numerous  of  all  our  sparrows ;  and  it  is  far  the 
earliest,  sweetest,  and  most  lasting  songster.  Many  of  them  remain  during 
the  whole  winter  in  close-sheltered  meadows  and  swamps.    It  is  the  first 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  205 

Bulging  bird  in  spring.  Its  song  continues  through  the  summer  and  fall, 
and  is  sometimes  heard  even  in  the  depths  of  winter.  The  notes  or  chant 
are  short  but  very  sweet,  and  frequently  repeated,  from  a  small  bush  or  tree, 
where  it  sits  chanting  for  an  hour  together.  It  is  fond  of  frequenting  the 
borders  of  rivers,  meadows  and  swamps ;  and,  if  wounded  and  unable  to 
fly,  will  readily  take  to  the  water,  and  swim  with  considerable  rapidity. 
There  are  other  familiar  species  of  sparrows,  as  the  Chipping,  Field,  and 
Tree,  Yellow-tvinged,  and  White-throated  sparrows. 

The  Indigo  Bird  is  numerous  in  the  middle  and  eastern  states,  and  in 
the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.  Its  favorite  haunts  are  about  gardens,  fields  of 
clover,  borders  of  woods,  and  road  sides,  where  it  is  frequently  seen  perched 
on  fences.  In  its  manners  it  is  extremely  neat  and  active,  and  a  vigorous 
and  pretty  good  songster.  It  mounts  to  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees,  and 
chants  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time.  Its  song  is  not  one  continued  strain,  but 
a  repetition  of  short  notes,  commencing  loud  and  rapid,  and  falling  by  slow 
gradations  till  they  seem  hardly  articulate,  as  if  the  little  minstrel  were 
quite  exhausted  ;  but  after  a  pause  of  half  a  minute,  it  commences  again 
as  before.  Notwithstanding  the  beauty  of  his  plumage,  and  the  vivacity  of 
his  song,  the  indigo  bird  is  seldom  seen  domesticated.  Its  nest  is  built  in  a 
low  bush  among  rank  grass,  grain,  or  clover,  suspended  by  two  twigs,  one 
passing  up  each  side,  and  is  composed  of  flax,  and  lined  with  grass.  This 
bird  is  five  inches  long,  the  wThole  body  of  a  rich  sky-blue,  deepening  in 
color  toward  the  head,  and  sometimes  varying  to  green. 

The  Yellow  Bird,  or  Goldfinch,  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the  canary, 
and  in  song  is  like  the  goldfinch  of  Britain,  but  it  is  in  general  weak.  In 
the  spring,  they  associate  in  flocks,  to  bask  and  dress  themselves  in  the 
morning  sun,  singing  in  concert  for  half  an  hour  together  ;  the  confused 
mingling  of  their  notes  forming  a  kind  of  harmony  not  at  all  unpleasant. 
Their  flight  is  not  direct,  but  in  alternate  risings  and  sinkings,  twittering 
as  they  fly  at  each  successive  impulse  of  the  wings.  They  search  the  gar- 
dens in  numbers,  in  quest  of  seeds,  and  pass  by  various  names,  such  as 
lettuce-bird,  sallad-bird,  thistle-bird,  yellow-bird.  They  are  very  easily 
tamed. 

The  goldfinch  is  four  inches  and  a  half  in  length  :  the  male  is  of  a  rich 
lemon  color.  The  wings  and  tail  are  black,  edged  with  white.  In  the  fall, 
this  color  changes  to  a  brown  olive,  which  is  the  constant  color  of  the 
female.  They  build  a  nest  in  the  twigs  of  an  apple  tree,  neatly  formed  of 
lichen  and  soft  downy  substances. 

The  Cardinal  Grosbeak  is  one  of  our  most  common  cage  birds,  and 
is  very  generally  known  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  Numbers 
of  them  have  been  carried  to  England  and  France,  in  which  last  country 
they  are  called  Virginia  nightingales.  They  have  great  clearness  and 
tariety  of  tones ;  many  of  which  resemble  the  clear  notes  of  the  fife,  and  are 
nearly  as  loud.  They  begin  in  the  spring  at  daybreak,  and  repeat  a  favorite 
passage  twenty  or  thirty  times.  The  sprightly  figure  and  gaudy  plumage 
of  this  bird,  with  his  vivacity  and  strength  of  voice,  must  always  make  him 
a  favorite. 

The  Crossbill  is  an  inhabitant  of  almost  all  the  pine  forests  situated  north 
of  forty  degrees,  from  the  beginning  of  September  to  the  middle  of  April. 
The  great  pine  swamp  in  Pennsylvania  appears  to  be  their  favorite  rendez- 
tous.     They  then  appear  in  large  flocks,  feeding  on  the  seeds  of  the  hem- 

18 


206  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

lock  and  white  pine  ;  have  a  loud,  sharp,  and  not  unmusical  note ;  chatter 
as  they  fly  ;  alight  during  the  prevalence  of  the  deep  snows  before  the  door 
of  the  hunter,  and  around  the  house,  picking  off  the  clay  with  which  the 
logs  are  plastered,  and  searching  in  corners  where  any  substance  of  a 
saline  nature  had  been  thrown.  At  such  times,  they  are  so  tame  as  only 
to  settle  on  the  roof  of  the  cabin  when  disturbed,  and  a  moment  after,  de- 
scend to  feed  as  before.  They  are  then  easily  caught  in  traps.  When 
kept  in  a  cage,  they  have  many  of  the  habits  of  the  parrot,  often  climbing 
along  the  wires,  and  using  their  feet  to  grasp  the  cones  in,  while  taking  out 
the  seeds. 

Carolina  Parrot. — This  is  the  only  species  of  parrot  found  native  within 
the  territory  of  the  United  States.     The  vast  luxuriant  tracts  lying  within 


Carolina  Parrot. 

the  torrid  zone  seem  to  be  the  favorite  residence  of  those  noisy,  numerous 
and  richly  plumaged  tribes.  The  Carolina  parrot  inhabits  the  interior  of 
Louisiana  and  the  shores  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio,  east  of  the  Allegha- 
nies.  It  is  seldom  seen  north  of  Maryland.  Their  private  places  of  resort 
are  low,  rich,  alluvial  bottoms  along  the  borders  of  creeks  ;  deep  and  almost 
impenetrable  swamps  filled  with  sycamore  and  cypress  trees,  and  the  salines 
or  licks  interspersed  over  the  western  country.  Here  too  is  a  great  abun- 
dance of  their  favorite  fruits.  The  seeds  of  the  cypress  tree  and  beech  nuts 
are  eagerly  sought  after  by  these  birds. 

The  flight  of  the  Carolina  parrot  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  wild 
pigeon,  in  close  compact  bodies,  moving  with  great  rapidity,  making  a  loud 
land  outrageous  screaming,  like  that  of  the  red-headed  woodpecker.     Their 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  207 

flight  is  sometimes  in  a  direct  line,  but  most  usually  circuitous,  making  a 
great  variety  of  elegant  and  easy  serpentine  meanders,  as  if  for  pleasure. 
They  generally  roost  in  the  hollow  trunks  of  old  sycamores,  in  parties  of 
thirty  or  forty  together.  Here  they  cling  fast  to  the  sides  of  the  tree,  hold- 
ing by  their  claws  and  bills.  They  appear  to  be  fond  of  sleep,  and  often 
retire  to  their  holes  during  the  day,  probably  to  take  their  regular  siesta. 
They  are  extremely  social  and  friendly  towards  each  other. 

The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  is  not  abundant  any  where  ;  but  it  is  found  far 
north,  though  preferring  a  residence  in  the  southern  states.  It  feeds  on 
berries  and  insects  of  various  kinds.  '  In  autumn,'  says  Mr.  Audubon, 
*  they  eat  many  grapes,  and  I  have  seen  them  supporting  themselves  by  a 
momentary  motion  of  their  wings  opposite  a  bunch,  as  if  selecting  the 
ripest,  when  they  would  seize  it  and  return  to  a  branch,  repeating  their 
visits  in  this  manner,  until  satiated.  They  now  and  then  descend  to  the 
ground,  to  pick  up  a  wood-snail  or  a  beetle.  They  are  extremely  awkward 
at  walking,  and  move  in  an  ambling  manner,  or  leap  along  sidewise,  for 
which  the  shortness  of  their  legs  is  an  ample  excuse.  They  are  seldom 
seen  perched  conspicuously  on  a  twig,  but  on  the  contrary  are  generally  to 
be  found  amongst  the  thickest  boughs  and  foliage,  where  they  emit  their 
notes  until  late  in  autumn,  at  which  time  they  discontinue  them.'  It  is  shy 
and  cowardly,  robbing  small  birds  of  their  eggs. 

Woodpeckers. — The  Red-headed  Woodpecker  is  universally  known  from 
his  striking  and  characteristic  plumage,  and  the  frequency  of  his  depre- 
dations in  the  orchards  and  corn-fields.  Towards  the  mountains,  particu- 
larly in  the  vicinity  of  creeks  and  rivers,  these  birds  are  extremely  abun» 


Red -headed  Woodpecker. 

dant,  especially  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  Wherever  you  travel 
in  the  interior  at  that  season,  you  hear  them  screaming  from  the  adjoining 
woods,  rattling  on  the  dead  limbs  of  trees,  or  on  the  fences,  where  they  are 
perpetually  seen  flitting  from  stake  to  stake  on  the  roadside  before  you. 
Wherever  there  are  trees  of  the  wild  cherry,  covered  with  ripe  fruit,  there 
you  see  them  busy  among  the  branches  ;  and  in  passing  orchards,  you  may 
easily  know  where  to  find  the  sweetest  apples,  by  observing  those  trees  on 


208  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

or  near  which  this  bird  is  skulking ;  for  he  is  so  excellent  a  connoisseur  in 
fruit,  that  wherever  an  apple  or  pear  is  found  broached  by  him,  it  is  sure 
to  be  among  the  ripest  and  best  flavored.  When  alarmed,  he  seizes  a 
capital  one  by  sticking  his  open  bill  deep  into  it,  and  bears  it  off  to  the 
woods.  When  the  Indian  corn  is  in  its  ripe,  succulent,  and  milky  state, 
he  attacks  it  with  great  eagerness,  opening  a  passage  through  the  numer- 
ous folds  of  the  husk,  and  feeding  on  it  with  voracity.  The  girdled  or 
deadened  timber,  so  common  among  the  corn-fields  in  the  back  settlements, 
are  his  favorite  retreats,  whence  he  sallies  out  to  make  his  depredations. 
He  is  fond  of  the  ripe  berries  of  the  sour  gum,  and  pays  regular  visits  to 
the  cherry  trees,  when  loaded  with  fruit.  Towards  fall,  he  often  approaches 
the  barn  or  farm  house,  and  raps  on  the  shingles  and  weather-boards.  He 
is  of  a  gay  and  frolicsome  disposition  ;  and  half  a  dozen  of  the  fraternity 
are  frequently  seen  diving  and  vociferating  round  the  high  dead  limbs  of 
some  tree,  pursuing  and  playing  with  each  other,  amusing  the  passenger 
with  their  gambols.  Their  note  or  cry  is  shrill  and  lively,  and  so  much 
resembles  that  of  a  species  of  tree-frog,  which  frequents  the  same  tree, 
that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other. 

The  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker  breeds  in  the  Carolinas,  and  in  strength 
and  magnitude  stands  at  the  head  of  the  tribe.  He  lives  in  the  cypress 
swamps,  seeking  the  tops  of  the  most  towering  trees ;  his  bill  is  like  pol- 
ished ivory,  and  his  crest  a  superb  carmine.  His  eye  is  brilliant  and 
daring,  and  his  manners  are  said  to  be  dignified  and  noble.  Among  the 
other  American  birds  of  this  tribe  are  the  Pileated,  Yellow-bellied,  Golden* 
winged,  and  Red-bellied   Woodpeckers. 

Nuthatch. — The  White-breasted  Nuthatch  is  found  almost  every  where 
in  the  woods  of  North  America ;  his  whole  upper  plumage  is  light-blue  or 
lead,  the  under  parts  are  white,  and  the  crown  of  the  head,  black.  Ants, 
seeds,  insects,  and  larvae,  form  his  principal  subsistence.  There  are  two 
other  species  of  this  bird  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Ruby-throated  Humming  Bird  is  the  only  species  of  the  genus  found 
in  the  limits  of  the  states,  though  there  are  upwards  of  one  hundred  in 
America.  Its  approach  to  the  north  is  regulated  by  the  advance  of  the 
season.  His  is  extremely  fond  of  tubular  flowers,  particularly  of  the  blos- 
soms of  the  trumpet  flower.  When  arrived  before  a  thicket  of  these,  that 
are  full  blown,  he  suspends  himself  on  wing  for  the  space  of  two  or  three 
seconds,  so  steadily  that  his  wings  become  almost  invisible ;  the  glossy 
golden  green  of  his  back,  and  the  fire  of  his  throat,  dazzling  in  the  sun, 
form  altogether  an  interesting  spectacle.  When  he  alights,  he  prefers 
the  small  dead  twigs  of  a  bush,  where  he  dresses  and  arranges  his  plumage 
with  great  dexterity.  His  flight  from  flower  to  flower  greatly  resembles 
that  of  a  bee,  but  is  infinitely  more  rapid.  He  poises  himself  on  wing, 
while  he  thrusts  his  long  slender  tongue  into  the  flowers  in  search  of  food. 
He  sometimes  enters  a  room  by  the  window,  examines  the  bouquets  of 
flowers,  and  passes  out  by  the  opposite  door  or  window.  He  feeds  on  the 
honey  extracted  from  flowers,  and  on  insects. 

'  The  old  and  young,'  says  Mr.  Nuttall,  '  are  soon  reconciled  to  confine- 
ment. In  an  hour  after  the  loss  of  liberty,  the  little  cheerful  captive  will 
often  come  and  suck  diluted  honey,  or  sugar  and  water,  from  the  flowers 
held  out  to  it ;  and  in  a  few  hours  more,  it  becomes  tame  enough  to  sip  its 
favorite  beverage  from  a  saucer,  in  the  interval  flying  backwards  and  for- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  209 

wards  in  the  room  for  mere  exercise,  and  then  resting  on  some  neighboring 
elevated  object.  In  dark  or  rainy  weather,  they  seem  to  pass  the  time 
chiefly  dozing  or  on  the  perch.  They  are  also  soon  so  familiar  as  to 
come  to  the  hand  that  feeds  them.  In  cold  nights,  or  at  the  approach  of 
frost,  the  pulsation  of  this  little  dweller  in  the  sunbeam  becomes  nearly  as 
low  as  in  the  torpid  state  of  the  dormouse ;  but  on  applying  warmth,  the 
almost  stagnant  circulation  revives,  and  slowly  increases  to  the  usual 
state.' 


Belted  Kingfisher. 

Belted  Kingfisher. — This  is  the  only  species  of  its  tribe  found  within 
the  United  States,  where  it  frequents  the  banks  of  all  the  fresh  water 
rivers  from  Maine  to  Florida.  His  voice  is  loud,  rattling,  and  sudden. 
His  flight  is  rapid,  and  is  sometimes  prolonged  to  very  considerable 
distances.  He  follows  up  the  course  of  the  rivers  to  their  very  fountains, 
and  his  presence  is  a  sign  of  abundant  fish.  Mill-ponds,  where  the  water 
is  calm,  are  favorite  resorts  of  this  bird,  and  its  eggs  are  generally  found  in 
places  not  far  from  a  mill  worked  by  water.  The  kingfisher,  for  many 
successive  years,  returns  to  the  same  hole  to  breed  and  roost.  Its  flesh  is 
oily  and  disagreeable.  | 

Sicallows. — The  beautiful  Purple  Martin  is  a  great  favorite  of  man  in 
all  parts  of  the  country.  The  farmer  prepares  a  little  house  for  him,  the 
Indian  hollows  a  calabash,  anji  as  either  mansion  is  to  him  indifferent,  so 
is  he  equally  acceptable  to  the  husbandman  and  the  hunter.  Year  after 
year  he  returns  to  the  same  mansion.  In  the  middle  states,  the  martins 
prepare  their  nest  about  the  third  week  in  April,  and  they  rear  two  broods 
in  the  season.  There  are  several  other  species,  such  as  the  Barn,  Cliff 
White-bellied,  and  Chimney. 
Night-Hawks. — The  Whip-poor-will  is  a  remarkable  nocturnal  bird 
27  IS* 


210  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

migratory  through  nearly  the  extent  of  the  states.  It  is  well  known  for  its 
sad  and  peculiar  song.  The  Chuck-will's  Widow  is  seldom  found  north 
of  Virginia,  and  is  particularly  numerous  in  the  vast  forests  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Its  note  is  strikingly  different  from  that  of  the  whip-poor-will.  In 
sound  and  articulation  it  seems  plainly  to  express  the  words  which  have 
been  applied  to  it,  pronouncing  every  syllable  leisurely,  and  distinctly, 
putting  the  principal  emphasis  on  the  last  word.  In  a  still  evening  it  may 
be  heard  at  the  distance  of  nearly  a  mile  ;  the  tones  of  its  voice  being 
strong  and  full. 

The  flight  of  this  bird  is  slow,  skimming  about  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
frequently  settling  on  old  logs  or  on  the  fences,  and  from  thence  sweeping 
around  in  pursuit  of  various  insects  that  fly  in  the  night.  Like  the  whip- 
poor-will,  it  prefers  the  declivities  of  glens,  and  other  deeply  shaded  places, 
making  the  mountains  resound  with  echoes  the  whole  evening. 

Pigeons. — The  Passenger  Pigeon  is  the  most  remarkable  American 
species.  The  head,  throat,  and  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  ash  colored ; 
the  sides  of  the  neck  are  of  a  glossy  variable  purple ;  and  there  is  a  crim- 
son mark  round  the  eyes.  These  birds  visit  the  different  parts  of  North 
America  in  immense  flocks.  The  most  important  facts  connected  with 
their  habits  relate  to  their  extraordinary  associations  and  migrations.     No 


Passenger  Pigeon. 

other  species  known  to  naturalists  is  more  calculated  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  either  the  citizen  or  the  stranger,  as  he  has  opportunity  of  viewing 
both  of  these  characteristic  habits  while  they  are  passing  from  north  to 
south,  east  and  west,  and,  vice  versa,  over  and  across  the  whole  extent  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  These  migrations  are  owing  entirely  to 
the  dire  necessity  of  providing  food,  and  not  merely  to  escape  the  severity 
of  a  northern  latitude,  or  seek  a  southern  one  for  the  purpose  of  breeding. 
They  consequently  do  not  take  place  at  any  fixed  period  or  season  of  the 
year.     Indeed,  it  happens  sometimes  that  a  continuance  of  a  sufficient 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


211 


supply  of  food  in  one  district  will  keep  these  birds  absent  from  another  for 
years. 

Their  rapidity  of  flight  is  wonderful.  Pigeons  have  been  killed  in  the 
neighborhood  of  New  York,  with  their  crops  full  of  the  rice  they  must 
have  collected  in  the  plantations  of  the  Carolinas,  or  Georgia,  and  the 
flight  necessary  to  account  for  this  circumstance  has  been  estimated  at  a 
mile  a  minute.  Another  well-known  bird  of  this  tribe  is  the  Carolina 
Pigeon. 

Wild  Turkey. — This  splendid  bird  is  found  from  the  North-West  territory 
to  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  They  abound  in  the  forests  and  unsettled  parts 
of  the  Union,  but  are  very  rare  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts.  They  were 
formerly  abundant  in  Canada  ;  but  as  their  places  of  resort  become  settled 
and  thickly  peopled,  they  retire  and  seek  refuge  in  the  remotest  recesses 


Wild  Turkey. 

of  the  interior.  In  New  England,  it  appears  to  have  been  destroyed  many 
years  ago  ;  but  it  is  still  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and 
New  Jersey. 

These  birds  do  not  confine  themselves  to  any  particular  food,  but  eat 
corn,  berries,  grapes,  barley,  tadpoles,  young  frogs  and  lizards.  Their 
favorite  food,  however,  is  the  pecan  nut  and  acorn.  Where  there  is  an 
abundant  crop  of  acorns,  numerous  flocks  of  turkeys  may  be  expected. 
In  the  fall,  they  direct  their  courses  in  vast  numbers  to  the  rich  lands  on 
the  borders  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  Before  crossing  a  river,  they  as- 
semble on  the  highest  eminences,  and  remain  there  as  if  in  consultation  for 


212  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

a  day  or  two.  At  length,  after  due  preparation,  the  leader  gives  a  signal 
note,  and  they  all  wing  their  way  to  the  opposite  shore.  Some  of  the 
young  and  weak  fall  into  the  water,  and  many  perish.  It  is  observed  that 
after  these  journeys,  the  turkeys  are  so  familiar,'  that  they  fearlessly  enter 
the  plantations,  in  search  of  food.  Great  numbers  are  killed  at  this  time, 
and  kept  in  a  frozen  state  to  be  sent  to  distant  markets. 

The  flesh  of  the  wild  turkey  is  of  excellent  flavor,  being  more  delicate 
and  juicy  than  that  of  the  domestic  turkey ;  the  Indians  value  it  so  highly, 
that  they  term  it,  when  roasted,  ■  the  white  man's  dish.'     The  m  <le  of  the 


Wild  Turkeys. 

wild  turkey  is  nearly  four  feet  in  length  ;  the  female  is  only  three  feet  and 
a  quarter  long.  The  plumage  of  the  male  is  very  brilliant,  and  of  a  variety 
of  hues  ;  that  of  the  female  is  not  so  beautiful.^ 

*  Turkey  Shooting. — Good  dogs  scent  the  turkeys,  when  in  large  flocks,  at  extraordinary 
distances, — I  think  I  may  venture  to  say  half  a  mile.  Should  the  dog  be  well  trained 
to  this  sport,  he  sets  off  at  full  speed,  and  in  silence,  until  he  sees  the  birds,  when  he 
instantly  barks,  and  pushing  as  much  as  possible  into  the  centre  of  the  flock,  forces  the 
whole  to  take  wing  in  different  directions.  This  is  of  great  advantage  to  the  hunter, 
for  should  the  turkeys  all  go  one  way,  they  would  soon  leave  their  perches  and  run 
again.  But  when  they  separate  in  this  manner,  and  the  weather  happens  to  be  calm 
and  lowering,  a  person  accustomed  to  this  kind  of  sport  finds  the  birds  with  ease,  and 
shoots  them  at  pleasure. 

"When  turkeys  alight  on  a  tree,  it  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  see  them,  which  is 
owing  to  their  standing  perfectly  motionless.  Should  you  discover  one,  when  it  is  doAvn 
on  its  legs  upon  the  branch,  you  may  approach  it  with  less  care.  But  if  it  is  standing 
erect,  the  greatest  precaution  is  necessary,  for  should  it  discover  you,  it  instantly  flies 
off,  frequently  to  such  a  distance  that  it  would  be  vain  to  follow. 

When  a  turkey  is  merely  winged  by  a  shot,  it  falls  quickly  to  the  ground  in  a  slant- 
ing direction.  Then,  instead  of  losing  time  by  tumbling  and  rolling  over,  as  other  birds 
often  do  when  wounded,  it  runs  off  at  such  a  rate,  that  unless  the  hunter  be  provided 
with  a  swift  dog,  he  may  bid  farewell  to  it.  I  recollect  coming  on  one  shot  in  this  man- 
ner, more  than  a  mile  from  the  tree  where  it  had  been  perched,  my  dog  having  traced 
it  to  this  distance,  through  one  of  those  thick  cane-brakes  that  cover  many  portions  of 
our  rich  alluvial  lands  near  the  banks  of  our  western  rivers.  Turkeys  are  easily  killed 
if  shot  in  the  head,  the  neck,  or  the  upper  part  of  the  breast ;  but  if  hit  in  the  hind  parts 
only,  they  often  fly  so  far  as  to  be  lost  to  the  hunter.  During  winter,  many  of  our  real 
hunters  shoot  them  by  moonlight,  on  the  roosts,  where  these  birds  will  frequently  stand 
a  repetition  of  the  reports  of  a  rifle,  although  they  would  fly  from  the  attack  of  an  owl, 
or  even  perhaps  from  his  presence.  Thus  sometimes  nearly  a  whole  flock  is  secured  by 
men  capable  of  using  these  guns  in  such  circumstances.    They  are  often  destroyed  in 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  213 

The  Quail. — The  American  quail  is  found  throughout  the  union ;  and 
though  in  form  and  general  appearance  it  somewhat  resembles  the  European 
quail,  the  two  birds  differ  very  widely  in  their  habits.  The  food  of  the 
quail  consists  of  grain,  seed  and  insects,  but  buckwheat  and  Indian  corn 
are  its  favorites.  The  flight  of  this  bird  is  accompanied  with  a  loud 
whizzing  sound,  occasioned  by  the  shortness  of  their  wings  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  they  move.     During  winter,  they  often  suffer  severely  from  the 


Quail. 

inclemency  of  the  weather,  and  whole  coveys  are  found  frozen  in  spots 
where  they  had  endeavored  to  shelter  themselves. 

great  numbers  when  most  worthless,  that  is,  early  in  the  fall  or  autumn,  when  many 
are  killed  in  their  attempt  to  cross  the  rivers,  or  immediately  after  they  reach  the  shore. 

Whilst  speaking  of  the  shooting  of  turkeys,  I  feel  no  hesitation  in  relating  the  follow- 
ing occurrence,  which  happened  to  myself.  While  in  search  of  game,  one  afternoon 
late  in  autumn,  when  the  males  go  together,  and  the  females  are  by  themselves  also,  I 
heard  the  clucking  of  one  of  the  latter,  and  immediately  finding  her  perched  on  a  fence, 
made  towards  her.  Advancing  slowly  and  cautiously,  I  heard  the  yelping  notes  of 
some  gobblers,  when  I  stopped  and  listened  in  order  to  ascertain  the  direction  in  which 
they  came.  I  then  ran  to  meet  the  birds,  hid  myself  by  the  side  of  a  large  fallen  tree, 
cocked  my  gun,  and  waited  with  impatience  for  a  good  opportunity.  The  gobblers  con- 
tinued yelping  in  answer  to  the  female,  which  all  this  while  remained  on  the  fence.  I 
looked  over  the  log  and  saw  about  thirty  fine  cocks  advancing  rather  cautiously  towards 
the  very  spot  where  I  lay  concealed.  They  came  so  near  that  the  light  in  their  eyes 
could  easily  be  perceived,  when  I  fired  one  barrel,  and  killed  three.  The  rest,  instead 
of  flying  off,  fell  a  strutting  around  their  dead  companions,  and  had  I  not  looked  on 
shooting  again  as  murder  without  necessity,  I  might  have  secured  at  least  another. 
So  I  showed  myself,  and  marching  to  the  place  where  the  dead  birds  were,  drove 
away  the  survivors.  I  may  also  mention,  that  a  friend  of  mine  shot  a  fine  hen,  from 
his  horse,  with  a  pistol,  as  the  poor  thing  was  probably  returning  to  her  nest  to  lay. 

Should  you,  good-natured  reader,  be  a  sportsman,  and  now  and  then  have  been  fortu- 
nate in  the  exercise  of  your  craft,  the  following  incident,  which  I  shall  relate  to  you  as 


214  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Grouse. — The  Ruffed  Grouse  is  the  partridge  of  the  eastern  states,  and 
the  pheasant  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  southern  districts.  It  is  known  in 
almost  every  quarter  of  the  United  States,  and  appears  to  inhabit  a  very 
extensive  range  of  country.  Its  favorite  places  of  resort  are  high  moun- 
tains covered  with  the  balsam,  pine,  hemlock,  and  such  like  evergreens. 
Unlike  the  pinnated  grouse,  it  always  prefers  the  woods  ;  is  seldom  or  never 

I  had  it  from  the  mouth  of  an  honest  farmer,  may  prove  interesting.  Turkeys  were 
very  abundant  in  his  neighborhood,  and,  resorting  to  his  corn-fields,  at  the  period  when 
the  maize  had  just  shot  up  from  the  ground,  destroyed  great  quantities  of  it.  This 
induced  him  to  swear  vengeance  against  the  species.  He  cut  a  long  trench  in  a  favor- 
able situation,  put  a  great  quantity  of  corn  in  it,  and  having  heavily  loaded  a  famous  duck- 
gun  of  his,  placed  it  so  as  that  he  could  pull  the  trigger  by  means  of  a  string,  when 
quite  concealed  from  the  birds.  The  turkeys  soon  discovered  the  corn  in  the  trench, 
and  quickly  disposed  of  it,  at  the  same  time  continuing  their  ravages  in  the  fields.  He 
filled  the  trench  again,  and  one  day  seeing  it  quite  black  with  the  turkeys,  whistled 
loudly,  on  which  all  the  birds  raised  their  heads,  when  he  pulled  the  trigger  by  the  long 
string  fastened  to  it.  The  explosion  followed  of  course,  and  the  turkeys  were  seen 
scampering  off  in  all  directions,  in  utter  discomfiture  and  dismay.  On  running  to  the 
trench,  he  found  nine  of  them  extended  in  it.  The  rest  did  not  consider  it  expedient  to 
visit  his  corn  again  for  that  season. 

During  spring,  turkeys  are  called,  as  it  is  termed,  by  drawing  the  air  in  a  particular 
way  through  one  of  the  second  joint  bones  of  a  wing  of  that  bird,  which  produces  a 
sound  resembling  the  voice  of  the  female,  on  hearing  which  the  male  comes  up,  and  is 
shot.  In  managing  this,  however,  no  fault  must  be  committed,  for  turkeys  are  quick 
in  distinguishing  counterfeit  sounds,  and  when  half  civilized  are  very  wary  and  cunning. 
I  have  known  many  to  answer  to  this  kind  of  call,  without  moving  a  step,  and  thus 
entirely  defeat  the  scheme  of  the  hunter,  who  dared  not  move  from  his  hiding-place,  lest 
a  single  glance  of  the  gobbler's  eye  should  frustrate  all  further  attempts  to  decoy  them. 
Many  are  shot  when  at  roost,  in  this  season,  by  answering  with  a  rolling  gobble  to  a 
sound  in  imitation  of  the  cry  of  the  barred  owl. 

While  at  Henderson,  on  the  Ohio,  I  had,  among  many  other  wild  birds,  a  fine  male 
turkey,  which  had  been  reared  from  its  earliest  youth  under  my  care,  it  having 
been  caught  by  me  when  probably  not  more  than  two  or  three  days  old.  It  became  so 
tame  that  it  would  follow  any  person  who  called  it,  and  was  the  favorite  of  the  little 
village.  Yet  it  would  never  roost  with  the  tame  turkeys,  but  regularly  betook  itself  at 
night  to  the  roof  of  the  house,  where  it  remained  until  dawn.  When  two  years  old,  it 
began  to  fly  to  the  woods,  where  it  remained  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  day,  to  return 
to  the  enclosure  as  night  approached.  It  continued  this  practice  until  the  following 
spring,  when  I.  saw  it  several  times  fly  from  its  roosting  place  to  the  top  of  a  high  cotton 
tree,  on  the  bank  of  the  Ohio,  from  which,  after  resting  a  little,  it  would  sail  to  the  oppo. 
site  shore,  the  river  being  there  nearly  half  a  mile  wide,  and  return  towards  night. 

One  morning  I  saw  it  fly  off,  at  a  very  early  hour,  to  the  woods,  in  another  direction, 
and  took  no  particular  notice  of  the  circumstance.  Several  days  elapsed,  but  the  bird 
did  not  return.  I  was  going  towards  some  lakes  near  Green  River  to  shoot,  when 
having  walked  about  five  miles,  I  saw  a  fine  large  gobbler  cross  the  path  before  me, 
moving  leisurely  along.  Turkeys  being  then  in  prime  condition  for  the  table,  I  ordered 
my  dog  to  chase  it,  and  put  it  up.  The  animal  went  off  with  great  rapidity,  and  as  it 
approached  the  turkey,  I  saw,  with  great  surprise,  that  the  latter  paid  little  attention. 
Juno  was  on  the  point  of  seizing  it,  when  she  suddenly  stopped,  and  turned  her  head 
towards  me.  I  hastened  to  them,  but  you  may  easily  conceive  my  surprise  when  I  saw 
my  own  favorite  bird,  and  discovered  that  it  had  recognised  the  dog,  and  would  not  fly 
from  it ;  although  the  sight  of  a  strange  dog  would  have  caused  it  to  run  off  at  once. 
A  friend  of  mine  happening  to  be  in  search  of  a  wounded  deer,  took  the  bird  on  his  sad- 
dle before  him,  and  carried  it  home  for  me.  The  following  spring  it  was  accidentally 
shot,  having  been  taken  for  a  wild  bird,  and  brought  to  me  on  being  recognised  by  the 
red  ribbon  which  it  had  around  its  neck.  Pray,  reader,  by  what  word  will  you  desig- 
nate the  recognition  made  by  my  favorite  turkey  of  a  dog  which  had '  been  long  asso- 
ciated with  it  in  the  yard  and  grounds  ?  Was  it  the  result  of  instinct,  or  of  reason, — « 
an  unconsciously  revived  impression,  or  the  act  of  an  intelligent  mind  ? — Audubon. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  215 

found  in  open  plains,  but  loves  the  pine-sheltered  declivities  of  mountains 
near  streams  of  water.  In  the  lower  parts  of  Georgia,  Carolina,  and 
Florida,  they  are  very  seldom  observed ;  but  as  we  advance  inland  to  the 
mountains,  they  again  make  their  appearance.  The  Sharp-tailed  Grouse, 
the  Dusky  Grouse,  and  the  Cock  of  the  Plains,  are  other  species  of 
this  tribe. 

The  Woodcock,  in  its  general  figure  and  habits,  greatly  resembles  the 
woodcock  of  Europe,  but  is  considerably  less,  and  very  differently  marked. 
This  bird  is  universally  known  to  our  sportsmen.  During  the  day  they 
keep  to  the  woods  and  thickets,  and  at  the  approach  of  evening  seek  the 
springs  and  open  watery  places  to  feed  in.  In  hot  weather,  they  descend 
to  the  marshy  shores  of  our  rivers,  their  favorite  springs  and  watery  re- 
cesses inland  being  dried  up.  To  the  former  of  these  retreats  they  are  pur- 
sued by  sportsmen,  flushed  by  dogs,  and  shot  down  in  great  numbers. 
The  woodcock  is  properly  a  nocturnal  bird,  feeding  chiefly  at  night,  and 
seldom  stirring  about  till  after  sunset ;  at  such  times  he  rises  by  a  kind  of 
spiral  course  to  a  considerable  height  in  the  air,  uttering  at  times  a  sudden 
quack,  till  having  gained  his  utmost  height,  he  hovers  round  in  a  wild 
irregular  manner,  making  a  sort  of  murmuring  sound,  then  descends  with 
rapidity  as  he  rose. 


Canvass-Back  Duck. 

Bucks. — The  Canvass-back  Buck  is  peculiar  to  this  country,  and  a  witty 
gourmand  of  England,  who  made  the  tour  of  the  states,  thinks  it  the  onl 
production  of  nature  or  art  of  which  America  can  with  reason  be  prou 
It  was  known  to  the  epicure,  long  before  it  was  described  by  the  naturalis 
Arriving  in  the  United  States  from  the  north,  about  the  middle  of  October, 
its  chief  place  of  resort  is  about  the  waters  which  flow  into  Chesapeak  bay. 
On  its  first  arrival  it  is  lean,  but  from  the  abundance  of  its  favorite  food,  it 
soon  becomes  fat.     This  bird  is  sometimes  found  in  numbers  so  great  as  to 
cover  acres.* 

*  Duck  Shooting  on  the  Chesapeak. — To  a  stranger,  visiting  these  waters,  the  innumer 
able  ducks,  feeding  in  beds  of  thousands,  or  filling  the  air  with  their  careering,  with 
the  great  numbers  of  beautiful  white  swans  resting  near  the  shores,  like  banks  of 
driven  snow,  he  would  naturally  suppose  the  facilities  for  their  destruction  were  equal 


216  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Among  the  American  birds  of  this  tribe  are  the  Eider  Duck,  Black  or 
Surf  Duck,  Ruddy  Duck,  Golden-eye,  Buffel-headed  Duck,  Tufted  Duck,  Teal, 
and  some  others.     The  Wood  or  Summer  Duck,  is  the  most  beautiful  bird 

to  their  profusion,  and  with  so  large  an  object  in  view,  a  sportsman  could  scarcely  miss 
his  aim.  But  when  he  considers  the  great  thickness  of  their  covering,  the  velocity  of 
their  flight,  the  rapidity  and  duration  of  their  diving,  and  the  great  influence  that  cir- 
cumstances of  wind  and  weather  have  on  the  chances  of  success,  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  wonder  how  so  many  are  destroyed. 

The  usual  mode  of  taking  these  birds  has  been,  till  recently,  by  shooting  from  the 
points  during  the  flight,  or  from  the  land  or  boats,  on  their  feeding  grounds,  or  by 
toling,  as  it  is  strangely  termed,  an  operation  by  which  the  ducks  are  sometimes  induced 
to  approach  within  a  few  feet  of  the  shore,  from  a  distance  often  of  several  hundred 
yards.  This  process,  though  it  has  been  frequently  described,  may  not  be  uninteresting 
to  repeat.  A  spot  is  usually  selected  where  the  birds  have  not  been  much  disturbed, 
and  where  they  feed  at  three  or  four  hundred  yards  from,  and  can  approach  to  within 
forty  or  fifty  yards  of  the  shore,  as  they  will  never  come  nearer  than  they  can  swim 
freely.  The  higher  the  tides  and  calmer  the  day,  the  better,  for  they  feed  closer  to  the 
shores  and  see  more  distinctly.  Most  persons  on  these  waters  have  a  race  of  small, 
white  or  liver-colored  dogs,  which  are  familiarly  called  the  toler  breed,  but  which  appear 
to  be  the  ordinary  poodle. 

These  dogs  are  extremely  playful,  and  are  taught  to  run  up  and  down  the  shore,  in 
sight  of  the  ducks,  either  by  the  motion  of  the  hand,  or  by  throwing  chips  from  side 
to  side.  They  soon  become  perfectly  acquainted  with  their  business,  and  as  they  dis- 
cover the  ducks  approaching  them,  make  their  jumps  less  high,  till  they  almost  crawl 
on  the  ground,  to  prevent  the  birds  discovering  what  the  object  of  their  curiosity  may 
be.  Ints  disposition  to  examine  rarities,  has  been  taken  advantage  of,  by  using  a  red 
or  black  handkerchief,  by  day,  and  white,  by  night,  in  toling,  or  even  by  gently  splash- 
ing tbe  water  on  the  shore.  The  nearest  ducks  soon  notice  the  strange  appearance, 
whatever  the  plan  attempted,  raise  their  heads,  gaze  intently  for  a  moment,  then  push 
for  the  shore.  The  rest  follow  suit,  and  the  author  has,  on  many  occasions,  seen  thou- 
sands of  them  swimming  in  a  solid  mass,  direct  to  the  object ;  and  by  removing  the 
dog  further  into  the  grass,  they  have  been  brought  within  fifteen  feet  of  the  bank. 
When  they  have  approached  tc  about  thirty  or  forty  yards,  their  curiosity  is  generally 
satisfied,  when  they  swim  laterally  up  and  down  for  a  few  seconds,  and  then  retrograde 
to  their  old  spot.  Whilst  presenting  the  side  view,  is  the  moment  to  shoot,  and  forty 
or  fifty  ducks  nave  often  been  killed  by  a  small  gun.  The  black-heads  tole  the  most 
readily,  then  the  red-heads,  next  the  canvass-backs,  and  the  bald-pates  rarely ;  and  this  is 
the  ratio  of  their  approach  to  the  points  in  flying,  although  if  the  canvass-back  has 
determined  on  his  direction,  few  circumstances  will  change  his  course.  The  total 
absence  of  cover  or  precaution  against  exposure  to  sight,  or  even  a  large  fire,  will  not 
turn  these  birds  aside  on  such  occasions. 

In  flying  shooting,  the  bald-pate  is  a  great  nuisance,  for  they  are  so  shy,  that  they 
not  only  avoid  the  points  themselves,  but  by  their  whistling  and  confusion  of  flight  at 
such  times,  alarm  others ;  and  few  days  occur  during  the  season,  without  many  male- 
dictions on  their  very  existence. 

As  simple  as  it  may  appear  to  shoot,  with  success,  into  a  solid  mass  of  ducks,  sitting 
on  the  water  at  forty  or  fifty  yards'  distance,  yet,  when  you  recollect,  that  you  are 
placed  nearly  level  with  the  water,  the  object  opposed  to  the  visual  line,  even  though 
composed  of  hundreds,  may  be  in  appearance  but  a  foot  or  two  in  width.  To  give, 
therefore,  the  best  promise  of  success,  old  duckers  recommend  that  the  nearest  duck 
should  be  in  perfect  relief  above  the  sight,  whatever  the  size  of  the  column,  to  avoid 
the  common  result  of  over-shooting.  The  correctness  of  this  principle  was  illustrated 
to  the  writer,  in  an  instance  in  which  he  had  toled,  to  within  a  space  between  forty  and 
seventy  yards  of  the  shore,  a  bed  of  certainly  hundreds  of  ducks.  Twenty  yards 
beyond  the  outside  birds  of  the  solid  mass,  were  five  black-heads,  one  of  which  was 
alone  killed  out  of  the  whole  number,  by  a  deliberate  aim  into  the  middle  of  the  large 
flock,  from  a  rest,  by  a  heavy,  well-proved  duck-gun. 

Before  I  leave  the  subject  of  sitting  shooting,  I  will  mention  an  occurrence  that  tool: 

Elace  on  Bush  river,  a  few  years  since.     A  man  whose  house  was  situated  near  the 
ank,  on  rising  early  one  morning,  observed  the  river  had  frozen,  except  an  open  space 
of  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  at  about  eighty  yards  from  the  shore,  nearly  opposite 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


217 


of  its  kind  in  the  world.     Its  head  is  adorned  with  a  beautiful  crest,  and 
its  plumage  is  most  beautifully  variegated.     Its  favorite  places  of  resort  are 


Summer  Duck. 


the  border  of  ponds  and  lakes ;  but  it  passes  the  summer  in  the  woods, 
nestles  in  hollow  trees,  and  when  taken  may  be  easily  tamed. 


It 


Wild  Geese. 

Wild  Goose. — The  common  wild  goose  is  well  known  over  the  whole  of 
the  United  States,  and  its  periodical  migrations  are  sure  signs  of  returning 

Ms  house.  The  spot  was  full  of  ducks,  and  with  a  heavy  gun  he  fired  into  it ;  many- 
were  killed,  and  those  that  flew  soon  returned,  and  were  again  and  again  shot  at,  till 
fearful  he  was  injuring  those  already  his  own,  he  ceased  the  massacre,  and  brought  on 
shore  ninety-two  ducks,  most  of  which  were  canvass-backs. 

Canvass-backs,  when  wounded,  on  the  streams  near  the  bay,  instantly  direct  their 

•ourse  for  it,  where  they  nestle  among  the  grass,  on  the  shores,  till  cured,  or  destroyed 

by  eagles,  hawks,  gulls,  foxes,  or  other  vermin,  that  are  constantly  on  the  search  ;  and 

O  a  dead  canvass-back  be  not  soon  secured,  he  becomes  a  prey  to  the  gulls,  who  rarely 

28  19 


218  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

spring  or  approaching  winter.  Its  flight  is  heavy  and  laborious.  When 
in  good  order,  this  bird  weighs  from  ten  to  fourteen  pounds,  and  yields 
about  half  a  pound  of  feathers.  Mr.  Wilson  relates  the  following  inter- 
esting anecdote : 

1  Mr.  Piatt,  a  respectable  farmer  on  Long  Island,  being  out  shooting  in 
one  of  the  bays  which  m  that  part  of  the  country  abound  in  water-fowl, 
wounded  a  wild  goose.  Being  unable  to  fly,  he  caught  it,  and  brought  it 
home  alive.  It  proved  to  be  a  female,  and  turning  it  into  the  yard  with  a 
flock  of  tame  geese,  it  soon  became  quite  familiar,  and  in  a  little  time  its 
Wounded  wing  entirely  healed.  In  the  following  spring,  when  the  wild 
geese  migrate  to  the  northward,  a  flock  passed  over  Mr.  Piatt's  barn  yard, 
and  just  at  that  moment,  their  leader,  happening  to  sound  his  bugle  note, 
our  goose,  in  whom  its  new  habits  had  not  quite  extinguished  the  love  of 
liberty,  and  remembering  the  well-known  sound,  spread  its  wings,  mounted 
into  the  air,  joined  the  travellers,  and  soon  disappeared.  In  the  succeeding 
autumn,  the  wild  geese,  as  usual,  returned  from  the  northward,  in  great 
numbers,  to  pass  the  winter  in  our  bays  and  rivers.  Mr.  Piatt  happened 
to  be  standing  in  his  yard,  when  a  flock  passed  directly  over  his  barn.  At 
that  instant,  he  observed  three  geese  detach  themselves  from  the  rest,  and 
after  wheeling  round  several  times,  alight  in  the  middle  of  the  yard.  Im- 
agine his  surprise  and  pleasure,  when,  by  certain  well-remembered  signs, 
he  recognised  in  one  of  the  three  his  long-lost  fugitive.  It  was  she  indeed ! 
She  had  travelled  many  hundred  miles  to  the  lakes  ;  had  there  hatched 
and  reared  her  offspring ;  and  had  now  returned  with  her  little  family,  to 
share  with  them  the  sweets  of  civilized  life.' 


Wild  Swan. 

Wild  Swan. — This  bird  is  found  widely  spread  over  the  whole  of  the 
northern  continent.  During  the  winter,  great  numbers  of  them  resort  to 
the  Chesapeak  bay,  and  whilst  there,  form  collections  of  from  one  to  five 

touch  any  other  kind,  so  refined  is  their  taste.  I  have  seen  severe  contests  take  place 
between  crippled  canvass-backs  and  gulls,  and  although  a  pounce  or  two  generally 
prevents  further  resistance,  sometimes  they  are  driven  off.  If  the  bird  is  remarkably 
savory,  the  gull  makes  such  a  noise,  that  others  are  soon  collected,  when  possession  is 
^determined  by  courage  or  strength. — Doughty's  Cabinet. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  219 

hundred  on  the  flats  near  the  western  shore.  These  birds  are  so  exceed- 
ingly vigilant,  that  if  but  three  of  them  are  feeding  together,  one  will  gen- 
erally be  on  guard,  and  when  danger  approaches,  the  alarm  is  given. 
While  feeding  and  dressing,  they  make  much  noise,  and  through  the  night 
their  vociferations  can  be  heard  for  several  miles.  Their  notes  are  extremely 
varied ;  some  resembling  the  deepest  base  of  the  common  tin  horn,  others 
running  through  the  various  modulations  of  the  clarionet.  The  swan  is 
five  or  six  years  in  reaching  its  perfect  growth.  The  aborigines  employ 
the  skin  of  this  bird  in  making  dresses  for  their  women  of  rank,  and  the 
feathers  as  ornaments  for  the  head.* 


American  Rail 

Rail. — This  bird  belongs  to  a  genus  of  which  naturalists  enumerate 
about  thirty  species,  distributed  over  almost  every  region  of  the  earth. 
Their  general  character  is  every  where  the  same.     They  run  swiftly,  fly 

*  When  wounded  in  the  wing  alone,  a  large  swan  will  readily  beat  off  a  dog,  and  is 
more  than  a  match  for  a  man  in  four  feet  water,  a  stroke  of  the  wing  having  broken  an 
arm,  and  the  powerful  feet  almost  obliterating  the  face  of  a  good  sized  duck  shooter. 
They  are  often  killed  by  rifle  balls  thrown  from  the  shore  into  the  feeding  column,  and 
as  a  ball  will  ricochet  on  the  water  for  several  hundred  yards,  a  wing  may  be  disabled  at 
the  distance  of  half  a  mile. 

These  birds  are  often  brought  within  shooting  range,  by  sailing  down  upon  them 
whilst  feeding,  and,  as  they  arise  against  the  wind,  and  cannot  leave  the  water  for 
fifteen  or  twenty  yards,  against  which  they  strike  their  enormous  feet  and  wings  most 
furiously,  great  advantage  is  gained  in  distance.  They  must  be  allowed  on  all  occa 
sions  to  turn  the  side,  for  a  breast  shot  rarely  succeeds  in  entering. 

When  two  feeding  coves  are  separated  by  a  single  point,  by  disturbing  the  swans  ii« 
one  or  the  other  occasionally,  they  will  pass  and  repass  very  closely  to  this  projection  of 
land,  and  usually  taking  as  they  do,  the  straight  line,  each  gunner,  to  prevent  dispute, 
names  the  bird  he  will  shoot  at. 

In  winter,  boats  covered  by  pieces  of  ice,  the  sportsman  being  dressed  in  white,  are 
paddled  or  allowed  to  float  during  the  night  into  the  midst  of  a  flock,  and  they  have 
been  oftentimes  killed,  by  being  knocked  on  the  head  and  neck  by  a  pole.  There  is, 
however,  much  danger  in  this  mode,  as  others  may  be  engaged  in  like  manner,  but 
shooting,  and  at  a  short  distance,  the  persons  might  not  be  distinguished  from  the 
swan.    These  birds  seem  well  aware  of  the  range  of  a  gun,  and  1  have  followed  them 


220  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

slowly,  and  usually  with  the  legs  hanging  down,  are  fond  of  concealment, 
and  become  at  seasons  extremely  fat.  The  common  American  rail  is 
migratory.  It  is  feeble  and  delicate  in  every  thing  but  the  legs,  which  are 
strong  and  vigorous  ;  their  bodies  are  so  remarkably  thin  that  they  are 
enabled  to  pass  between  the  reeds  like  rats.  They  disappear  on  the  first 
severe  frost,  from  their  usual  residence  along  the  reedy  shores  of  the  Dela- 
ware, and  so  sudden  is  their  departure  that  no  one  knows  how  or  when  it 
is  made. 

Plovers. — The  Black-bellied  Plover  is  known  in  some  parts  of  this  coun- 
try by  the  name  of  the  large  whistling  field  plover ;  the  gunners  along  the 
coast  call  them  the  black-bellied  plover.  In  Pennsylvania,  this  bird  fre- 
quents the  countries  towards  the  mountains  ;  seems  particularly  attached 
to  newly  ploughed  fields,  where  it  forms  its  nest,  of  a  few  slight  materials, 
as  slightly  put  together.  It  is  an  extremely  shy  and  watchful  bird,  though 
clamorous  during  breeding  time. 

The  Kildeer  Plover  is  known  to  almost  every  inhabitant  of  the  United 
States,  being  a  common  and  pretty  constant  resident.  During  the  severity 
of  winter,  when  snow  covers  the  ground,  it  retreats  to  the  seashore,  where 
it  is  found  at  all  seasons ;  but  no  sooner  have  the  rivers  broken  up  than  its 
shrill  note  is  again  heard,  either  soaring  about  high  in  the  air,  tracing  the 
shore  of  the  river,  or  running  amidst  the  watery  flats  and  meadows. 

Flamingo. — This  bird  is  common  on  the  south  frontiers  of  the  states,  and 
the  peninsula  of  East  Florida.  When  the  Europeans  first  came  to  America, 
they  found  this  bird  on  several  shores  on  either  continent  gentle,  and  no 
way  distrustful  of  mankind.  When  the  fowler  had  killed  one,  the  rest  of 
the  flock,  far  from  attempting  to  fly,  only  regarded  the  fall  of  their  com- 
panion in  a  kind  of  fixed  astonishment :  another  and  another  shot  was 
discharged ;  and  thus  the  fowler  often  levelled  the  whole  flock,  before  one 
of  them  began  to  think  of  escaping. 

But  at  present  it  is  very  different  in  that  part  of  the  world ;  and  the 
flamingo  is  not  only  one  of  the  scarcest,  but  one  of  the  shyest  birds  in 
the  world,  and  the  most  difficult  of  approach.  They  chiefly  keep  near  the 
most  deserted  and  inhospitable  shores ;  near  salt  water  lakes  and  swampy 
islands.  When  seen  by  mariners  in  the  day,  they  always  appear  drawn 
up  in  a  long  close  line,  of  two  or  three  hundred  together  ;  and  present,  at 
the  distance  of  half  a  mile,  the  exact  representation  of  a  long  brick  walL 
This  line,  however,  is  broken  when  they  seek  for  food  ;  but  they  always 
appoint  one  of  the  number  as  a  watch,  whose  only  employment  is  to 
observe  and  give  notice  of  danger  while  the  rest  are  feeding.  As  soon  as 
this  trusty  sentinel  perceives  the  remotest  appearance  of  danger,  he  gives 
a  loud  scream,  with  a  voice  as  shrill  as  a  trumpet,  and  instantly  the  whole 
cohort  are  upon  the  wing. 

Their  time  of  breeding  is  according  to  the  climate  in  which  they  reside  : 
in  North  America,  they  breed  in  summer ;  on  the  other  side  of  the  line, 

in  a  skiff  for  miles,  driving  a  body  of  several  hundreds  before  me,  without  the  possi. 
bility  of  getting  quite  within  shooting  distance. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  that  Wilson  has  neither  figured  nor  described  this  beauti- 
ful and  common  bird  in  his  ornithology ;  but  Mr.  Lawson,  the  engraver  of  his  splendid 
plates,  and  also  his  personal  friend,  informs  me,  he  had  waited  for  another  southern 
expedition,  which  he  did  not  live  to  perform.  A  particular  history,  in  detail,  of  this 
splendid  bird  has  heretofore  never  been  given  to  the  public, — Sharpless. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  221 

they  take  the  most  favorable  season  of  the  year.     They  build  their  nests 
in  extensive  marshes,  and  where  they  are  in  no  danger  of  a  surprise. 

Herons. — The  Great  Egret  Heron  is  often  seen  in  summer  in  our  low 
marshes  and  inundated  meadows ;  yet  on  account  of  its  extreme  vigilance, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  be  procured.  It  is  found  in  Guiana,  and  probably  be- 
yond the  line,  to  New  York.  It  •nters  the  territories  of  the  United  States 
late  in  Tebruary.  The  high  inland  parts  of  the  country  it  rarely  or  never 
visits.     Its  favorite  haunts  are  vast  inundated  swamps,  rice  fields,  the  low 


Night  Heron. 

marshy  shores  of  rivers,  and  such  like  places ;  where  from  its  size  and 
color  it  is  very  conspicuous  even  at  a  distance.  The  plumage  of  this  ele- 
gant bird  is  of  a  snowy  whiteness ;  the  bill  of  a  rich  orange  yellow ;  and 
the  legs  black. 

The  Great  Heron  is  a  constant  inhabitant  of  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
New  York  to  Florida.  They  breed  in  the  Carolinas  and  New  Jersey,  in 
the  gloomy  solitudes  of  the  cedar  swamps.  Their  nests  are  constructed 
of  sticks  and  placed  on  the  tallest  trees. 

The  Louisiana  Heron  is  a  rare  and  delicately  formed  species,  occasion- 
ally found  on  the  swampy  river  shores  of  South  Carolina,  but  more  fre- 
quently along  the  borders  of  the  Mississippi,  particularly  below  New  Or- 
leans. In  each  of  these  places  it  is  migratory,  and  in  the  latter  builds  its 
nests  on  trees  amidst  the  inundated  woods.  Among  the  species  of  this 
tribe,  are  the  Green  Heron,  Blue  Heron,  Night  Heron,  Yellow-crowned 
Heron,  the  Bittern,  and  several  others. 

The  Whooping  Crane  is  the  tallest  and  most  stately  species  of  all  the 
feathered  tribes  of  the  United  States ;  the  watchful  inhabitant  of  extensive 
salt  marshes,  desolate  swamps,  and  open  morasses,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  sea.  Its  migrations  are  regular,  and  of  the  most  extensive  kind,  reach- 
ing from  the  inundated  shores  and  tracts  of  South  America  to  the  arctic  circle. 
In  these  periodical  journeys,  they  pass  at  such  a  prodigious  height  in  the  air 

19* 


222  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

as  to  be  rarely  observed.  They  wander  along  the  marshes  and  muddy  fkfs 
of  the  seashore,  in  search  of  marine  worms ;  sailing  occasionally  from 
place  to  place  with  a  loud  and  heavy  flight.  At  times  they  utter  a  loud 
and  piercing  cry,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance.  They  have 
various  modulations  of  this  singular  note,  from  the  peculiarity  of  which 
they  derive  their  name. 

The  Sand-hill  Crane  is  a  fine  stately  bird,  taller  than  a  swan,  and  in 
the  water,  said  to  be  quite  as  majestic.  They  abound  in  countless  num- 
bers on  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  rivers,  appearing  at  a  distance  like 
great  droves  of  sheep.     They  migrate  in  company  with  the  pelicans. 

Pelican. — To  those  who  have  visited  the  estuaries  of  the  Florida 
coast,  the  demure  and  awkward  attitude  of  this  bird  is  perfectly  familiar. 
In  that  portion  of  our  country,  this  species  occurs  in  large  flocks,  and  they 
are  often  to  be  seen  along  the  shores  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  im- 
parting a  peculiar  character  to  the  otherwise  solitary  scene ;  their  solemn 
and  quiet  demeanor  being  in  strict  unison  with  the  stillness  of  the  uninha- 
bited plains  which  surround  them.  They  build  in  societies,  and  are  sel- 
dom found  except  in  flocks.  When  they  are  disturbed,  they  rise  in  much 
confusion,  but  soon  form  in  regular  order,  usually  flying  in  long  lines, 
though  sometimes  in  a  triangle,  like  geese,  with  their  long  bills  resting  on 
their  breasts. 

The  Wood  Ibis  is  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  in 
watery  savannas  and  inland  swamps,  where  it  feeds  on  fish  and  reptiles. 
The  neck,  body,  and  lower  parts  of  this  bird  are  white ;  the  bill  is  nearly 
nine  inches  long.  The  White  Ibis  is  numerous  in  the  same  latitudes. 
The  Scarlet  Ibis  frequents  the  borders  of  the  sea,  and  the  shores  of  the 
neighboring  rivers,  feeding  on  small  fry,  shell-fish,  sea-worms,  and  crabs. 
The  Purple  Gallinzde  is  sometimes  met  with  in  Georgia,  but  is  a  native 
of  the  southern  continent. 

The  Roseate  Spoonbill  is  an  inhabitant  of  our  southern  seashore,  and 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  Mississippi  in  the  summer.  It  wades  about  in 
search  of  shell-fish,  marine  insects,  small  crabs  and  fish,  in  pursuit  of 
which  it  occasionally  swims  and  dives.  The  Black-bellied  Darter^  or 
Snake  Bird,  is  common  in  the  Carolinas.  Its  head,  neck,  and  breast  are 
light  brown;  the  belly  and  tail  deep  black.  It  sits  on  the  shrubs  that 
overhang  the  water,  and  often  terrifies  the  passengers  by  darting  out  its 
long  and  slender  neck,  which  bears  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  fr 
serpent. 

III.  FISHES. 

The  natural  history  of  American  fishes  is  yet  to  be  written,  as  verj 
little  progress  has  yet  been  made  in  the  scientific  observation  of  this  inter 
esting  order  of  animals.  The  fishes  which  fill  the  bays  and  coasts  of  the 
United  States  are  generally  of  the  same  species  with  those  on  the  coast? 
of  the  opposite  continent.  Along  the  shores  of  New  England  they  are 
particularly  abundant,  though  there  is  no  other  bank  that  equals  that  of 
Newfoundland  in  extreme  richness.  Shad  and  salmon  are  fine  fish 
abounding  in  the  Atlantic  rivers,  and  beautiful  trout  are  taken  in  the 
mountain  streams  of  the  northern  states.  Among  the  fish  of  the  western 
waters,  probably  in  a  great  measure  common  to  them  and  other  rivers,  are 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  223 

noticed  several  varieties  of  perch,  one  of  which,  the  buffalo  perch,  derives 
its  name  from  the  singular  grunting  noise  which  it  makes,  and  which  is 
familiar  to  every  one  who  has  been  much  on  the  Ohio.  It  is  a  fine  table 
fish,  weighing  from  ten  to  thirty  pounds.  There  are,  also,  varieties 
of  the  bass,  the  hog-fish,  and  the  sun-fish,  and  sixteen  species  of 
minny  found  in  these  waters,  besides  trout,  false  herring,  and  shad. 
Of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  rivers,  the  brown  buffalo-fish  is,  per- 
haps, as  much  esteemed  as  any ;  it  is  quite  abundant,  and  is  found  from 
two  to  three  feet  in  length.  In  the  lower  waters  of  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi, we  meet. with  the  black  buffalo-fish,  sometimes  weighing  half  a 
hundred.  A  larger  buffalo,  resembling  the  shad  of  the  Atlantic  states,  is 
taken  in  immense  numbers  in  the  lakes  and  meadows  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  trout  of  Florida  and  Louisiana  is  not  identical  with  the  beautiful 
fish  of  that  name  that  is  a  tenant  of  the  cold  and  swift  streams  of  the 
northern  Atlantic  country ;  it  is  of  the  perch  class,  and  takes  the  bait  with 
a  spring  like  the  trout,  and  is  beautifully  marked  with  golden  stripes.  It 
is  a  sound,  hard  fish,  with  a  pleasant  flavor,  and  weighs  from  one  to  four 
pounds.  '  We  have  never  witnessed  angling,'  says  Mr.  Flint,  '  that  could 
compare  with  that  of  this  fish,  in  the  clear  pine-wood  streams  of  the  south- 
ern divisions  of  this  country.  With,  fresh  bait  a  barrel  may  be  taken  in  a 
few  hours.'  Twelve  species  of  cat-fish  have  been  observed  in  the  Ohio, 
and  it  is  indeed  the  most  common  fish  in  the  western  waters.  They  are 
of  all  colors  and  sizes,  without  scales,  and  easily  taken  with  a  hook. 
Their  English  name  is  derived  from  the  noise  which  they  make  when  at 
rest,  which  is  very  similar  to  the  purring  of  a  cat.  In  the  Mississippi,  this 
fish  is  found  of  the  weight  of  an  hundred  pounds. 

The  Ohio  '  toter '  is  two  or  three  inches  in  length ;  its  name  is  derived 
from  the  barbarism  '  tote,'  meaning  to  '  carry,'  because  this  fish  makes  itself 
a  cell  by  surrounding  a  place  with  pebbles.  Pike,  pickerel,  and  jack-fish, 
weighing  from  six  ounces  to  twenty  pounds,  are  found  in  the  western 
rivers.  Of  the  gar-fish  there  are  also  numerous  varieties.  The  alligator- 
gar  is  sometimes  eight  feet  long,  and  is  voracious,  fierce  and  formidable, 
even  to  the  human  species.  Its  dart  in  rapidity  equals  the  flight  of  a  bird. 
Its  mouth  is  long,  round,  and  pointed,  thickset  with  sharp  teeth ;  its  body 
is  covered  with  scales  so  hard  as  to  be  impenetrable  by  a  rifle-bullet,  and, 
when  dry,  answer  the  purposes  of  a  flint  in  striking  fire  from  steel.  Its 
weight  is  trom  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds,  and  its  appearance  is  hideous. 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  shark  of  rivers,  and  is  considered  far  more  formidable  than 
the  alligator  himself.  The  devil-jack-diamond  fish  is  another  monster  of 
the  rivers.  One  has  been  caught  that  weighed  four  hundred  pounds ;  its 
usual  length  is  from  four  to  ten  feet. 

Eels  vary  in  length  from  two  to  four  feet.  The  best  species  for  the 
table  is  the  yellow  eel.  Of  sturgeon  there  are  six  species  in  these  rivers, 
some  of  them  four  feet  in  length ;  some  of  them  are  said  to  form  a  palatable 
food.  The  Mississippi  saw-fish  varies  in  length  from  three  feet  to  six ;  it 
has  twenty-six  long  teeth  on  either  side,  in  the  form  of  a  saw.  There  is 
also  a  spotted  horn-fish  from  two  to  three  feet  loner,  the  horn  being  one 
quarter  the  length  of  the  body.  The  beautifully  striped  bar-fish  go  in 
shoals  in  the  southern  streams  ;  they  weigh  from  one  to  three  pounds,  and 
are  taken  with  a  hook.  The  shovel-fish  is  found  in  the  muddy  lakes  of 
the  middle  region  of  the  valley ;  it  weighs  from  ten  to  fifty  pounds,  is  with- 


224  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

out  scales,  and  has  in  front  of  the  mouth  a  bony  substance  between  six  and 
twelve  inches  long,  and  two  or  three  inches  wide,  with  which  it  turns  up 
the  mud  in  search  of  its  food.  It  is  exceedingly  fat,  and  is  taken  for  its  oil. 
1  We  have  never  remarked  this  fish  in  any  museum,'  says  Mr.  Flint, 
*  although  to  us  the  most  strange  and  whimsical-looking  fish  we  have  seen. 
We  have  seen  one  instance  of  a  horribly  deformed  animal,  apparently  in- 
termediate between  the  class  testudo  and  fishes.  We  saw  it  in  a  water  of 
the  Washita,  and  had  not  a  fair  opportunity  to  examine  it.  It  is  called 
toad-fish,  has  a  shell  like  a  tortoise,  but  in  every  thing  else  resembles  a 
fish.  It  is  said  to  be  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  a  man  on  its  back ;  and, 
from  the  account  of  those  who  have  examined  it,  this  animal  must  be  a 
lusus  natures. * 

The  rock  fish,^  drum  and  sheep's-head  are  large  fish,  taken  in  saline  lakes 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico.    In  size  they  correspond  to  the  cod 

*The  rock  fish  is  universally  known  in  all  the  rivers,  and  smaller  tide-water 
streams,  throughout  the  United  States.  The  following  description  of  the  mode  in 
which  this  fish  is  trolled  for  in  the  Susquehannah  may  be  interesting.  It  is  taken  from 
the  American  Sporting  Magazine. 

*  The  season  for  trolling  begins  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  and  commonly  ends  about 
the  middle  of  July  ;  but  some  years  lasts  during  August.  In  the  month  of  June  the 
rock  fish  generally  bite  best.  To  make  good  fishing,  the  river  should  not  be  very  high 
nor  low,  muddy  nor  clear,  but  betwixt  extremes  in  these  respects.  If  the  water  be 
clear,  the  fish  dart  off  at  sight  of  the  line ;  and  it  is  thought,  they  leave  the  rapids, 
when  the  river  is  rising,  or  muddy,  to  feed  upon  the  fiats  in  the  Chesapeak. 

1  Trolling  is  very  much  practised  from  Port  Deposit,  to  almost  any  given  distance  up 
the  river,  but  not  below.  The  grass  that  the  ducks  feed  upon,  grows  too  thick  on  the 
flats  in  tide-water  for  trolling,  and  the  channel  is  uniformly  too  deep.  The  rapids 
above,  where  the  water  is  in  many  parts  shoal,  and  the  rocky  bottom  clear  of  grass,  is 
the  proper  place  for  trolling. 

'  Two  persons  generally  fish  from  the  same  boat ;  one  of  them  steers  with  one  hand, 
and  fishes  with  the  other.  Each  fisherman  lets  his  line  out  over  the  side  of  the  boat 
nearest  to  him,  and  close  to  the  stern,  (where  they  sit,)  holding  it  in  his  hand,  a  few 
inches  from  the  water,  and  leaves  the  end  attached  to  the  cork  in  the  bottom  of  the  boat. 
He  pays  out  nearly  all  his  line,  and  keeps  constantly  pulling  it,  by  short  jerks,  to  feel 
if  it  is  running  over  a  rock  or  tree  top.  The  boat  is  rowed  as  fast  as  possible  across 
the  river,  from  shore  to  shore,  above,  and  as  near  to  the  falls  as  they  can  go,  to  avoid 
being  swept  down  them.  The  rock  fish  lie  below  the  falls  and  ripples,  waiting  for  the 
small  fish  that  are  carried  over  by  the  current.  Here  then  the  bait  falls  over,  with  a 
constant  rotary  motion,  like  a  live  fish  whirled  over,  side  foremost,  and  struggles  in 
vain  against  the  falls.  The  swivels  turn  every  time  the  bait  turns,  and  prevent  the 
line  from  twisting  up  into  knots  ;  and  as  there  are  no  sinkers,  the  rapid  head-way  of  the 
boat  drags  them  along  so  fast  that  the  lines  have  no  time  to  sink.  At  sight  of  the  bait 
tumbling  over  the  falls,  the  rock  fish  darts  upwards  from  his  cavern  in  the  rocks,  and 
swallows  hook  and  all.  The  bite  of  the  rock  fish  is  quick  as  lightning,  and  gives  a  sud- 
den jerk  to  the  arm  of  the  fisherman.  When  he  first  discovers  he  is  snared,  he  rises  to 
the  top  of  the  water,  and  begins  to  lash  it  furiously  with  his  forked  tail,  like  "  a  spirit 
conjured  from  the  vasty  deep,"  then  plunges  down  again  to  the  bottom.  He  is  dragged 
from  thence  by  the  fisherman,  who  hauls  in  his  long  line,  hand  over  hand,  until  he 
brings  his  fish  alongside  of  the  boat.  If  he  is  of  tolerable  size,  weighing  only 
seven  or  ten  pounds,  the  troller  lifts  him  into  the  boat  by  the  line  ;  but  if  the  fish  is 
large,  he  runs  his  arm  down  into  the  water,  and  lifts  him  in  by  his  gills. 

'  The  excitement  that  this  scene  produces  in  all  those  in  the  boat,  is  not  to  be  describ- 
ed. One  instant  "you  see  the  fish  making  the  water  foam  with  his  tail,  the  next  you 
lose  sight  of  him  j  one  instant  the  troller  feels  him  jerking  desperately  backwards,  the  next 
he  darts  ahead  towards  the  boat,  carrying  the  line  with  him  j  and  the  fisherman,who  ceases 
to  feel  him,  is  distressed  for  fear  he  has  broken  loose  from  the  hook.  The  black  oarsmen 
ease  up  rowing  to  laugh  and  shout  with  great  glee.  The  troller's  anxiety  to  secure  his 
fish  is  so  great,  that  he  alone,  of  all  the  company,  is  silent,  and  full  of  uneasiness,  until 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  225 

and  haddock  of  the  Atlantic,  and  are  among  the  most  common  fish  in  the  market 
of  New  Orleans.  The  fish  of  the  gulf  shore  partake  of  the  character  both 
of  salt  and  fresh  water  fish ;  this  arises  from  their  being  taken  in  shallow 
lakes  principally  composed  of  fresh  water,  but  having  outlets  in  the  gulf, 
through  which  in  strong  south  winds  the  sea-water  is  forced  in  such  quan- 
tities that  they  become  salt.  There  are  a  vast  number  of  craw-fish  every 
where  in  the  marshy  grounds  and  shallow  waters.  By  penetrating  the 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  they  have  more  than  once  made  perforations  which 
have  imperceptibly  enlarged  to  crevices,  by  which  the  inundation  of  the  river 
has  been  let  in  upon  the  country. 

The  fish  of  the  western  rivers  are  generally  less  esteemed  than  those  of 
the  Atlantic  waters ;  and  in  truth,  fresh-water  fish  generally  will  not  vie 
with  those  of  the  sea.  The  fishes  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributary  rivers 
are  for  the  most  part  coarse,  tough,  large  and  unpleasant  in  their  flavor. 
*  Except  the  trout,  the  small  yellow  cat-fish,  the  pike,  the  bar-fish  and  the 
perch,'  says  Mr.  Flint,  ■  we  do  not  much  admire  the  fish  of  the  western 
waters.' 

Dr.  Mitchell  gives  the  following  account  of  a  gigantic  fish  of  the  ray  kind, 
which  he  calls  the  oceanic  vampire.  It  had  been  taken  near  the  entrance 
of  the  Delaware  Bay,  by  the  crew  of  a  smack  which  had  been  fitted  out 
for  the  express  purpose  of  capturing  some  sea-monster.  After  an  absence 
of  about  three  weeks,  the  adventurers  returned  with  the  animal  to  which 
we  refer.  It  was  killed  after  a  long  and  dangerous  encounter.  The  weight 
was  so  considerable,  that  after  it  had  been  towed  to  the  shore,  three  pair  of 
oxen  aided  by  a  horse  and  twenty-two  men  could  not  drag  it  to  the  dry 
land ;  the  weight  was  supposed  to  be  between  four  and  five  tons.  Its 
length  was  seventeen  feet  and  three  inches,  from  the  tip  of  the  head  to  the 
tip  of  the  tail.  The  breadth  from  the  extremity  of  one  pectoral  fin  or  wing 
to  the  other,  measuring  along  the  line  of  the  belly,  was  sixteen  feet ;  when 
measured  over  the  convexity  of  the  back,  eighteen  feet. 

he  gets  him  into  the  boat.  In  this  manner,  it  is  not  unusual  to  catch,  with  two  lines, 
ten  or  twenty  fish,  varying  in  weight  from  five  to  twenty  pounds  each,  in  an  hour — 
sometimes  they  are  caught  much  larger.  "When  the  fish  do  not  bite  fast,  the  troller 
does  not  become  wearied  soon  ;  his  line  is  always  out,  and  he  is  in  constant  expecta- 
tion of  feeling  a  bite,  as  the  boat  glides  backwards  and  forwards  across  the  river,  in 
search  of  luck ;  he  is  not  confined  to  one  rock,  like  the  sleepy  angler. 

'  This  would  be  very  dangerous  sport  to  persons  unaccustomed  to  it  ;  let  no  presump- 
tuous cits  venture  upon  it  by  themselves.  The  flat -bottomed  boat  must  be  rowed 
through  the  most  dangerous  falls  and  whirlpools  in  the  river.  Sometimes  she  is  forced, 
at  an  imperceptible  progress,  against  a  current  running  down  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees.  If  one  of  the  oarsmen  happens  to  fail  in  strength,  or  to  dip  his  oar  with  a  false 
stroke,  the  current  will  snatch  it  upwards  out  of  his  hands,  and  the  frail  skiff  will  be 
dashed  to  pieces  amongst  the  rocks.  Often  they  are  obliged  to  get  out  of  the  boat  on 
some  rock  above  water,  and  haul  her  over.  A  person  unaccustomed  to  it,  cannot  rely 
upon  his  senses  of  hearing  or  seeing.  He  is  first  deafened  by  the  stunning  roar  of  the 
incessant  flood,  then  sickened  by  the  tossing  of  the  skiff  amongst  the  waves  and  eddies. 
The  huge  rocks  that  rear  themselves  thick  to  oppose  the  rushing  waters,  covered  with 
eagles,  and  cormorants,  and  the  little  islands  all  seem  to  be  swimming  backwards.  And 
now  she  flies  across  a  shoal— at  first  glimpse,  the  little  skiff  seems  to  rest  securely  on 
the  bottom ;  at  the  next,  the  solid  bottom  appears  deceitfully  to  recede  from  beneath 
her,  and  leave  her  to  founder  in  the  dark  waters  of  a  bottomless  swirl.  And  again, 
before  he  is  aware  of  it,  she  seems  to  have  approached  so  near  the  falls  that  nothing 
can  prevent  her  from  going  over  side  foremost.  All  these  false  appearances  rushing  in 
succession,  quick  as  thought,  upon  the  mind  of  the  troubled  cockney,  turn  his  brain 
with  dizziness.' 

29 


226  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

On  each  side  of  the  mouth  there  was  a  vertical  fin  two  feet  and  six 
inches  long,  twelve  inches  deep,  and  two  inches  and  a  half  thick  in  the 
middle,  whence  it  tapered  towards  the  edges,  which  were  fringed  before 
with  a  radiated  margin.  The  fin  or  organ  thus  constituted  was  so  flexible 
as  to  bend  in  all  directions,  and  be  made  in  many  respects  to  perform  the 
function  of  a  hand.  The  wings,  flaps,  or  pectoral  fins,  were  of  very  curious 
organization  ;  they  bore  more  resemblance  to  the  wings  of  a  bird  than  to 
any  thing  else,  and  were  yet  so  different  as  to  manifest  a  remarkable  variety 
of  mechanism,  in  organs  intended  substantially  for  the  same  use.  Fish 
of  the  kind  now  under  consideration  may  be  aptly  denominated  submarine 
birds  ;  for  they  fly  through  the  water,  as  birds  fly  through  the  air. 

IV.  REPTILES. 

Reptiles,  or  animals  of  the  serpent,  turtle,  and  lizard  class,  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States ;  and  in  some  in  pernicious  abundance. 
All  varieties  of  the  rattlesnake^  are  seen;  of  these,  the  largest  is  the  yellow 
rattlesnake.  This  is  sometimes  seen  from  six  to  nine  feet  in  length,  and 
as  large  as  a  man's  leg.  A  species  of  small  rattlesnake  is  numerous  on 
the  prairies ;  in  the  far  west,  they  are  said  to  live  in  the  same  burrows  with 
the  prairie  dogs.  The  snapper,  or  ground  rattlesnake,  is  very  troublesome; 
it  travels  by  night,  and  frequents  house  paths  and  roads.  The  copper  head 
is  a  snake  supposed  to  be  more  venomous  even  than  the  preceding,  but  is 
less  frequently  found.  It  is  of  a  dirty  brown  color  ;  but  when  it  has  recent- 
ly shed  its  skin,  some  parts  of  its  body  resemble  burnished  copper. 

There  are  three  or  four  varieties  of  the  moccasin  snake  inhabiting  the 
southern  country.     The  upland  moccasin  somewhat  resembles  the  rattle- 

*  A  curious  incident  occurred  at  this  spot  to  one  of  our  men  named  La  Course, 
which  was  nearly  proving  fatal.  This  man  had  stretched  himself  on  the  ground,  after 
the  fatigue  of  the  day,  with  his  head  resting  on  a  small  package  of  goods,  and  quick- 
ly fell  asleep.  While  in  this  situation  I  passed  him,  and  was  almost  petrified  at  seeing 
a  large  rattlesnake  moving  from  his  side  to  his  left  breast.  My  first  impulse  was  to 
alarm  La  Course  ;  but  an  old  Canadian,  whom  I  had  beckoned  to  the  spot,  requested 
me  to  make  no  noise,  alleging  it  would  merely  cross  the  body,  and  go  away.  He  was 
mistaken  ;  for  on  reaching  the  man's  left  shoulder,  the  serpent  deliberately  coiled  itself, 
but  did  not  appear  to  meditate  an  attack.  Having  made  signs  to  several  others,  who 
joined  us,  it  was  determined  that  two  men  should  advance  a  little  in  front,  to  divert 
the  attention  of  the  snake,  while  one  should  approach  La  Course  behind,  and  with  a 
long  stick  endeavor  to  remove  it  from  his  body.  The  snake,  on  observing  the  men  ad- 
vance in  front,  instantly  raised  its  head,  darted  out  its  forked  tongue,  and  shook  its 
rattles  ;  all  indications  of  anger.  Every  one  was  now  in  a  state  of  feverish  agitation 
as  to  the  fate  of  poor  La  Course,  who  still  lay  slumbering,  unconscious  of  his  danger ; 
when  the  man  behind,  who  had  procured  a  stick  seven  feet  in  length,  suddenly  placed 
one  end  of  it  under  the  coiled  reptile,  and  succeeded  it  pitching  it  upwards  of  ten  feet 
from  the  man's  body.  A  shout  of  joy  was  the  first  intimation  La  Course  received  of 
his  wonderful  escape,  while  in  the  mean  time  the  man  with  the  stick  pursued  the  snake, 
which  he  killed.  It  was  three  feet  six  inches  long,  and  eleven  years  old,  which,  I  need 
not  inform  my  readers,  we  easily  ascertained  by  the  number  of  rattles.  A  general 
search  was  then  commenced  about  the  encampment,  and  under  several  rocks  we  found 
upwards  of  fifty  of  them,  all  of  which  we  destroyed.  There  is  no  danger  attending 
their  destruction,  provided  a  person  has  a  long  pliant  stick,  and  does  not  approach 
them  nearer  than  their  length,  for  they  cannot  spring  beyond  it,  and  seldom  act  on  the 
offensive  except  closely  pursued.  They  have  a  strong  repugnance  to  the  smell  of  to- 
bacco,  in  consequence  of  which  we  opened  a  bale  of  it,  and  strewed  a  quantity  of  loose 
leaves  about  the  tents,  by  which  means  we  avoided  their  visits  during  the  night. — Rost 
Cox. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  227 

snatce,  but  is  still  more  disgusting  in  its  appearance.  The  largest  variety 
of  the  moccasin  snake  is  similar  to  the  water  snake  of  the  Atlantic  coun- 
try. It  is  a  serpent  of  the  largest  size,  exceedingly  venomous,  with  a  very 
large  flat  head,  lazy,  and  unobservant  of  man.  There  is  another  species 
of  the  moccasin  seldom  seen  on  shore,  of  a  brilliant  copper  color,  striped 
with  gray  rings.  The  brown  viper,  or  hissing  snake,  is  from  six  to  eight 
inches  long,  terminating  in  a  sharp  tail;  when  angry,  the  color  of  its  back 
changes,  its  head  flattens  and  dilates  to  twice  its  usual  extent,  and  its  hiss 
resembles  that  of  a  goose.  It  is  extremely  venomous,  and  of  a  very  re- 
pulsive aspect.  One  that  was  confined  by  a  stick  across  its  back,  instant- 
ly bit  itself  in  two  or  three  places;  and  when  released,  it  soon  become 
swollen  and  died. 

Mr.  Flint  expresses  his  conviction  that  the  Mississippi  valley  presents  a 
greater  number  of  serpents,  and  is  more  infested  by  them  than  the  Atlan- 
tic shore,  excepting  perhaps  its  southern  border.  Wherever  the  population 
becomes  dense,  the  swine  prey  upon  them,  and  they  quickly  disappear. 
Their  most  permanent  and  dangerous  resorts  are  near  the  bases  of  preci- 
pitous and  rocky  hills,  about  ledges  and  flint  knobs,  and  in  the  southern 
countries  along  vast  swamps  and  stagnant  waters.  The  bite  of  these  ser- 
pents is  venomous,  and  the  person  that  is  bitten  often  becomes  blind. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  summer,  the  serpents  themselves  become 
blind ;  the  popular  belief  on  this  subject  is,  that  this  blindness  arises  from 
the  absorption  of  their  own  poison  into  the  system.  During  this  period, 
though  their  aim  is  less  certain,  their  bite  is  most  dangerous.  Death  sel- 
dom occurs,  however,  from  this  cause. 

The  country  has  the  usual  varieties  of  harmless  serpents,  such  as  the 
green  garter,  chicken,  and  coach-whip  snakes.  The  glass  snake  is  often 
seen  with  a  body  of  the  utmost  brilliancy.  A  stroke  across  the  back  sepa- 
rates the  body  into  several  pieces,  each  of  which  continues  for  some  time 
to  exercise  the  powers  of  locomotion.  The  bull  or  prairie  snakes  are  of 
hideous  appearance  and  of  large  size ;  they  inhabit  holes  in  the  ground, 
and  run  at  the  traveller  with  a  loud  hiss,  but  instantly  retreat  if  he  stands^ 
and  faces  them.  They  are  believed  to  be  perfectly  harmless,  but  their 
aspect  is  such  as  to  excite  great  horror. 

Ugly  animals  of  the  lizard  kind  are  seen  in  all  the  climates  in  a  greater 
or  less  number ;  they  are  found  under  rotten  logs,  and  are  dug  out  of  al 
luvions,  the  last  description  being  lazy  and  disgusting.  They  appear  to  be 
harmless.  Common  small  lizards  are  frequent  in  the  southern  districts, 
and  also  varieties  of  small  chameleons.  These  will  change  in  half  an 
hour  to  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  '  We  have  placed  them  on  a  hand 
kerchief,'  says  Mr.  Flint,  '  and  they  have  gradually  assumed  all  its  colors* 
Placed  on  a  black  surface,  they  become  brown ;  but  they  evidently  sufTei 
while  under  this  color,  as  is  manifested  by  uneasy  movements,  and  by 
strong  and  quick  palpitation,  visible  to  the  eye.  They  are  very  active  and 
nimble  animals,  three  or  four  inches  in  length.'  Some  lizards  of  a  largei 
class  and  with  flatter  heads,  are  called  scorpions ;  they  are  ugly  animals, 
and  are  considered  poisonous.  When  attacked,  they  show  the  angry  man- 
ner of  the  serpent,  vibrating  a  fiery  and  forked  tongue,  and  biting  witb 
f  great  fury  at  the  stick  which  arrests  them. 

Of  this  class,  the  most  terrible  is  the  alligator.  The  description  of  this- 
animal  by  Mr.  Audubon  is  so  interesting,  and  so  strongly  marked  by  tlw 


228  BOOK  OF  THA  UNITED  states. 

agreeable  peculiarities  of  his  attractive  and  original  style,  that  we  shall 
transfer  it  to  our  pages  with  but  slight  abridgment.  This  distinguished 
naturalist,  by  his  eminent  services  in  the  cause  to  which  he  has  been  so 
zealously  devoted,  has  erected  an  eternal  monument ;  and  posterity  will 
read  the  name  which  it  records  for  ages,  after  every  trace  of  the  great 
warriors  and  ambitious  politicians  of  our  time  has  faded  from  the  pages  cjf 
history. 

'  In  Louisiana,  all  our  lagoons,  bayous,  creeks,  ponds,  lakes  and  rivers, 
are  well  stocked  with  alligators ;  they  are  found  wherever  there  is  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  water  to  hide  them,  or  to  furnish  them  with  food ;  and 
they  continue  thus,  in  great  numbers,  as  high  as  the  mouth  of  the  Arkan- 
sas river,  extending  east  to  North  Carolina,  and  as  far  west  as  I  have  pene- 
trated. On  the  Red  river,  before  it  was  navigated  by  steam  vessels,  they 
were  so  extremely  abundant  that,  to  see  hundreds  at  a  sight  along  the 
shores,  or  on  the  immense  rafts  of  floating  or  stranded  timber,  was  quite  a 
common  occurrence,  the  smaller  on  the  backs  of  the  larger,  groaning  and 
uttering  their  bellowing  noise,  like  thousands  of  irritated  bulls  about  to 
meet  in  fight,  but  all  so  careless  of  man  that,  unless  shot  at,  or  positively 
disturbed,  they  remained  motionless,  suffering  boats  or  canoes  to  pass 
within  a  few  yards  of  them,  without  noticing  them  in  the  least.  The 
shores  are  yet  trampled  by  them  in  such  a  manner,  that  their  large  tracts 
are  seen  as  plentiful  as  those  of  sheep  in  a  fold.  It  was  on  that  river  par- 
ticularly, thousands  of  the  largest  size  were  killed,  when  the  mania  of 
having  shoes,  boots,  or  saddle-seats,  made  of  their  hides,  lasted.  It  had 
become  an  article  of  trade,  and  many  of  the  squatters  and  strolling  Indians 
followed  for  a  time  no  other  business.  The  discovery  that  their  skins  are 
not  sufficiently  firm  and  close-grained  to  prevent  water  or  dampness  long, 
put  a  stop  to  their  general  destruction,  which  had  already  become  very 
apparent.  The  leather  prepared  from  these  skins  was  handsome  and  very 
pliant,  exhibiting  all  the  regular  lozenges  of  the  scales,  and  able  to  receive 
the  highest  degree  of  polish  and  finishing. 

'The  usual  motion  of  the  alligator,  when  on  land,  is  slow  and  sluggish; 
it  is  a  kind  of  labored  crawling,  performed  by  moving  alternately  each  leg, 
in  the  manner  of  a  quadruped  when  walking,  scarce  able  to  keep  up  their 
weighty  bodies  from  dragging  on  the  earth,  and  leaving  the  track  of  their 
long  tail  on  the  mud,  as  if  that  of  the  keel  of  a  small  vessel.  Thus  they 
emerge  from  the  water,  and  go  about  the  shores  and  the  woods,  or  the 
fields  in  search  of  food,  or  of  a  different  place  of  abode,  or  one  of  safety 
to  deposit  their  eggs.  If,  at  such  times,  when  at  all  distant  from  the 
water,  an  enemy  is  perceived  by  them,  they  droop  and  lie  flat,  with  the 
nose  on  the  ground,  watching  the  intruder's  movements  with  their  eyes, 
which  are  able  to  move  considerably  round,  without  affecting  the  position 
of  the  head.  Should  a  man  then  approach  them,  they  do  not  attempt 
either  to  make  away  or  attack,  but  merely  raise  their  body  from  the 
ground  for  an  instant,  swelling  themselves  and  issuing  a  dull  blowing,  not 
unlike  that  of  a  blacksmith's  bellows.  Not  the  least  danger  need  be  ap- 
prehended :  then  you  either  kill  them  with  ease,  or  leave  them.  But  to 
give  you  a  better  idea  of  the  slowness  of  their  movements  and  progress  of 
travels  on  land,  when  arrived  at  a  large  size,  say  twelve  or  fifteen  feet,  be- 
Bete  me  when  I  tell  you,  that  having  found  one  in  the  morning,  fifty  yards 
£rom  a  lake,  going  to  another  in  sight,  I  have  left  him  unmolested,  hunted 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  229 

through  the  surrounding  swamps  all  the  day,  and  met  the  same  alligator 
within  five  hundred  yards  of  the  spot  when  returning  to  my  camp  at  dusk. 
On  this  account  they  usually  travel  during  the  night,  they  being  then  less 
likely  to  be  disturbed,  and  having  a  better  chance  to  surprise  a  litter  of  pigs 
or  of  land  tortoises,  for  prey. 

'  The  power  of  the  alligator  is  in  his  great  strength  ;  and  the  chief  means 
of  his  attack  or  defence  is  his  large  tail,  so  well  contrived  by  nature  to 
supply  his  wants,  or  guard  him  from  danger,  that  it  reaches,  when  curved 
into  half  a  circle,  his  enormous  mouth.  Woe  be  to  him  who  goes  within 
the  reach  of  this  tremendous  thrashing  instrument ;  for  no  matter  how  strong 
or  muscular,  if  human,  he  must  suffer  greatly,  if  he  escapes  with  life.  The 
monster,  as  he  strikes  with  this,  forces  all  objects  within  the  circle  towards 
his  jaws,  which,  as  the  tail  makes  a  motion,  are  opened  to  their  full  stretch, 
thrown  a  little  sideways,  to  receive  the  object,  and,  like  battering-rams,  to 
bruise  it  shockingly  in  a  moment. 

1  The  alligator,  when  after  prey  in  the  water,  or  at  its  edge,  swims 
so  slowly  towards  it  as  not  to  ruffle  the  water.  It  approaches  the  object 
sideways,  body  and  head  all  concealed,  till  sure  of  his  stroke ;  then,  with 
a  tremendous  blow,  as  quick  as  thought,  the  object  is  secured,  as  I 
described  before. 

'  When  alligators  are  fishing,  the  flapping  of  their  tails  about  the  water 
may  be  heard  at  half  a  mile ;  but  to  describe  this  in  a  more  graphic  way, 
6urTer  me  to  take  you  along  with  me,  in  one  of  my  hunting  excursions, 
accompanied  by  friends  and  negroes.  In  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
Bayou-Sarah,  on  the  Mississippi,  are  extensive  shallow  lakes  and  morasses; 
they  are  yearly  overflowed  by  the  dreadful  floods  of  that  river,  and  sup- 
plied with  myriads  of  fishes  of  many  kinds,  amongst  which  trouts  are  most 
abundant,  white  perch,  cat  fish,  and  alligator-gars,  or  devil  fish.  Thither, 
in  the  early  part  of  autumn,  when  the  heat  of  a  southern  sun  has  exhaled 
much  of  the  water,  the  squatter,  the  planter,  the  hunter,  all  go  in  search  of 
sport.  The  lakes  are  then  about  two  feet  deep,  having  a  fine  sandy  bottom ; 
frequently  much  grass  grows  in  them,  bearing  crops  of  seed,  for  which 
multitudes  of  water-fowl  resort  to  those  places.  The  edges  of  these 
lakes  are  deep  swamps,  muddy  for  some  distance,  overgrown  with  heavy 
large  timber,  principally  cypress,  hung  with  Spanish  beard,  and  tangled 
with  different  vines,  creeping  plants,  and  cane,  so  as  to  render  them  almost 
dark  during  the  day,  and  very  difficult  to  the  hunter's  progress.  Here  and 
there  in  the  lakes  are  small  islands,  with  clusters  of  the  same  trees,  on 
which  flocks  of  snake-birds,  wood-ducks,  and  different  species  of  herons, 
build  their  nests.  Fishing-lines,  guns,  and  rifles,  some  salt,  and  some 
water,  are  all  the  hunters  take. 

1  At  last,  the  opening  of  the  lake  is  seen  :  it  has  now  become  neces- 
sary to  drag  one's  self  along  through  the  deep  mud,  making  the  best  of 
the  way,  with  the  head  bent,  through  the  small  brushy  growth,  caring  about 
nought  but  the  lock  of  your  gun.  The  long  narrow  Indian  canoe  kept  to 
hunt  those  lakes,  and  taken  into  them  during  the  fresh,  is  soon  launched, 
and  the  party  seated  in  the  bottom,  is  paddled  or  poled  in  search  of  water 
game.  There,  at  a  sight,  hundreds  of  alligators  are  seen  dispersed  over 
all  the  lake ;  their  head,  and  all  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  floating  like  a 
log,  and  in  many  instances,  so  resembling  one  that  it  requires  to  be  accus- 
tomed to  see  them  to  know  the  distinction.     Millions   of    the  large  wood- 

20 


230  BOOK  OF  THE  IGNITED  STATES. 

ibis  are  seen  wading  through  the  water,  mudding  it  up,  and  striking  deadly 
blows  with  their  bills  on  the  fish  within.  Here  are  a  hoard  of  blue  herons 
—the  sand-hill  crane  rises  with  hoarse  note — the  snake-birds  are  perched 
here  and  there  on  the  dead  timber  of  the  trees — the  cormorants  are  fishing 
■ — buzzards  and  carrion-crows  exhibit  a  mourning  train,  patiently  waiting 
for  the  water  to  dry  and  leave  food  for  them — and  far  in  the  horizon,  the 
eagle  overtakes  a  devoted  wood-duck,  singled  from  the  clouded  flocks  that 
have  been  bred  there. 

1  It  is  then  that  you  see  and  hear  the  alligator  at  his  work, — each  lake 
has  a  spot  deeper  than  the  rest,  rendered  so  by  those  animals  who  work  at 
it,  and  always  situate  at  the  lower  end  of  the  lake,  near  the  connecting 
bayous,  that)  as  drainers*  pass  through  all  those  lakes,  and  discharge  some- 
times many  miles  below  where  the  water  had  made  its  entrance  above, 
thereby  insuring  to  themselves  water  as  long  as  any  will  remain.  This  is 
called  by  the  hunters  the  alligators'  hole.  You  see  them  there  lying  close 
together.  The  fish  that  are  already  dying  by  thousands,  through  the  insuf- 
ferable heat  and  stench  of  the  water,  and  the  wounds  of  the  different 
winged  enemies  constantly  in  pursuit  of  them,  resort  to  the  alligators'  hole 
to  receive  refreshment,  with  a  hope  of  finding  security  also,  and  follow 
down  the  little  currents  flowing  through  the  connecting  sluices  :  but  no ! 
for,  as  the  water  recedes  in  the  lake,  they  are  here  confined.  The  alliga- 
tors thrash  them  and  devour  them  whenever  they  feel  hungry,  while  the 
ibis  destroys  all  that  make  towards  the  shore.  By  looking  attentively  on 
this  spot,  you  plainly  see  the  tails  of  the  alligators  moving  to  and  fro, 
splashing,  and  now  and  then,  when  missing  a  fish,  throwing  it  up  in  the 
air.  The  hunter,  anxious  to  prove  the  value  of  his  rifle,  marks  one  of  the 
eyes  of  the  largest  alligator,  and,  as  the  hair  trigger  is  touched,  the  alligator 
dies.  Should  the  ball  strike  one  inch  astray  from  the  eye,  the  animal 
flounces,  rolls  over  and  over,  beating  furiously  about  him  with  his  tail, 
frightening  all  his  companions,  who  sink  immediately,  whilst  the  fishes, 
like  blades  of  burnished  metal,  leap  in  all  directions  out  of  the  water,  so 
terrified  are  they  at  this  uproar.  Another  and  another  receives  the  shot  in 
the  eye,  and  expires ;  yet  those  that  do  not  feel  the  fatal  bullet,  pay  no 
attention  to  the  death  of  their  companions  till  the  hunter  approaches  very 
close,  when  they  hide  themselves  for  a  few  moments  by  sinking  back- 
wards. 

'  So  truly  gentle  are  the  alligators  at  this  season,  that  I  have  waded 
through  such  lakes  in  company  of  my  friend  Augustin  Bourgeat,  Esq.  to 
whom  I  owe  much  information,  merely  holding  a  stick  in  one  hand  to  drive 
them  off,  had  they  attempted  to  attack  me.  When  first  I  saw  this  way  of 
travelling  through  the  lakes,  waist-deep,  sometimes  with  hundreds  of  these 
animals  about  me,  I  acknowledge  to  you  that  I  felt  great  uneasiness,  and 
thought  it  fool-hardiness  to  do  so  :  but  my  friend,  who  is  a  most  experienced 
hunter  in  that  country,  removed  my  fears  by  leading  the  way,  and,  after  a 
few  days,  I  thought  nothing  of  it.  If  you  go  towards  the  head  of  the 
alligator,  there  is  no  danger,  and  you  may  safely  strike  it  with  a  club,  four 
feet  long,  until  you  drive  it  away,  merely  watching  the  operations  of  the 
point  of  the  tail,  that,  at  each  blow  you  give,  thrashes  to  the  right  and  left 
most  furiously. 

'  The  drivers  of  cattle  from  the  Appelousas,  and  those  of  mules  from 
Mexico*  on  reaching  a  lagoon  or  creek,  send  several   of  their  party  into 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  231 

the  water,  armed  merely  each  with  a  elub,  for  the  purpose  of  driving  away 
the  alligators  from  the  cattle  ;  and  you  may  then  see  men,  mules,  and 
those  monsters,  all  swimming  together,  the  men  striking  the  alligators,  that 
would  otherwise  attack  the  cattle,  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  and  those 
latter  hurrying  towards  the  opposite  shores,  to  escape  those  powerful  ene- 
mies. They  will  swim  swiftly  after  a  dog,  or  a  deer,  or  a  horse,  before 
attempting  the  destruction  of  man,  of  which  I  have  always  remarked  they 
were  afraid,  if  the  man  feared  not  them. 

*  Although  I  have  told  you  how  easily  an  alligator  may  be  killed  with  a 
single  rifle-ball,  if  well  aimed,  that  is  to  say,  if  it  strike  either  in  the  eye 
or  very  immediately  above  it,  yet  they  are  quite  as  difficult  to  be  destroyed 
if  not  shot  properly;  and,  to  give  you  an  idea  of  this,  I  shall  mention  two 
striking  facts. 

'  My  good  friend  Richard  Harlan,  M.  D.  of  Philadelphia,  having  inti 
mated  a  wish  to  have  the  heart  of  one  of  these  animals  to  study  its  compar- 
ative anatomy,  I  one  afternoon  went  out  about  half  a  mile  from  the  plantation 
and,  seeing  an  alligator  that  I  thought  I  could  put  whole  into  a  hogshead  of 
spirits,  I  shot  it  immediately  on  the  skull  bone.  It  tumbled  over  from  the 
log  on  which  it  had  been  basking,  into  the  water,  and,  with  the  assistance 
of  two  negroes,  I  had  it  out  in  a  few  minutes,  apparently  dead.  ^A  strong 
rope  was  fastened  round  its  neck,  and,  in  this  condition,  I  had  it  dragged 
home  across  logs,  thrown  over  fences,  and  handled  without  the  least  fear. 
Some  young  ladies  there,  anxious  to  see  the  inside  of  his  mouth,  requested 
that  the  mouth  should  be  propped  open  with  a  stick  put  vertically ;  this  was 
attempted,  but  at  this  instant  the  first  stunning  effect  of  the  wound  was 
over,  and  the  animal  thrashed  and  snapped  its  jaws  furiously,  although'  it 
did  not  advance  a  foot.  The  rope  being  still  round  the  neck,  I  had  it 
thrown  over  a  strong  branch  of  a  tree  in  the  yard,  and  hauled  the  poor 
creature  up  swinging,  free  from  all  about  it,  and  left  it  twisting  itself,  and 
scratching  with  its  fore  feet  to  disengage  the  rope.  It  remained  in  this 
condition  until  the  next  morning,  when  finding  it  still  alive,  though  very 
weak,  the  hogshead  of  spirits  was  put  under  it,  and  the  alligator  fairly 
lowered  into  it  with  a  surge.  It  twisted  about  a  little  ;  but  the  cooper 
secured  the  cask,  and  it  was  shipped  to  Philadelphia,  where  it  arrived  in 
course. 

1  Again,  being  in  company  with  Augustin  Bourgeat,  Esq.,  we  met  an 
extraordinary  large  alligator  in  the  woods  whilst  hunting ;  and.  for  the  sake 
of  destruction  I  may  say,  we  alighted  from  our  horses,  and  approached  with 
full  intention  to  kill  it.  The  alligator  was  put  between  us,  each  of  us 
provided  with  a  long  stick  to  irritate  it ;  and,  by  making  it  turn  its  head 
partly  on  one  side,  afford  us  the  means  of  shooting  it  immediately  behind 
the  fore  leg  and  through  the  heart.  We  both  discharged  five  heavy  loads 
of  duck-shot  into  its  body,  and  almost  all  into  the  same  hole,  without  any 
other  effect  than  that  of  exciting  regular  strokes  of  the  tail,  and  snapping 
of  the  jaws  at  each  discharge,  and  the  flow  of  a  great  quantity  of  blood 
out  of  the  wound,  and  mouth,  and  nostrils  of  the  animal  j  but  it  was  still 
full  of  life  and  vigor,  and  to  have  touched  it  with  the  hand  would  have 
been  madness ;  but  as  we  were  anxious  to  measure  it,  and  to  knock  off 
some  of  its  larger  teeth  to  make  powder  charges,  it  was  shot  with  a  single 
ball  just  above  the  eye,  when  it  bounded  a  few  inches  off  the  ground,  and 
was  dead  when  it  reached  it  again.     Its  length  was  seventeen  feet ;  it  was 


232  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

apparently  centuries  old ;  many  of  its  teeth  measured  three  inches.  The 
shot  taken  were  without  a  foot  only  of  the  circle  that  we  knew  the  tail 
could  form,  and  our  shots  went  en  masse. 

1  As  the  lakes  become  dry,  and  even  the  deeper  connecting  bayous  empty 
themselves  into  the  rivers,  the  alligators  congregate  into  the  deepest  hole 
in  vast  numbers ;  and,  to  this  day,  in  such  places,  are  shot  for  the  sake  of 
their  oil,  now  used  for  greasing  the  machinery  of  steam-engines  and  cotton 
mills,  though  formerly,  when  indigo  was  made  in  Louisiana,  the  oil  was 
used  to  assuage  the  overflowing  of  the  boiling  juice,  by  throwing  a  ladleful 
into  the  kettle  whenever  this  was  about  to  take  place.  The  alligators  are 
caught  frequently  in  nets  by  fishermen  ;  they  then  come  without  struggling 
to  the  shore,  and  are  killed  by  blows  on  the  head  given  with  axes. 

1  When  autumn  has  heightened  the  coloring  of  the  foliage  of  our  woods, 
and  the  air  feels  more  rarefied  during  the  nights  and  earlier  part  of  the 
day,  the  alligators  leave  the  lakes  to  seek  for  winter  quarters,  by  burrow- 
ing under  the  roots  of  trees,  or  covering  themselves  simply  with  earth 
along  their  edges.  They  become  then  very  languid  and  inactive,  and,  at 
this  period,  to  sit  or  ride  on  one  would  not  be  more  difficult  than  for  a 
child  to  mount  his  wooden  rocking-horse.  The  negroes,  who  now  kill 
them,  put^ll  danger  aside,  by  separating,  at  one  blow  with  an  axe,  the  tail 
from  the  body.  They  are  afterwards  cut  up  in  large  pieces,  and  boiled 
whole  in  a  good  quantity  of  water,  from  the  surface  of  which  the  fat  is 
collected  with  large  ladles.  One  single  man  kills  oftentimes  a  dozen  or 
more  of  large  alligators  in  the  evening,  prepares  his  fire  in  the  woods, 
where  he  has  erected  a  camp  for  the  purpose,  and  by  morning  has  the  oil 
rendered. 

f  I  have  frequently  been  very  much  amused  when  fishing  in  a  bayou, 
where  alligators  were  numerous,  by  throwing  a  blown  bladder  on  the  water 
towards  the  nearest  to  me.  The  alligator  makes  for  it,  flaps  it  towards  its 
mouth,  or  attempts  seizing  it  at  once,  but  all  in  vain.  The  light  bladder 
slides  off;  in  a  few  minutes  many  alligators  are  trying  to  seize  this,  and 
their  evolutions  are  quite  interesting.  They  then  put  one  in  mind  of  a 
crowd  of  boys  running  after  a  football.  A  black  bottle  is  sometimes  thrown 
also,  tightly  corked ;  but  the  alligator  seizes  this  easily,  and  you  hear  the 
glass  give  way  under  its  teeth  as  if  ground  in  a  coarse  mill.  They  are 
easily  caught  by  negroes,  who  most  expertly  throw  a  rope  over  their  heads 
when  swimming  close  to  shore,  and  haul  them  out  instantly.' 

The  Tortoise  is  found  in  considerable  numbers  and  variety.  In  the  lakes 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  near  New  Orleans,  a  soft  shelled  mud-tortoise 
is  found,  which  epicures  declare  to  be  not  much  inferior  to  the  sea-turtle  of 
the  West  Indies.  The  gouffre  is  an  animal  apparently  of  the  tortoise  class, 
and  is  abundant  in  the  pine  barrens  of  the  south-western  states.  Its  shell 
is  large  and  thick,  and  it  burrows  to  a  great  depth  in  the  ground ;  its 
strength  and  power  are  wonderful,  and  in  many  respects  it  is  similar  to  the 
logger-head  turtle.  The  siren  is  nearly  two  feet  in  length,  and  a  very 
singular  animal ;  it  somewhat  resembles  the  lamprey.  It  is  amphibious, 
penetrates  the  mud  easily,  and  seems  to  be  of  an  order  between  fish  and 
lizards.  The  whole  of  the  republic  is  prolific  in  toads,  frogs,  and  reptiles 
of  that  class  ;  but  they  are  found  in  the  greatest  number  and  variety  in 
the  regions  of  the  warmest  temperature. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  233 

V.    INSECTS. 

The  insects  of  the  United  States  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
beautiful ;  many  of  the  species  are  entirely  new,  and  science  has  been 
much  indebted  to  Mr.  Say  for  additions  of  no  inconsiderable  importance  to 
entomology.  The  moths  and  butterflies  are  exceedingly  splendid,  and  one 
of  them,  the  atlas  moth,  is  the  largest  hitherto  known.  Among  the  spiders, 
is  a  huge  species  called  the  tarantula,  supposed  to  inflict  a  dangerous  bite. 
The  annoyance  inflicted  by  moschetos  in  hot  weather  is  well  known  ;  by 
these  and  other  stinging  insects,  damp  and  low  situations  are  rendered  very 
disagreeable  during  the  summer.  The  fire  flies,  which  glitter  especially 
in  the  southern  forests,  are  very  interesting.  The  copper  colored  centi- 
ped,  a  creature  of  cylindrical  form,  and  as  long  as  a  man's  finger,  is 
dreaded  as  noxious  ;  a  family  is  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by  taking  tea 
in  which  one  of  them  had  been  accidentally  boiled. 

One  insect,  the  csgeria  exitiosa,  has  committed  great  ravages  among  the 
peach  trees.  The  larva  begins  the  work  of  destruction  about  the  beginning 
of  October,  by  entering  the  tree,  probably  through  the  tender  bark  under 
the  surface  of  the  soil ;  thence  it  proceeds  downwards,  within  the  tree,  into 
the  root,  and  then  turns  its  course  upwards  towards  the  surface,  where  it 
arrives  about  the  commencement  of  the  succeeding  July.  They  voraciously 
devour  both  the  alburnum  and  the  liber,  the  new  wood  and  the  inner  bark. 
The  insects  deposit  from  one  to  three  hundred  eggs  within  the  bark  of  the 
tree,  according  to  its  capacity  to  support  their  progeny. 

The  United  States  are  not  free  from  the  scourge  of  the  locust.  The 
males  have  under  each  wing  a  ribbed  membrane  as  thin  as  a  gossamer's 
web,  which,  when  inflated,  constitutes  their  musical  organ.  The  female  has 
a  sting  or  drill,  the  size  of  a  pin,  and  near  half  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  hard 
and  brittle  substance,  which  lies  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body ;  with 
this  the  insect  drills  a  hole  into  the  small  limbs  of  trees,  quite  to  the  pith  ; 
there  it  deposits  through  this  hollow  sting  or  drill  some  dozen  or  two  of 
small  white  eggs.  The  time  required  to  drill  the  hole  and  deposit  the  egg 
is  from  two  to  five  minutes.  When  undisturbed,  they  make  some  half 
dozen  or  more  insertions  of  their  drill  in  the  same  limb,  perhaps  an  inch 
apart,  and  these  punctures  usually  produce  speedy  death  to  the  end  of  the 
limb.  They  sometimes  swarm  about  the  forests  in  countless  multitudes, 
making  '  melancholy  music,'  and  causing  no  less  melancholy  desolation. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  ZOOLOGY. 

The  zoology  of  the  United  States  opens  a  wide  and  interesting  field  of  observation  ; 
it  is  more  peculiar  and  striking  than  either  the  mineralogy  or  botany.  The  following 
general  view  of  the  mammiferous  animals  inhabiting  North  America  is  given  by  Dr. 
Harman.  The  number  of  species  now  ascertained  is  one  hundred  and  forty-six,  in 
which  we  do  not  include  man  ;  of  these  twenty-eight  are  cetacea,  and  one  hundred  and 
eighteen  are  quadrupeds.  Among  the  quadrupeds,  Dr.  Harman  reckons  eleven  species, 
of  which  no  living  trace  is  found  in  any  part  of  the  world  ;  which  cannot  of  course  be 
considered  as  forming  a  part  of  our  present  zoology.  The  number  of  living  species  of 
quadrupeds  is  therefore  one  hundred  and  seven.  The  comparative  numbers  of  the 
several  orders  are  stated  as  follows,  omitting  man : 

Carnivora 60 

Glires 37 

Edentata 6 

Pachydermata ,  2 

Ruminantia .........     .     .     .  .     .13 

Cetacea ..."  28 

90  20* 


234 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATE& 


We  may  here  introduce  from  Dr.  Harman  a 
American   quadrupeds,  which  he  conceives  to 


statement  of  the  number  of  North 
be  common  both  to  the  new  and 


world. 

Species. 

Species. 

Species. 

1  Mole. 

2  Wolf. 

1  Field-mouse. 

2  Shrew. 

2  Fox. 

1  Campagnol  (rat.) 

1  Bear. 

2  Seal. 

1  Squirrel. 

1  Glutton. 

2  Weasel. 

2  Deer. 

1  Otter. 

1  Beaver. 

1  Sheep. 

The  whole  number  of  common  species  is  twenty  one ;  leaving  eighty-six  species  as 
peculiar  to  North  America,  though  not  all  of  them  to  the  United  States. 

Charles  Lucien  Bonaparte  has  arranged  the  birds  of  the  United  States  in  twenty* 
eight  families,  eighty-one  genera,  and  three  hundred  and  sixty-two  species,  viz. :  two 
hundred  and  nine  land,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  water-birds.  Of  the  eighty-one 
genera,  sixty-three  are  common  to  Europe  and  America,  while  eighteen  have  no  repre- 
sentatives in  Europe. 


235 


CHAPTER  XVII.— BOTANY. 

The  vegetation  of  the  United  States  is  as  various  as  the  climate  and 
soil.  In  Florida  and  the  southern  states,  the  superb  magnolia,  the  majes- 
tic tulip  tree  and  the  deciduous  cypress  charm  the  traveller  by  their  grandeur 
and  beauty.  The  lofty  oak,  the  stately  fir  and  the  gracefully-waving 
elm  of  the  north,  present  a  different  and  still  a  highly  interesting  study  to 
the  naturalist.  As  a  general  observation,  the  trees  of  the  United  States  are 
larger,  taller,  and  more  generally  useful  for  timber  than  those  of  Europe. 
As  to  height,  it  is  observed  by  Michaux,  that,  while  in  France  only  thirty- 
seven  species  of  trees  arrive  at  thirty  feet,  in  the  transatlantic  republic,  one 
hundred  and  thirty  exceed  that  elevation.  A  general  idea  of  the  American 
forest  having  thus  been  given,  we  will  now  notice,  as  largely  as  our  limits 
will  permit,  the  most  remarkable  trees. 

Oak. — The  White  Oak  is  found  throughout  the  United  States,  though  it 
is  by  no  means  equally  diffused.  It  abounds  chiefly  in  the  middle  states, 
particularly  in  that  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  which  lies  between 
the  Alleghanies  and  the  Ohio,  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles,  where  nine  tenths  of  the  forests  are  frequently  composed  of  these 
trees,  whose  healthful  appearance  evinces  the  favorable  nature  of  the  soil. 
East  of  the  mountains,  this  tree  is  found  in  every  exposure,  and  in  every 
soil  which  is  not  extremely  dry  or  subject  to  long  inundations ;  but  the 
largest  stocks  grow  in  humid  places.  In  the  western  districts,  where  it 
composes  entire  forests,  the  face  of  the  country  is  undulated,  and  the  yellow 
soil,  consisting  partly  of  clay  with  calcareous  stones,  yields  abundant  crops 
of  wheat. 

The  white  oak  attains  the  elevation  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  with  a 
diameter  of  six  or  seven  feet ;  but  its  proportions  vary  with  the  soil  and 
climate.  Soon  after  their  unfolding,  the  leaves  are  reddish  above  and  white 
and  downy  beneath ;  when  fully  grown,  they  are  smooth  and  of  a  light 
green  on  the  upper  surface.  In  autumn,  they  change  to  a  bright  violet 
color,  and  form  an  agreeable  contrast  with  the  surrounding  foliage  which 
has  not  yet  suffered  by  the  frost.  This  is  the  only  oak  on  which  a  few  of 
the  dried  leaves  remain  till  the  circulation  is  renewed  in  the  spring.  By 
this  peculiarity  and  by  the  whiteness  of  the  bark,  from  which  it  derives  its 
name,  it  is  easily  distinguishable  in  the  winter.  This  tree  puts  forth 
flowers  in  May,  which  are  succeeded  by  acorns  of  an  oval  form,  large,  very 
sweet,  contained  in  rough,  shallow,  grayish  cups,  and  borne  singly  or  in 
pairs,  by  peduncles  eight  or  ten  lines  in  length,  attached,  as  in  all  species 
of  annual  fructification,  to  the  shoots  of  the  season.  The  fruit  of  the  white 
oak  is  rarely  abundant,  and  frequently,  for  several  years  in  succession,  a  few 
handfuls  of  acorns  could  hardly  be  collected  in  a  large  forest  where  the 
tree  is  multiplied.     Some  stocks  produce  acorns  of  a  deep  blue  color. 

Of  all  the  American  oaks,  this  is  the  best  and  the  most  generally  used, 
being  strong,  durable,  and  of  large  dimensions.  It  is  less  employed  than 
formerly  in  building,  only  because  it  is  scarcer  and  more  costly.     Among 


236  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  uses  of  this  wood,  the  most  important  is  in  ship-building.  In  all  the 
dock  yards  of  the  northern  and  middle  states,  except  Maine,  it  is  almost 
exclusively  employed  for  the  keel,  and  always  for  the  lower  part  of  the 
frame  and  the  sides :  it  is  preferred  for  the  knees,  when  sticks  of  a  proper 
form  can  be  found.  In  the  smaller  ports  south  of  New  York,  the  upper 
part  of  the  frame  is  also  made  of  white  oak ;  but  such  vessels  are  less 
esteemed  than  those  constructed  of  more  durable  wood.  The  medicinal 
properties  of  oak  bark  depend  on  its  astringency,  and  that  again  on  its  tan- 
nin. The  inner  bark  of  the  small  branches  is  the  strongest,  the  middle 
bark  next,  and  the  outer  bark  is  almost  useless. 

The  Gray  Oak,  Water  Oak,  Bear  Oak,  Upland,  Willow  Oak,  and 
Bartram  Oak  are  interesting  varieties.  The  Laurel  Oak  is  a  stranger  north 
of  Philadelphia,  and  is  rare  in  the  more  southern  states.  It  is  most  abun- 
dant in  the  open  savannas  of  Illinois.  Rising  to  the  height  of  forty  or 
fifty  feet,  clad  in  a  smooth  bark,  and  for  three  fourths  of  its  height  laden 
with  branches,  it  presents  an  uncouth  appearance  when  bared  by  the  winter 
blasts,  but  in  the  summer  with  its  thick  tufted  foliage  is  really  beautiful. 
The  Black  Oak  is  found  throughout  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  the 
northern  part  of  New  England.  It  is  one  of  the  loftiest  of  the  American 
forest  trees,  rising  to  the  height  of  eighty  or  ninety  feet,  with  a  diameter  of 
four  or  five  feet.  The  wood  is  reddish  and  coarse-grained,  with  empty 
pores,  but  is  esteemed  for  strength  and  durability.  It  furnishes  excellent 
fuel,  and  the  bark  is  largely  used  for  tanning.  Other  varieties  of  the  oak 
are  numerous. 

Walnut. — The  Black  Walnut  is  met  with  in  large  numbers  in  the  forests 
in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  lower  parts  of 
the  southern  states,  where  the  soil  is  too  sandy,  or  too  wet  as  in  the  swamps, 
it  is  met  with  to  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  throughout  an  extent  of  two 
thousand  miles.  East  of  the  Alleghanies  in  Virginia,  and  in  the  upper 
parts  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  it  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  valleys 
where  the  soil  is  deep  and  fertile,  and  which  are  watered  by  creeks  and 
rivers.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  and  on  the  islands  of  this  beautiful  river, 
the  black  walnut  attains  the  elevation  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet,  with  a  diame- 
ter of  three  to  seven  feet.  Its  powerful  vegetation  clearly  points  out  this, 
as  one  of  the  largest  trees  of  America.  When  it  stands  insulated,  its 
branches,  extending  themselves  horizontally  to  a  great  distance,  spread  into 
a  spacious  head,  which  gives  it  a  very  majestic  appearance.  The  bark  is 
thick,  blackish,  and  on  old  trees  deeply  furrowed.  The  leaves  when  bruised 
emit  a  strong  aromatic  odor. 

When  the  wood  of  this  tree  is  freshly  cut,  the  sap  is  white  and  the  heart 
of  a  violet  color,  which,  after  a  short  exposure  to  the  air,  assumes  an  in- 
tenser  shade,  and  becomes  nearly  black :  hence  probably  is  derived  the 
name  Black  Walnut.  There  are  several  qualities  for  which  its  wood  is 
principally  esteemed  :  it  remains  sound  for  a  long  time,  even  when  exposed 
to  the  influences  of  heat  and  moisture  ;  but  this  observation  is  only  applica- 
ble to  the  heart,  the  sap  speedily  decays  :  it  is  very  strong  and  very  tena- 
cious :  when  thoroughly  seasoned,  it  is  not  liable  to  warp  and  split ;  and  its 
grain  is  sufficiently  fine  and  compact  to  admit  of  a  beautiful  polish.  It  pos- 
sesses, in  addition  to  these  advantages,  that  of  being  secure  from  worms. 
On  account  of  these  excellencies,  it  is  preferred  and  successfully  employed 
in  many  kinds  of  work.     East  of  the  Alleghanies,  its  timber  is  not  extea- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  237 

sively  used  in  building  houses,  but,  in  some  parts  of  Kentucky  and 
Ohio,  it  is  split  into  shingles  which  serve  to  cover  them :  sometimes  also 
this  timber  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  frame.  But  it  is  chiefly  in 
cabinet-making,  that  this  wood  is  employed  wherever  it  abounds. 

There  are  several  other  species  of  the  walnut.  The  Shell-bark  Hickory 
sometimes  grows  to  the  height  of  eighty  or  ninety  feet,  with  a  diameter  of 
less  than  two  feet ;  the  trunk  is  destitute  of  branches,  regularly  shaped, 
and  almost  of  a  uniform  size  for  three  fourths  of  its  length.  The  Butter- 
nut  is  found  in  all  the  New  England  states,  and  in  the  middle  states. 

Maple. — The  Sugar  Maple,  called  also  rock  maple,  has  leaves  five- 
parted,  and  yellowish  green  flowers,  and  is  one  of  the  loftiest  trees  in  our 
forests.  Its  trunk  is  usually  straight  and  entire,  to  the  height  of  from 
forty  to  eighty  feet,  where  it  suddenly  unfolds  into  a  dense  top,  crowded 
with  rich  foliage.  The  bark  of  the  older  trees  is  gray,  and  marked  with 
numerous  deep  clefts.  The  wood  is  firm  and  heavy,  though  not  durable. 
It  is  much  used  by  cabinet-makers,  and  when  cut  at  the  right  season 
forms  excellent  fuel.  Michaux  says,  that  it  grows  in  its  greatest  perfection, 
between  the  forty-third  and  forty-sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude. 

The  White  Maple,  sometimes  called  silver  maple,  is  distinguished  by 
having  its  leaves  five-parted,  and  white  beneath  ;  its  flowers  reddish  yellow, 
without  flower-stalks.  The  trunk  frequently  divides  near  the  ground,  so 
as  to  appear  like  several  trunks  close  together.  These  divisions  diverge  a 
little  as  they  rise,  and  often  at  the  height  of  from  eight  to  twenty  feet  the 
top  commences.  This  is  generally  larger  in  proportion  to  the  trunk,  than- 
the  top  of  any  other  tree.  It  blossoms  earlier  than  the  sugar  maple.  The 
fruit  is  larger  than  that  of  any  other  species :  it  advances  with  great 
rapidity  towards  perfection,  ripens  and  falls  about  June  in  Georgia,  and 
May  in  Pennsylvania.  The  fruit  of  the  sugar  maple  does  not  ripen  until 
October.  The  white  maple  is  principally  found  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  on  the  banks  of  such  only  as  have  a  clean  gravelly  bottom  and  clear 
water.  It  is  most  luxuriant  on  flats  which  are  subject  to  annual  inunda- 
tions, and  is  usually  the  first  settler  on  alluvial  deposits.  '  The  banks  of 
the  Sandy  river,  in  Maine,'  says  Michaux,  ■  and  those  of  the  Connecticut 
in  Windsor,  Vermont,  are  the  most  northerly  points  at  which  I  have  seen 
the  white  maple.  It  is  found  more  or  less  on  all  the  rivers  of  the  United 
States,  flowing  from  the  mountains  to  the  Atlantic,  but  becomes  scarce  in 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  In  no  part  of  the  United  States  is  it  more 
multiplied  than  in  the  western  country,  and  no  where  is  its  vegetation  more 
luxuriant  than  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  and  of  the  great  rivers  that  empty 
into  it.  There,  sometimes  alone,  and  sometimes  mingled  with  the  willow, 
which  is  found  all  along  these  waters,  it  contributes  singularly  by  its  mag- 
nificent foliage  to  the  embellishment  of  the  scene.  The  brilliant  white  of 
the  leaves  beneath,  forms  a  striking  contrast  with  the  bright  green  above, 
and  the  alternate  reflection  of  these  two  surfaces  in  the  water,  heightens 
the  beauty  of  this  wonderful  moving  mirror,  and  aids  in  forming  an 
enchanting  picture,  which  during  my  long  excursions  in  a  canoe,  in  these 
regions  of  solitude  and  silence,  I  contemplated  with  unwearied  admira- 
tion.' 

The  Red-jloivering  Maple  is  a  beautiful  tree,  and  in  the  swamps  of 
New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  it  is  found  to  the  height  of  sixty  or  seventy 
feet,  with  a  diameter  of  three  or  four.     It  blossoms  earlier  in  the  spring 


238  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

than  any  other  tree,  and  flowers  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  April.  Th* 
blossoms,  of  a  beautiful  purple  or  deep  red,  unfold  more  than  a  fortnight 
before  the  leaves.  This  tree  furnishes  wood  adapted  to  a  variety  of  pur- 
poses ;  it  is  much  used  in  making  domestic  wares  and  agricultural  imple- 
ments. Furniture  of  great  richness  and  lustre  is  also  made  of  it.  It  is 
not  good  fuel.  The  Mountain,  Striped  and  Ash-leaved  Maples  are  all 
beautiful  trees. 

Birch. — The  Black  Birch  abounds  in  New  England  and  the  middle  states  ; 
farther  south  it  is  confined  to  the  summits  of  the  Alleghanies.  It  often 
exceeds  seventy  feet  in  height.  At  the  close  of  winter,  the  leaves,  during 
a  fortnight  after  their  birth,  are  covered  with  a  thick,  silvery  down,  which 
soon  after  disappears.  When  bruised,  the  leaves  and  bark  diffuse  a  very 
agreeable  odor,  and  as  they  retain  this  property  when  dried  and  carefully 
preserved,  they  afford,  a  pleasant  infusion,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  sugar 
and  cream.  The  wood  is  applied  to  a  variety  of  useful  purposes  ;  it  is  of 
a  rosy  hue,  which  deepens  on  exposure  to  the  light.  The  Yellow,  Canoe, 
White,  and  Bed  Birch  are  found  in  various  localities  throughout  the 
country. 

Pines. — The  pines  constitute  a  large  and  interesting  class  of  American 
forest  trees.  The  most  valuable  species  is  that  which  is  known  in  Eng- 
land and  the  West  Indies  as  the  Georgia  Pitch  Pine;  and  which,  in  the 
United  States,  is  variously  called  yellow  pine,  pitch  pine,  broom  pine, 
southern  pine,  red  pine,  and  long-leaved  pine,  a  name  which  is  adopted  by 
Michaux.  Towards  the  north,  the  long-leaved  pine  makes  its  appearance 
near  Norfolk,  in  Virginia,  where  the  pine-barrens  begin.  It  seems  to  be 
especially  assigned  to  dry  sandy  soils ;  and  it  is  found,  almost  without 
interruption,  in  the  lower  part  of  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  the  Floridas, 
over  a  tract  more  than  six  hundred  miles  long,  from  north-east  to  south- 
west, and  more  than  a  hundred  miles  broad,  from  the  sea  towards  the 
mountains.  Immediately  beyond  Raleigh,  it  holds  almost  exclusive  pos- 
session of  the  soil,  and  is  seen  in  company  with  other  pines  only  on  the 
edges  of  swamps,  enclosed  in  the  barrens ;  even  there  not  more  than  one 
stock  in  a  hundred  is  of  another  species,  and  with  this  exception,  the  long- 
leaved  pine  forms  the  unbroken  mass  of  woods  which  covers  this  extensive 
country. 

The  mean  stature  of  the  long- leaved  pine  is  sixty  or  seventy  feet,  with 
a  uniform  diameter  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  for  two  thirds  of  this  height. 
Some  stocks,  favored  by  local  circumstances,  attain  much  larger  dimen- 
sions, particularly  in  East  Florida.  The  timber  is  very  valuable,  being 
stronger,  more  compact,  and  more  durable,  than  that  of  all  the  other 
species  of  pine :  it  is  besides  fine  grained,  and  susceptible  of  high  polish. 
Its  uses  are  diversified,  and  its  consumption  great.  But  the  value  of  the 
long-leaved  pine  does  not  reside  exclusively  in  its  wood ;  it  supplies  nearly 
all  the  resinous  matter  used  in  the  United  States  in  ship-building,  with  a 
large  residue  for  exportation  ;  and  in  this  view,  its  place  can  be  supplied 
by  no  other  species,  those  which  afford  the  same  product  being  dispersed 
through  the  woods,  or  collected  in  inaccessible  places.  In  the  northern 
states,  the  lands,  which  at  the  commencement  of  their  settlements  were 
covered  with  pitch  pine,  were  exhausted  in  twenty-five  or  thirty  years, 
and  for  more  than  half  a  century  have  ceased  to  furnish  tar.  The  pine- 
barrens  are  of  vast  extent,  and  are  covered  with  trees  of  the  forest  growth  j 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  239 

but  they  cannot  all  be  rendered  profitable,  from  the  difficulty  of  communi- 
cating with  the  sea. 

Among  the  varieties  which  we  can  only  enumerate,  without  an  attempt  at 
description,  are  the  New  Jersey,  Table  Mountain,  Gray,  Pond,  and  White 
Pine. 

Spruces. — The  American  Silver  Fir  is  found  in  the  colder  regions  of 
the  states ;  towards  the  south,  it  is  found  only  on  the  tops  of  the  Allegha- 
nies.  It  flourishes  best  in  a  moist,  sandy  loam.  Its  height  rarely  exceeds 
forty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  The  trunk  tapers 
from  a  foot  in  diameter  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  seven  or  eight 
inches  at  the  height  of  six  feet.  When  standing  alone  and  developing 
itself  naturally,  its  branches,  which  are  numerous  and  thickly  garnished 
with  leaves,  diminish  in  length  in  proportion  to  their  height,  and  form  a 
pyramid  of  perfect  regularity.  The  bark  is  smooth  and  delicate.  The 
leaves  are  six  or  eight  lines  long,  and  are  inserted  singly  on  the  sides  and 
on  the  top  of  the  branches ;  they  are  narrow,  rigid  and  flat,  of  a  bright 
green  above,  and  a  silvery  white  beneath  ;  whence  probably  is  derived  the 
name  of  the  tree.  The  flowers  appear  in  May,  and  are  followed  by  cones 
of  a  fragrant  odor,  nearly  cylindrical,  four  or  five  inches  long,  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  always  directed  upwards.  The  seeds  are  ripe  in  autumn, 
and  if  permitted  to  hang  late  will  fall  apart  and  scatter  themselves.  The 
wood  of  the  silver  fir  is  light  and  slightly  resinous,  and  the  heart  is  yel- 
lowish. 

The  Hemlock  Spruce  inhabits  a  similar  tract  of  country,  though  moist 
ground  appears  not  to  be  the  most  favorable  to  its  growth.  It  arrives  at 
the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  with  a  circumference  of  six  or  nine 
feet,  and  is  uniform  for  two  thirds  of  its  length.  The  White  and  Black 
Spruce  are  varieties  of  this  genus. 

Cypresses. — The  Cypress  is  a  very  interesting  tree,  from  its  extraordinary 
dimensions,  and  the  varied  application  of  its  wood.  Its  northern  boundary 
is  Indian  river,  in  Delaware,  in  latitude  about  thirty-nine  degrees.  In  pro- 
ceeding southward,  it  becomes  more  abundant  in  the  swamps,  and  in 
Louisiana  those  parts  of  the  marshes  where  the  cypress  grows  almost  alone 
are  called  cypress  swamps,  and  they  sometimes  occupy  thousands  of  acres* 
In  the  swamps  of  the  southern  states  and  the  Floridas,  on  whose  deep, 
miry  soil  a  new  layer  of  vegetable  mould  is  every  year  deposited  by  floods, 
the  cypress  attains  its  utmost  developement.  The  largest  stocks  are  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  height,  and  from  twenty -five  to  forty  feet  in  cii> 
cumference,  above  the  conical  base,  which  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  three 
or  four  times  as  large  as  the  continued  diameter  of  the  trunk  :  in  felling 
them,  the  negroes  are  obliged  to  raise  themselves  upon  scaffolds  five  or  six 
feet  from  the  ground.  The  base  is  usually  hollow  for  three  fourths  of 
its  bulk. 

Amidst  the  pine  forests  and  savannas  of  the  Floridas  is  seen  here  and 
there  a  bog  filled  with  cypresses,  whose  squalid  appearance,  when  they 
exceed  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  height,  proves  how  much  they  are  affected 
by  the  barrenness  of  a  soil  which  differs  from  the  surrounding  only  by  a 
layer  of  vegetable  mould,  a  little  thicker  upon  the  quartzous  sand.  The 
summit  of  the  cypress  is  not  pyramidical  like  that  of  the  spruce,  but  is 
widely  spread  and  even  depressed  upon  old  trees.  The  foliage  is  open,, 
flight,  and  of  a  fresh  agreeable  tint  j  each  leaf  is  four  or  five  inches  long,  and 


240  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

consists  of  two  parallel  rows  of  leaflets  upon  a  common  stem.  The  leaflet* 
are  small,  fine,  and  somewhat  arching,  with  the  convex  side  outwards.  In 
autumn  they  change  from  a  light  green  to  a  dull  red,  and  are  shed  soon 
after.     This  tree  blooms  in  Carolina  about  the  first  of  February. 

Among  the  resinous  trees  of  the  United  States,  the  White  Cedar  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  for  the  varied  utility  of  its  wood.  North  of  the  river 
Connecticut,  it  is  rare  and  little  employed  in  the  arts.  In  the  southern 
states,  it  is  not  met  with  beyond  the  river  Santee,  but  it  is  found,  though 
not  abundantly,  on  the  Savannah  :  it  is  multiplied  only  within  these  limits 
and  to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles  from  the  ocean.  The  white  cedar  is 
seventy  ot  eighty  feet  high,  and  sometimes  more  than  three  feet  in  diame- 
ter. When  the  trees  are  close  and  compressed,  the  trunk  is  straight,  per* 
pendicular  and  destitute  of  branches  to  the  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet. 
When  cut,  a  yellow  transparent  resin  of  an  agreeable  odor  exudes,  of 
which  a  few  ounces  could  hardly  be  collected  in  a  summer  from  a  tree  of 
three  feet  in  circumference.  The  foliage  is  evergreen  :  each  leaf  is  a 
little  branch  numerously  subdivided,  and  composed  of  small,  acute,  imbri- 
cated scales. 

The  White  Ash  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  among  the  American  spe- 
cies for  the  qualities  of  its  wood,  and  the  most  remarkable  for  the  rapidity 
of  its  growth  and  for  the  beauty  of  its  foliage.  A  cold  climate  seems  most 
congenial  to  its  nature.  It  is  everywhere  called  White  Ash,  probably  from 
the  color  of  its  bark,  by  which  it  is  easily  distinguished.  The  situations 
most  favorable  to  this  tree  are  the  banks  of  rivers  and  the  edges  and  sur- 
rounding acclivities  of  swamps.  The  white  ash  sometimes  attains  the 
height  of  eighty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  and  is  one  of  the  largest 
trees  of  the  United  States.  The  trunk  is  perfectly  straight  and  often  undi- 
vided to  the  height  of  more  than  forty  feet.  On  large  stocks  the  bark  is 
deeply  furrowed,  and  divided  into  small  squares  from  one  to  three  inches 
in  diameter.  The  leaves  are  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  long,  opposite  and 
composed  of  three  or  four  pair  of  leaflets  surmounted  by  an  odd  one.  The 
leaflets  are  three  or  four  inches  long,  about  two  inches  broad,  of  a  delicate- 
texture  and  an  undulated  surface.  Early  in  the  spring  they  are  covered  with 
a  light  down,  which  gradually  disappears,  and  at  the  approach  of  summer 
they  are  perfectly  smooth,  of  a  light  green  color  above  and  whitish  beneath. 
It  puts  forth  white  or  greenish  flowers  in  the  month  of  May,  which  are  suc- 
ceeded by  seeds  that  are  eighteen  lines  long,  cylindrical  near  the  base,  and 
gradually  flattened  into  a  wing,  the  extremity  of  which  is  slightly  notched. 
They  are  united  in  bunches  four  or  five  inches  long,  and  are  ripe  in  th» 
beginning  of  autumn.  The  shoots  of  the  two  preceding  years  are  of  a 
bluish  gray  color  and  perfectly  smooth  :  the  distance  between  their  buds 
sufficiently  proves  the  vigor  of  their  growth. 

Elm.-~- The  White  Elm  inhabits  an  extensive  tract  of  the  states,  being 
found  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  extremity  of  Georgia.  It  is  also  found  on 
the  banks  of  the  western  rivers ;  growing  in  low,  moist  and  substantial 
soils.  In  the  middle  states,  this  tree  stretches  to  a  great  height,  but  does 
not  approach  the  magnificence  of  vegetation  which  it  displays  in  the  coun- 
tries peculiarly  adapted  to  its  growth.  In  clearing  the  primitive  forests,  a 
few  stocks  are  sometimes  left  standing  ;  insulated  in  this  manner,  it  appears 
in  all  its  majesty,  towering  to  the  height  of  eighty  or  one  hundred  feet,  with 
*  trunk  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  regularly  shaped,  naked,  and  insensi* 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  24L 

bly  diminishing  to  the  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet,  where  it  divides 
itself  into  two  or  three  primary  branches.  This  species  differs  from  the  red 
and  European  elm  in  its  flowers  and  seeds  ;  it  blooms  in  the  month  of  April, 
previous  to  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves  ;  the  flowers  are  very  small,  of  a 
purple  color,  supported  by  short,  slender  footstalks,  and  united  in  bunches 
at  the  extremity  of  the  branches.  The  Wahoo  and  the  Red  Elm  are  in- 
teresting species. 

The  American  Ckesnut  sometimes  attains  the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty 
feet,  with  a  circumference  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet.  Though  this  tree  nearly 
resembles  that  of  Europe  in  its  general  appearance,  its  foliage,  its  fruit  and 
the  properties  of  its  wood,  it  is  treated  by  botanists  as  a  distinct  species. 
Its  leaves  are  six  or  seven  inches  long,  one  and  a  half  broad,  coarsely 
toothed,  of  an  elongated  oval  form,  of  a  fine,  brilliant  color  and  of  a  firm 
texture,  with  prominent  parallel  nerves  beneath.  It  flowers  m  June.  The 
fruit  is  spherical,  covered  with  fine  prickles,  and  stored  with  two  dark  brown 
seeds  or  nuts,  about  as  large  as  the  end  of  the  finger.  They  are  smaller 
and  sweeter  than  the  wild  chesnuts  of  Europe.  They  are  ripe  about  the 
middle  of  October.  The  wood  is  strong,  elastic  and  capable  of  enduring 
the  succession  of  dryness  and  moisture. 

Buttonivood  or  Sycamore. — Among  trees  with  deciduous  leaves,  none  in 
the  temperate  zones,  either  in  the  old  or  new  continent,  equal  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  planes.  The  species  which  we  are  about  to  describe  is  not  less 
remarkable  for  its  amplitude,  and  for  its  magnificent  appearance,  than  the 
plane  of  Asia,  whose  majestic  form  and  extraordinary  size  were  so  much 
celebrated  by  the  ancients.  In  the  Atlantic  states,  this  tree  is  commonly 
fenown  by  the  name  of  Buttonwood,  and  sometimes  in  Virginia,  by  that  of 
Water  Beach.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  and  in  the  states  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  it  is  most  frequently  called  Sycamore^  and  by  some  persons 
Plane  Tree.  This  tree,  in  no  part  of  the  United  States,  is  more  abundant 
and  vigorous  than  along  the  rivers  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia;  though 
in  the  more  fertile  valleys  of  the  west,  its  vegetation  is  still  more  luxuriant, 
especially  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  and  of  the  rivers  that  flow  into  it. 

On  the  margin  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  west,  the  buttonwood  is  con- 
stantly found  to  be  the  loftiest  and  largest  tree  of  the  United  States.  Often 
with  a  trunk  of  several  feet  in  diameter,  it  begins  to  ramify  at  the  height  of 
sixty  or  seventy  feet,  near  the  summit  of  other  trees  ;  and  often  the  base 
divides  itself  into  several  trunks,  equally  vigorous  and  superior  in  diameter 
to  any  of  the  surrounding  trees.  On  a  little  island  in  the  Ohio,  fifteen 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum,  Michaux  mentions  a  buttonwood 
which,  at  five  feet  above  the  ground,  was  forty  feet  and  four  inches  in  cir- 
cumference, and  consequently  more  than  thirteen  feet  in  diameter.  The 
American  species  is  generally  thought,  in  Europe,  to  possess  a  richer 
foliage,  and  to  afford  a  deeper  shade  than  the  Asiatic  plane  :  its  leaves  are 
of  a  beautiful  green,  alternate,  from  five  to  fifteen  inches  broad,  and  formed 
with  more  open  angles  than  those  of  the  plane  of  the  eastern  continent. 

Beech. — The  species  of  Red  Beech  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 
north-eastern  parts  of  the  United  States.  In  the  state  of  Maine,  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont,  it  is  so  abundant  as  often  to  constitute  extensive 
forests,  the  finest  of  which  grow  on  fertile,  level  or  gently  sloping  lands 
which  are  proper  for  the  culture  of  corn.  The  red  beech  equals  the  white 
species  in  diameter,  but  not  in  height ;  and  as  it  ramifies  nearer  the  eartk, 
31  21 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

*ind  is  more  numerously  divided,  it  has  a  more  massy  summit  and  the  ap* 
pearance  of  more  tufted  foliage.  Its  leaves  are  equally  brilliant,  a  little 
larger  and  thicker,  and  have  longer  teeth.  Its  fruit  is  of  the  same  form, 
but  is  only  half  as  large,  and  is  garnished  with  firmer  and  less  numerous 
points. 

The  White  Beech  is  one  of  the  tallest  and  most  majestic  trees  of  the 
American  forests.  It  grows  the  most  abundantly  in  the  middle  and  west- 
ern states.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  the  white  beech  attains  the  height 
of  more  than  one  hundred  feet,  with  a  circumference  of  eight  to  eleven 
feet.  In  the  forests,  where  these  trees  vegetate  in  a  deep  and  fertile  soil, 
their  roots  sometimes  extend  to  a  great  distance  even  with  the  surface,  and 
being  entangled  so  as  to  cover  the  ground,  they  embarrass  the  steps  of  the 
traveller  and  render  the  land  peculiarly  difficult  to  clear.  This  tree  is 
more  slender  and  less  branchy  than  the  red  beech  ;  but  its  foliage  is  superb, 
and  its  general  appearance  magnificent. 

Poplar  or  Tulip  Tree.-*—  This  tree,  which  surpasses  most  others  of  North 
America  in  height  and  in  the  beauty  of  its  foliage  and  of  its  flowers,  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  from  the  numerous  and  useful  applications  of 
its  wood. 

In  the  Atlantic  states,  especially  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  sea, 
tulip  trees  are  often  seen  seventy,  eighty  and  one  hundred  feet  in  height, 
with  a  diameter  of  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet.  But  the  western  states 
appear  to  be  the  natural  soil  of  this  magnificent  tree,  and  here  it  displays 
its  most  powerful  vegetation.  M.  Michaux  mentions  a  tulip  tree,  near 
Louisville,  on  the  Ohio,  which  at  five  feet  from  the  ground  was  twenty-two 
feet  six  inches  in  circumference,  and  whose  elevation  he  judged  to  be  from 
one  hundred  and  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  forty  feet.  The  flowers  bloom 
in  June  or  July.  They  are  large,  brilliant,  and  on  detached  trees  very 
numerous,  variegated  with  different  colors :  they  have  an  agreeable  odor, 
and  produce  a  fine  effect.  The  fruit  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  thin, 
narrow  scales,  attached  to  a  common  axis,  and  forming  a  cone  two  or  three 
inches  in  length.  Each  cone  consists  of  sixty  or  seventy  seeds,  of  which 
never  more  than  a  third  part  are  productive.  For  ten  years  before  the  tree 
begins  to  yield  fruit,  almost  all  the  seeds  are  unproductive,  and  on  large 
trees,  those  from  the  highest  branches  are  the  best. 

Catalpa. — In  the  Atlantic  states,  the  Catalpa  begins  to  be  found  in  the 
forests,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Savannah,  and  west  of  the  Alleghanies, 
on  those  of  the  Cumberland,  between  the  thirty-fifth  and  thirty-sixth  de- 
grees of  latitude.  Farther  south  it  is  more  common,  and  abounds  near  the 
borders  of  all  the  rivers  which  empty  into  the  Mississippi,  or  which  water 
West  Florida*  In  the  regions  where  it  grows  most  abundantly,  it  frequently 
exceeds  fifty  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
inches.  It  is  easily  recognised  by  its  bark,  which  is  of  a  silver-gray  color, 
and  but  slightly  furrowed,  by  its  ample  leaves,  and  by  its  wide-spreading 
summit,  disproportioned  in  size  to  the  diameter  of  its  trunk.  It  differs  from 
other  trees  also  by  the  fewness  of  its  branches.  The  flowers  which  are 
collected  in  large  bunches  at  the  extremity  of  the  branches,  are  white,  with 
violet  and  yellow  spots,  and  are  beautiful  and  showy. 

Magnolia  Grandijlora. — '  Bartram  and  others,'  says  Mr.  Flint,  'by 
overrating  the  beauty  of  this  tree,  have  caused,  that  when  strangers  first 
behold  it>  their  estimation  of  it  falls  too  low.     It  has  been  described,  as  a 


fiul 


SIT7 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

very  large  tree.  "We  have  seen  it  in  Florida,  where  Bartram  saw  it.  We 
have  seen  it  in  its  more  congenial  position  for  full  developement,  the  rich 
alluvions  of  Louisiana ;  and  we  have  never  seen  it  compare  with  the  syca- 
more, the  cotton  wood,  or  even  the  ash,  in  point  of  size.  It  is  sometimes  a 
tall  tree  ;  often  graceful  in  form  ;  but  ordinarily  a  tree  of  fourth  or  fifth  rate 
in  point  of  comparative  size  in  the  forest,  where  it  grows.  Its  bark  is 
smooth,  whitish,  very  thick,  and  something  resembles  that  of  the  beech. 
The  wood  is  soft,  and  for  aught  we  know,  useless.  The  leaves  strongly 
resemble  those  of  the  orange  tree,  except  in  being  larger,  thicker,  and  hav- 
ing a  hoary  yellowish  down  upon  the  under  side.  The  upper  side  has  a 
perfect  verdure,  and  a  feel  of  smoothness,  as  if  it  was  oiled.  The  flowers 
are  large,  of  a  pure  white,  nearest  resembling  the  northern  pond  lily, 
though  not  so  beautiful ;  and  are,  ordinarily,  about  twice  the  size.  The 
fragrance  is  indeed,  powerful,  but  to  us  rather  sickly  and  offensive.  We 
have  felt,  and  we  have  heard  others  complain  of  feeling  a  sensation  of 
faintness,  in  going  into  a  room,  where  the  chimney  place  was  filled  with 
these  flowers.  The  tree  continues  to  put  forth  flowers  for  two  months  in 
succession,  and  seldom  displays  many  at  a  time. 

1  We  think,  few  have  been  in  habits  of  examining  flowering  trees 
more  attentively  than  ourselves,  and  we  contemplated  this  tree  for  years  in 
the  season  of  flowers.  Instead  of  displaying,  as  has  been  represented,  a 
cone  of  flowers,  we  have  seldom  seen  a  tree  in  flower,  which  did  not 
require  some  attention  and  closeness  of  inspection,  to  discover  where  the 
flowers  were  situated  among  the  leaves.  We  have  not  been  led  to  believe, 
that  others  possessed  the  sense  of  smell  more  acutely,  than  ourselves.  In 
advancing  from  points,  where  these  trees  were  not,  to  the  pine  forest,  on 
the  water  courses  of  which  they  are  abundant,  we  have  been  warned  of 
.our  approach  to  them  by  the  sense  of  smell,  at  a  distance  of  something 
more  than  half  a  mile ;  and  we  question,  if  any  one  ever  perceived  the 
fragrance  much  farther,  except  by  the  imagination.  The  magnolia  is  a 
striking  tree,  and  an  observer,  who  saw  it  for  the  first  time,  would  remark 
it,  as  such.  But  we  have  been  unable  to  conceive  whence  the  extravagant 
misconceptions,  respecting  the  size,  number,  fragrance  and  beauty  of  its 
flowers,  had  their  origin. 

'  There  are  six  or  seven  varieties  among  the  laurels  of  the  magnolia 
tribe,  some  of  which  have  smaller  flowers  than  those  of  the  grandiflora, 
but  much  more  delicate,  and  agreeably  fragrant.  A  beautiful  evergreen  of 
this  class  is  covered  in  autumn  with  berries  of  an  intense  blackness,  and 
we  remarked  them  in  great  numbers  about  St.  Francisville.  The  holly  is 
a  well-known  and  beautiful  tree  of  this  class.  But  that  one,  which  has 
struck  us,  as  being  the  handsomest  of  the  family,  is  the  laurel  almond.  It 
is  not  a  large  tree.  Its  leaves  strongly  resemble  those  of  the  peach  ;  and 
it  preserves  a  most  pleasing  green  through  the  winter.  Its  flowers  yield 
a  delicious  perfume.  It  grows  in  families  of  ten  or  fifteen  trees  in  a  clus- 
ter. Planters  of  taste  in  the  valley  of  Red  river,  where  it  is  common, 
select  the  place  of  their  dwelling  amidst  a  cluster  of  these  trees.' 

The  Bow  Wood  is  a  very  striking  tree,  found  about  the  upper  courses 
of  the  Washita,  the  middle  regions  of  Arkansas,  and  occasionally  on  the 
northern  limits  of  Louisiana.  Its  leaves  are  large  and  beautiful,  and  its 
fruit,  which  somewhat  resembles  a   large  orange,  is  of  a  most  inviting 


244  BOOK    )F  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

appearance,  but  is  '  the  apple  of  Sodom  to  the  taste.'  It  is  considered  by 
many  the  most  splendid  of  all  forest  trees. 

The  China  Tree  is  much  cultivated  in  the  south-western  region  of  the 
states,  as  an  ornamental  shade  tree.  Its  leaves  are  long  and  spiked,  set  in 
correspondence  on  each  side  of  the  stem.  The  verdure  is  deep  and  bril- 
liant. When  in  full  flower,  the  top  is  one  tuft  of  blossoms.  The  tree  is 
of  most  rapid  growth,  and  its  beautiful  color  imparts  delightful  freshness 
to  the  landscape.  After  the  fall  of  its  leaves,  a  profusion  of  reddish  berries 
remain,  and  give  at  a  little  distance  the  appearance  of  continuing  in  flower. 
This  berry  is  a  narcotic,  and  stupefies  the  birds  that  eat  of  it. 

The  Papaiv  is  seldom  found  north  of  the  river  Schuylkill,  and  is 
extremely  rare  in  the  low,  maritime  parts  of  the  southern  states.  It  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  bottoms  which  stretch  along  the  rivers  of  the  middle 
states  ;  but  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  rich  valleys  intersected  by  the 
western  waters,  where  at  intervals,  it  forms  thickets  exclusively  occupying 
several  acres.  In  Kentucky  and  in  the  western  part  of  Tennessee,  it  is 
sometimes  seen  also  in  forests  where  the  soil  is  luxuriantly  fertile ;  of 
which  its  presence  is  an  infallible  proof. 

It  seldom  exceeds  thirty  feet  in  height,  and  a  diameter  of  six  or  eight 
inches,  though  it  generally  stops  short  at  half  this  elevation.  The  trunk 
is  covered  with  a  silver-gray  bark,  which  is  smooth  and  finely  polished. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  five  or  six  inches  in  length,  and  of  an  elongated 
form,  widening  from  the  base  to  the  summit.  They  are  of  a  fine  texture, 
and  the  superior  surface  is  smooth  and  brilliant.  The  flowers  are  pendent, 
and  of  a  purple  hue.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  which  takes  place  towards 
the  beginning  of  August,  it  is  about  three  inches  long,  one  and  a  half  thick, 
of  a  yellowish  color,  and  of  an  oval  form,  irregular  and  swelling  into 
inequalities.  Its  pulp  is  soft,  and  of  an  insipid  taste,  and  it  contains  sev- 
eral large,  triangular  stones. 

Persimon. — The  banks  of  the  river  Connecticut,  below  the  forty- 
second  degree  of  latitude,  may  be  uniformly  considered  as  the  northern 
limit  of  this  tree ;  but  it  is  rendered  rare  in  these  parts  by  the  severity 
of  the  winter,  while  in  New  Jersey  it  is  common,  and  still  more  so  in 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  the  southern  states  ;  it  abounds,  also,  in  the 
western  forests.  The  persimon  varies  surprisingly  in  size  in  different  soils 
and  climates.  In  New  Jersey  it  is  not  more  than  half  as  large  as  in  the 
more  southern  states,  where,  in  favorable  situations,  it  is  sometimes  sixty 
feet  in  height,  and  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  diameter.  The  trunk  of  a 
full-grown  tree  is  covered  with  a  deeply-furrowed  blackish  bark,  from 
which  a  greenish  gum  exudes,  without  taste  or  smell.  The  leaves  are 
from  four  to  six  inches  in  length,  oblong,  entire,  of  a  fine  green  above  ;  in 
autumn  they  are  often  variegated  with  black  spots.  This  tree  belongs  to 
the  class  of  vegetables  whose  sexes  are  confined  to  different  stocks.  Both 
the  barren  and  fertile  flowers  are  greenish  and  not  strikingly  apparent. 
They  put  forth  in  June  or  July.  The  ripe  fruit  is  about  as  large  as  the 
thumb,  of  a  reddish  complexion,  round,  fleshy,  and  furnished  with  six  or 
eight  semi-oval  stones,  slightly  swollen  at  the  sides,  and  of  a  dark  purple 
color.  It  is  not  eatable  till  it  has  been  touched  with  frost,  by  which  the 
skin  is  shrivelled,  and  the  pulp,  which  before  was  hard  and  extremely  harsh 
to  the  taste,  is  softened  and  rendered  palatable.  The  fruit  is  so  abundant  in 
the  southern  states,  that  a  tree  often  yields  several  bushels.    In  the  south,  it 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  245 

adheres  to  the  branches  long  after  the  shedding  of  the  leaf,  and  when  it 
falls,  it  rs  eagerly  devoured  by  wild  and  domestic  animals. 

Dogivood  and  Red  Bud. — These  are  plants  between  shrubs  and  trees. 
The  former  has  a  heart-shaped  leaf,  and  an  umbrella-shaped  top.  In  spring, 
it  adorns  itself  with  brilliant,  white  flowers,  and  in  autumn  with  fine  scarlet 
berries.  The  latter  is  the  first  blossoming  shrub  on  the  Ohio  ;  and  its  blos- 
soms there  resemble  those  of  the  peach  tree.  They  are  scattered  every 
where  through  the  wood,  and  impart  a  charm  to  the  whole  descent  of  the 
*  beautiful  river.'  The  two  are  the  most  common,  as  they  are  the  most 
beautiful  shrubs  of  the  great  western  valley. 

Mountain  Laurel. — This  is  a  large  shrub,  which  indifferently  bears  the 
name  of  Mountain  Laurel,  Laurel,  Ivy,  and  Calico  Tree.  It  abounds  in 
New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  Proceeding  thence  south-west,  it  is  found 
along  the  steep  banks  of  all  the  rivers  which  rise  in  the  Alleghanies ;  but 
it  is  observed  to  become  less  common  in  following  these  streams  from  their 
source,  towards  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  on  one  side,  and  towards  the 
ocean  on  the  other.  It  is  rare  in  Kentucky  and  in  West  Tennessee,  and 
in  the  southern  states  it  disappears  entirely  when  the  rivers  enter  the  low 
country,  where  the  pine-barrens  commence. 

In  favorable  situations,  this  shrub  grows  to  the  height  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  three  inches.  The  flowers  put  forth  from 
May  to  July,  are  destitute  of  odor,  and  disposed  in  clusters  at  the  extre- 
mity of  the  branches  :  in  general  they  are  of  a  beautiful  rose  color,  and  some- 
times of  a  pure  white.  They  are  always  numerous,  and  their  brilliant 
effect  is  heightened  by  the  richness  of  the  surrounding  foliage. 

The  Pabne.tto  inhabits  the  southern  states,  as  far  north  as  Cape  Hatteras. 
It  is  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  crowned  with  a  tufted  summit,  which 
gives  it  a  beautiful  and  majestic  appearance.  The  Coral  Tree  is  a 
brilliant  and  gaudy  shrub,  native  of  the  open  forests  of  the  Carolinas, 
Georgia,  and  Florida ;  it  grows  to  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet.  The 
Snoiv  Berry  is  an  ornamental  shrub,  inhabiting  the  banks  of  the  upper 
Missouri.  In  the  autumn,  when  the  large  bunches  of  ivory  or  wax-like 
berries  are  matured,  the  appearance  is  said  to  be  extremely  beautiful. 

Fruit  Trees. — The  Chickasaw  Plum  is  common  from  thirty-four  degrees 
north  latitude,  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  found  in  great  abundance, 
Prairie  plums  are  found  in  great  quantities  on  the  hazel  prairies  of  Illinois 
and  Missouri.  When  cultivated  under  favorable  circumstances,  the  Osage 
plum  is  delicious.  Crab  apple  shrubs  are  found  in  great  quantities  in  the 
middle  regions  of  the  central  valley.  Their  blossoms  resemble  those  of 
the  cultivated  apple  tree,  and  the  tree  is  useful  as  a  stock  in  which  the 
cultivated  apple  and  pear  may  be  grafted.  The  Mulberry  is  rare 
in  the  Atlantic  states,  but  abounds  in  every  part  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 
Its  wood  is  valuable,  and  scarcely  less  durable  than  that  of  the  locust. 

Vine. — The  common  grape  vine  is  diffused  through  all  the  climates.  It 
frequently  happens  that  we  see,  in  the  rich  lands,  vines  of  the  size  of  a 
man's  body,  perpendicularly  attached  at  the  top  to  branches  sixty  or  eighty 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  at  great  lateral  distance  from  the  trunk  of  the 
tree.  It  is  common  to  puzzle  a  man  first  brought  into  these  woods,  by 
asking  him  to  account  for  the  manner  in  which  a  vine  of  prodigious  size 
has  been  able  to  rear  itself  to  such  a  height.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  vine  in  this  case  is  coeval  with  the  tree ;  that  the  tree,  as  it  grew,  sup- 

21* 


246  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ported  the  vine ;  and  that  the  vine  was  carried  from  the  trunk  with  the 
projection  of  the  lateral  branch,  until,  in  the  lapse  of  years,  this  singular 
appearance  is  the  result.  In  many  bottoms,  half  the  trees  are  covered 
with  these  vines.  In  the  deep  forest,  on  the  hills,  in  the  barrens,  in  the 
hazel  prairies,  and  in  the  pine  woods,  every  form  and  size  of  the  grape  are 
found. 

Of  the  plants  of  the  winter  grape,  which  so  generally  clings  to  the  trees 
in  the  alluvial  forests,  probably  not  one  in  fifty  bears  any  fruit  at  all.  The 
fruit  when  produced  is  a  small  circular  berry  not  unlike  the  wild  black 
cherry.  It  is  austere,  sour,  and  unpleasant,  until  it  has  been  softened  by 
the  winter  frosts  ;  but  it  is  said,  when  fermented  by  those  who  have  experi- 
ence in  the  practice,  to  make  a  tolerable  wine.  The  summer  grape  is  found 
on  the  rolling  barrens  and  the  hazel  prairies.  It  is  more  than  twice  the 
size  of  the  winter  grape,  is  ripe  in  the  first  month  in  autumn,  and,  when 
matured  under  the  full  influence  of  the  sun,  is  a  pleasant  fruit..  It  grows 
in  the  greatest  abundance,  but  is  too  dry  a  grape  to  be  pressed  for  wine. 
The  muscadine  grape  is  seldom  seen  north  of  thirty-four  degrees.  More 
southerly,  it  becomes  abundant,  and  is  found  in  the  deep  alluvial  forests, 
clinging  to  tall  trees.  The  fruit  grows  in  more  scanty  clusters  than  that 
of  other  grapes.  Like  other  fruits,  they  fall  as  they  ripen,  and  furnish  a 
rich  treat  to  bears  and  other  animals  that  feed  on  them ;  they  are  of  the 
size  of  a  plum,  of  a  fine  purple  black,  with  a  thick  tough  skin,  tasting  not 
unlike  the  rind  of  an  orange ;  the  pulp  is  deliciously  sweet,  but  is  reputed 
unwholesome.  The  pine  woods  grape  has  a  slender,  bluish  purple  vine, 
that  runs  on  the  ground  among  the  grass.  It  ripens  in  the  month  of  June  ; 
is  large,  cone-shaped,  transparent,  with  four  seeds,  reddish  purple,  and  is 
fine  fruit  for  eating. 

Cane. — The  Cane  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  on  the 
lower  courses  of  the  Mississippi,  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers.  Its  leaves  are 
dagger-shaped,  long  and  narrow,  and  of  a  beautiful  green.  It  grows  in 
masses  so  compact  that  the  smallest  sparrow  would  find  it  difficult  to  fly  in 
the  intervals.  A  man  could  not  make  his  way  through  a  cane  brake,  at  a 
rate  more  rapid  than  three  miles  a  day. 

Flax. — A  species  of  flax  was  found  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  growing  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Missouri.  The 
bark  possesses  the  same  kind  of  tough  fibres  as  the  common  flax,  and  the 
Indians  are  in  the  habit  of  making  lint  and  gun-waddings  of  it. 

Berries. — The  gooseberry  is  indigenous  to  the  United  States,  and  in  the 
western  parts  grows  to  great  size.  The  red  raspberry  is  also  indigenous. 
Whortleberries,  and  blackberries  high  and  creeping,  are  found  in  prodi- 
gious abundance ;  many  of  the  prairies  are  red  with  strawberries.  The 
cranberry  is  a  native  of  the  country,  growing  in  morasses  and  rich  bottom 
through  its  whole  extent.     Large  cranberry  swamps  occur  in  New  Jersey. 

Other  Plants. — There  are  many  annual  and  evergreen  creepers  in  the 
United  States,  of  various  kinds,  form  and  foliage.  The  grasses  are  vari- 
ous and  luxuriant.  In  the  prairies  they  are  rank  and  coarse;  the  'Atlantic 
country  is  covered  with  a  fine  sward.  The  rush  is  a  useful  herbaceous 
plant,  which  grows  on  bottoms  of  an  elevation  between  that  of  the  cane 
brakes  and  the  deeply-flooded  lands.  The  pea-vine  covers  the  richer 
soil  of  the  forest  lands  ;  it  is  small  and  fibrous.  The  wild  rice  is  a  plant 
of  great  importance,  found  on  the  marshy  margins  of  the  northern  lakes, 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  247 

and  in  the  shallow  waters  of  the  upper  courses  of  the  Mississippi.  One 
of  the  most  striking  of  the  forest  productions  is  the  wax-plant,  which  is 
nearly  entirely  of  a  snow-white,  and  resembles  the  most  delicate  wax  pre- 
paration.   It  grows  in  rich  shady  woods,  and  is  much  prized. 

The  common  kinds  of  water-plants  are  found  in  the  mashy  grounds  and 
ponds  ;  particularly  a  very  beautiful  and  fragrant  lily.  This  closely  resem- 
bles the  European  water-lily.  One  of  this  genus  is  said  to  be  unrivalled 
for  size  and  beauty.  Dr.  Barton  considers  it  to  be  the  same  as  the  sacred 
bean  of  Judea,  and  mentions  it  as  abundant  in  Philadelphia,  but  rare  other- 
wise, and  refusing  propagation.  Mr.  Flint  found  it  in  the  southern  states, 
and  says  that  it  attains  great  splendor  on  the  lakes  and  stagnant  waters  of 
the  Arkansas.  There  is  a  large  variety  of  parasitic  plants  in  the  states, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  long  moss. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  these  chapters  on  the  natural  history  of  the 
United  States,  we  have  only  intended  to  describe  the  most  conspicuous 
objects,  without  reference  to  scientific  arrangement.  A  mere  scientific 
catalogue  of  the  natural  productions  of  our  country  would  occupy  all  the 
space  we  have  devoted  to  the  subject,  and  possess  no  interest  or  attraction 
for  the  general  reader. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  BOTANY. 

Botany,  the  science  of  plants,  is  generally  divided  into  two  branches,  one  of  which 
describes  their  internal  structure  and  organic  action,  and  the  other  their  external  appear- 
ance. At  the  revival  of  learning,  hardly  fifteen  hundred  plants  were  known  from  the 
descriptions  of  the  ancients.  More  than  fifty  thousand,  at  a  reasonable  estimate,  have 
been  described.  Linnaeus  founded  his  system  exclusively  on  the  sexual  relations  of 
plants  ;  dividing  them  all  into  two  general  divisions,  one  of  which  has,  and  the  other 
has  not,  visible  sexual  parts.  This  division  is  generally  adopted  as  the  basis  of 
elementary  instruction,  but  many  objections  have  been  brought  against  it. 

The  second  general  division  of  this  science  begins  with  the  anatomy  of  plants,  or  an 
investigation  of  their  internal  structure.  This  study  has  been  recently  cultivated  to  a 
great  extent,  particularly  by  the  Germans.  "With  this  division  is  connected  chemical 
botany,  which  investigates  the  constituent  parts,  the  various  changes,  and  the  different 
combinations  of  the  liquid  and  solid  parts  of  plants.  From  these  we  rise  to  the  laws 
of  vegetable  life,  which  are  generally  the  same  with  those  of  animal  life ;  the  physio- 
logy of  plants  and  of  animals  is  thus  of  course  intimately  connected. 

Of  the  two  general  divisions  of  botany,  the  physiological,  or  philosophical  is  the  elder. 
It  was  created  by  Theophrastus  of  Eresus.  Historical  botany  was  founded  by  the 
Germans.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  foundation  of  botanical  anatomy  was  laid 
by  Grew  and  Malpighi ;  botanical  chemistry  was  founded  by  Homberg,  Dodart,  and 
Mariotte  ;  and  the  difference  of  sex  was  discovered  by  Grew,  Morland  and  Camerarius. 


248 


CHAPTER  XVIIL— GEOLOGY. 

The  first  important  attempt  toward  a  scientific  view  of  the  character  and 
relations  of  the  strata  in  the  United  States  was  made  by  Mr.  Maclure,  but 
a  short  time  previous  to  the  year  1812.  His  work  was  small  and  general, 
but  has  proved  a  valuable  guide  to  subsequent  inquirers.  In  order  to  ob- 
tain a  view  of  the  general  geological  formation  of  the  territory  of  the  states, 
it  will  be  well  to  recapitulate  its  chief  geographical  features ;  the  Apala 
chtan  mountains  on  the  east,  with  the  slope  to  the  Atlantic  ocean  ;  the 
Rocky  mountains  to  the  west,  with  the  valleys  intervening  between  them 
and  the  Pacific  ocean ;  and  the  extended  valley  between  these  elevated 
ranges,  with  the  Ozark  mountains  dividing  it  in  the  centre,  and  the  Black 
mountains  occupying  its  north-western  angle. 

The  summits  of  the  Rocky  mountains  are  formed  entirely  of  primitive 
rocks,  chiefly  of  granite  itself.  A  red  and  saline  sandstone  rests  on  this 
granite,  through  the  whole  chain,  as  far  as  it  has  been  explored.  But  few 
traces  of  that  animal  and  vegetable  life  are  found,  which  in  other  countries 
has  reared  mountains  of  limestone,  clay-slate,  and  those  other  aggregates 
which  are  so  often  composed  of  the  exuvise  of  living  beings.  The  western 
boundary  of  this  sandstone  formation  corresponds  to  the  side  of  the  eastern- 
most granite  ranges.  From  the  Platte  toward  the  south,  the  sandstone 
increases  in  width,  and  on  the  Canadian  it  extends  more  than  half  the 
distance  from  the  sources  of  that  river  to  its  confluence  with  the  Arkansas. 
It  consists  of  two  members ;  red  sandstone,  and  argillaceous  or  gray  sand- 
stone. This  formation  was  at  one  time  probably  horizontal  and  uniform  ;  it 
is  now  found  in  a  state  of  entire  disruption  and  disorder.  This  tract 
abounds  in  scenery  of  an  interesting  and  majestic  character.  The  angle 
of  inclination  of  the  strata  varies  from  forty-five  to  ninety  degrees.  Though 
not  very  recent,  the  sandstone  along  the  base  of  the  mountains  contains 
the  relics  of  marine  animals  and  plants,  and  embraces  extensive  beds  of 
pudding  stone. 

South  of  the  Arkansas  are  rocks  of  basaltic  origin,  overlaying  the  red 
sandstone.  By  the  vastness  and  broken  character  of  their  masses,  and 
their  dark  color,  they  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the  light,  smooth  and 
fissile  sandstone  on  which  they  rest.  Sometimes  they  are  compact  and 
apparently  homogeneous  in  their  composition,  and  in  many  particulars  of 
structure,  form  and  hardness,  more  analogous  to  the  primitive  rock  than 
to  those  recent  secondary  aggregates  with  which  they  are  associated.  In 
other  instances,  dark  and  irregular  masses  of  porous  and  amygdaloidal  sub- 
stances are  seen  scattered  about  the  plain,  or  gathered  in  conical  heaps,  but 
having  no  immediate  connection  with  the  strata  on  which  they  rest.  Most 
of  the  rocks  of  this  class  were  observed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sources 
of  the  Canadian  ;  and  may  be  distinguished  into  two  kinds,  referable  to  the 
two  divisions  called  greenstone  and  amygdaloid. 

The  valley  immediately  east  of  the  Rocky  mountain  range  is  composed 
of  an  extensive  accumulation  of  sand,  seemingly  the  debris  of  the  moun- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  249 

tains.  To  an  unknown  depth,  the  soil  is  made  up  of  rounded  fragments  of 
granite,  varying  in  dimension  from  a  grain  of  sand  to  a  six  pound  shot. 
This  accumulation  has  evidently  been  washed  from  the  mountains,  and 
slopes  gradually  from  their  base.  The  small  particles  derived  from  the 
quartzose  portions  of  the  primitive  aggregates,  being  least  liable  to  decom- 
position, have  been  borne  to  the  greatest  distance,  and  of  these  the  eastern 
margin  of  the  great  sandy  desert  is  almost  entirely  composed  ;  the  central 
portions  are  of  coarser  sand,  intermixed  with  particles  of  mica  and  feld- 
spar ;  nearer  the  mountains,  boulders  and  pebbles  occur  abundantly,  and 
at  length  cover  almost  the  entire  surface  of  the  country. 

In  many  other  respects  besides  geological  structure,  the  Apalachian 
range  of  mountains  differs  from  that  we  have  just  been  considering.  The 
whole  of  their  eastern  front  is  composed  of  primitive  rocks,  comprehending 
both  the  granitic  family  and  its  associated  strata  of  clay-slate  and  limestone. 
In  New  England,  rocks  of  this  class  constitute  the  seacoast,  and  with  some 
exceptions  extend  inwards  towards  the  St.  Lawrence.  South  of  the  Hud- 
son, the  edge  of  the  primitive  follows  the  general  contour  of  the  mountains, 
at  a  variable  distance  from  the  sea  to  their  termination,  and  until  it  meets 
more  recent  deposits  at  the  extremity  of  the  mountain  range.  The  breadth 
of  this  primitive  belt  is  very  unequal.  In  passing  through  the  states  of 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  it  occupies  but  a  small  part  of  the  country; 
in  Virginia  it  increases  in  breadth,  and  proportionably  in  height,  composing 
the  greatest  mass  as  well  as  the  most  elevated  points  of  the  mountains  in 
Georgia  and  North  Carolina.  Besides  this  range,  there  is  a  great  mass  of 
primitive  on  the  west  side  of  lake  Champlain. 

In  general,  the  primitive  rocks  run  from  a  north  and  south  to  a  north- 
east and  south-west  direction,  and  dip  generally  to  the  south-east  at  an 
angle  of  more  than  forty-five  degrees  with  the  horizon ;  their  highest  ele- 
vation is  towards  their  north-western  limit.  The  mountains  of  this  forma- 
tion consist  generally  of  detached  masses,  with  rounded  flat  tops  and  a  cir- 
cular waving  outline.  Granite  in  large  masses  constitutes  but  a  small  part 
of  this  formation,  and  is  found  indifferently  in  the  plains  and  on  the  tops  of 
mountains.  Gneiss  extends  perhaps  over  a  half  of  this  formation,  and 
includes  in  a  great  many  places  beds  from  three  to  three  hundred  feet  thick. 
These  beds  are  mixed,  and  alternate  occasionally  in  the  same  gneiss  with 
the  primitive  limestone,  the  beds  of  hornblende  and  hornblende  slate,  ser- 
pentine, magnetic  iron  ore,  and  feldspar  rocks.  In  short,  there  are  scarcely 
any  of  the  primitive  rocks  that  may  not  occasionally  be  found  included  in 
the  gneiss  formation. 

The  breadth  of  the  transition  district,  like  that  of  the  primitive,  is  varia- 
ble. Narrow  towards  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  it  gradually  widens  towards  the 
north-east,  till  it  reaches  the  river  Hudson.  From  its  upper  portion  it  sends 
off  a  considerable  arm,  which  penetrates  for  several  hundred  miles  into  the 
granitic  region,  overlaying  it,  but  running  parallel  with  the  principal  body. 
After  the  primitive,  it  forms  some  of  the  highest  mountains  in  the  range, 
and  seems  to  be  both  higher  and  wider  to  the  west  in  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land and  part  of  Virginia,  where  the  primitive  is  least  extended  and  low- 
est in  height.  It  contains  all  the  varieties  of  rocks  found  in  the  same 
formation  in  Europe. 

It  varies  in  breadth  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  miles.  In  the  lime- 
stone of  ihis  formation  there  are  many  and  extensive  caves,  some  of  which 


250  BOOK  Or  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

extend  for  miles  under  ground,  and  contain  the  bones  of  animals.  It  is 
the  lowest,  and  is  considered  the  most  ancient  of  the  rocks  containing 
organized  remains,  which  are  those  of  cryptogamous  plants,  and  animals 
without  sight.  The  graywacke  has  been  observed  to  contain  impressions 
of  organized  remains,  but  they  are  usually  those  of  zoophytic  animals,  and 
are  exceedingly  unlike  those  found  so  abundantly  in  the  coal  formations. 
Its  colors  are  variable  ;  it  is,  however,  most  commonly  bluish,  black,  or 
dark  brown.  The  graywacke  seems  to  form  the  connecting  link  between 
the  clay-slate  and  a  rock  which  has  been  called  the  old  red  sandstone,  and 
is  usually  found  intimately  blended  either  with  the  one  or  the  other.  This 
sandstone  occurs  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  transition  formation, 
and  evidently  belongs  to  the  oldest  depositions  of  that  rock.  It  is  for  the 
most  part  distinctly  stratified,  and  in  all  cases  its  stratification  is  inclined. 

Of  the  rocks  thus  described,  the  limestone  occurs  extensively  all  along 
the  north-western  side  of  the  primitive  strata.  It  is  probable  that  transition 
limestone  is  the  foundation  through  their  whole  extent  of  the  Alleghany 
mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  the  western  parts  of  Virginia, 
on  a  level  with  the  surface. at  the  base  of  their  eastern  declivities.  The 
clay-slate  occurs  in  the  central  portions  of  that  extensive  field  of  transition, 
which  skirts  the  western  margin  of  the  primitive  of  New  York  and  New 
England,  and  forms  the  great  body  of  the  Catskill  mountains.  The  old 
red  sandstone  in  the  transition  district,  along  the  whole  range  of  mountains, 
is  perhaps  more  abundant  than  any  other  aggregate.  This  region  has  also 
a  considerable  mixture  of  trap.  Various  large  bodies  of  transition  rock  are 
thrown  to  a  considerable  distance  into  the  primitive  region ;  while  in  many 
instances,  secondary  rocks  are  found  running  along  the  valleys  far  into  the 
bosom  of  the  mountains. 

With  the  edge  of  the  transition  strata,  we  approach  the  western  summits 
of  the  Apalachian  mountains,  or  the  line  from  whence  they  begin  to  fall 
toward  the  Mississippi  valley.  Along  this  line  commences  a  series  of 
secondary  rocks,  stretching  westward  to  an  immense  extent  towards  the 
Mississippi  and  the  lakes,  and  constituting  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
important  geological  formations  in  the  United  States.  This  secondary 
region  extends  unbroken  across  the  whole  country  to  the  shores  of  the 
lakes,  being  bounded  on  the  west  probably  by  the  river  Wabash,  and  in 
descending  the  Mississippi  by  the  more  recent  formations  through  which 
that  river  flows.  It  consists  generally  of  various  strata  of  sandstone,  lime- 
stone and  clay.  Immense  beds  of  secondary  limestone,  of  all  shades  from 
light  blue  to  black,  sometimes  intercepted  by  extensive  tracts  of  sandstone 
and  other  secondary  aggregates,  appear  to  constitute  the  foundation  of  this 
formation,  which  extends  from  the  head  waters  of  the  Ohio,  with  some 
interruptions,  all  the  way  to  the  waters  of  the  Tombigbee,  accompanied  by 
slaty  clay  and  freestone  with  vegetable  impressions  ;  but  in  no  instance  yet 
ascertained,  covered  by  or  alternating  with  any  rock  resembling  basalt,  or 
indeed  any  of  those  called  the  newest  floetz  trap  formation.  A  grand  pe- 
culiarity of  this  secondary  region  is  the  uniform,  horizontal  direction  of 
the  strata. 

We  will  now  briefly  examine  the  region  which  occupies  the  centre  of 
the  Mississippi  valley.  The  Ozark  mountains  consist  chiefly  of  secondary 
and  transition  rocks  ;  but  there  are  two  points  at  which  the  primitive  makes 
its  appearance.     About  fifteen  miles  south-east  from  the  hot  springs,  near 


PHI  SIC AL  GEOGRAPHY.  251 

the  Washita,  granite  is  found  in  situ.  It  is  very  soft,  and  disintegrates 
rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  compounded  of  greyish-white  quartz, 
yellowish-white  feldspar,  and  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  mica  in 
variously  and  brilliantly-colored  masses.  This  granite,  if  of  secondary 
formation,  is  much  more  extensive  than  any  of  the  kind  hitherto  known. 
4  We  are  ignorant,'  says  Dr.  James,  'of  the  manner  of  its  connection  with 
any  other  rock,  nor  do  we  know  of  any  formation  of  primitive  granite  from 
which  it  could,  by  the  action  of  water,  have  been  derived :  one  can  have 
no  hesitation,  however,  in  considering  the  Ozark  mountains  as  a  separate 
system  within  themselves,  and  having  no  immediate  connection  with  either 
the  Apalachian  or  the  Chippewayan  mountains.'  Mr.  Schoolcraft  men- 
lions  another  granite  region  as  occurring  in  the  north-eastern  extremity  of 
the  Ozark  range,  in  the  mining  district  of  Potosi. 

In  connection  with  the  granite  of  the  Washita  is  found  a  stratum  of  clay- 
slate,  and  another  of  transition  sandstone,  but  neither  of  them  of  great 
extent.  The  hot  springs  of  the  Washita  issue  from  the  clay-slate,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  a  very  large  mass  of  clay-slate  is  interposed  between  the  sur- 
face of  the  granite  and  the  point  at  which  the  springs  rise.  The  slate-rock 
about  the  hot  springs  is  highly  inclined,  often  flinty  in  its  composition,  and, 
as  far  as  it  has  been  hitherto  examined,  contains  no  organic  remains.  It  ia 
traversed  by  large  upright  veins,  usually  filled  with  white  quartz.  The 
mountains  contain  vast  beds  of  secondary  limestone,  which  from  its  pecu- 
liar crystalline  appearance  might  be  easily  mistaken  for  the  primitive. 
These  vast  beds  of  sparry  limestone,  almost  exclusively  made  up  of  depo- 
sits from  chemical  solution,  would  seem  to  have  been  formed  during  periods 
of  great  tranquillity  in  the  waters.  The  sandstones  of  this  small  group  of 
mountains  appear  under  almost  every  variety  of  character.  A  region  simi- 
lar in  mineralogical  character  to  the  Ozark  mountains  extends  northward 
from  the  confluence  of  the  Missouri,  to  the  Ouisconsin  and  Ontonagon 
rivers  of  lake  Superior.  The  sandstones,  limestones  and  other  rocks  have 
a  striking  resemblance.  Of  the  Black  mountains  in  the  north-western  part 
of  the  Mississippi  valley,  but  little  is  known ;  they  appear  to  be  composed 
of  sandstone  lying  horizontally,  and  to  be  destitute  of  valuable  minerals. 
Between  these  mountains  and  the  central  district,  is  a  wide  alluvial  tract 
containing  the  course  of  the  Missouri.  The  same  appellation  has  been 
given  by  Dr.  James  to  a  space  between  the  Ozark  mountains  and  the 
Chippewayan  sands,  and  to  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  lower 
Mississippi. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  region  which  lies  to  the  eastward 
of  the  Apalachian  mountains.  The  eastern  front  of  this  range  is  composed 
of  primitive  rocks,  which  reach  the  sea  as  far  south  as  the  Hudson ;  from 
this  point  they  take  an  inland  course,  and  leave  a  considerable  tract  of  land 
between  them  and  the  ocean  all  the  way  to  the  Mississippi.  On  this  side, 
there  is  no  appearance  of  any  rocks  of  the  transition  class ;  the  primitive 
terminates  abruptly,  and  is  skirted  through  its  whole  length  by  an  exten- 
sive series  of  beds  of  shell-limestone,  marl,  clay,  sand  and  gravel,  consti- 
tuting what  has  been  described  as  the  Atlantic  slope.  This  class  of  strata 
begins  at  Long  island,  and  gradually  widens  in  its  extent  through  the 
middle  and  southern  states,  forms  the  whole  of  Florida,  and  crossing  the 
Mississippi,  meets  the  secondary  formation  of  that  valley,  and  sends  up  a 
tongue  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  sides  of  that  river.     We  may 


252  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

here  notice  one  of  the  most  peculiar  features  of  our  geology.  This  is  ths 
ridge  of  granite  which  forms  the  boundary  between  the  primitive  and 
secondary  regions,  and  is  conjectured  to  have  been  the  ancient  line  of  the 
seacoast.  It  commences  in  Georgia  and  extends  as  far  north  as  New 
York,  whence  it  seems  to  pass  into  Long  island  and  under  the  sound  into 
Connecticut. 

The  entire  region  to  the  eastward  of  the  primitive  was  long  considered 
as  alluvial ;  but  it  has  been  found  to  comprehend  secondary,  as  well  as  a 
large  extent  of  tertiary  formations.  Decisive  evidence  of  this  fact  has 
been  furnished  by  the  investigations  of  Dr.  Morton  of  Philadelphia.  The 
secondary  strata  are  not,  however,  calcareous,  but  consist  of  beds  of  sand 
and  clay  analogous  to  the  iron  sand,  green  sand,  and  chalk  marl  or  gait  of 
England.  Dr.  Morton  calls  it  the  ferruginous  sand  formation.  In  Mary* 
land  commences  a  vast  deposit  of  sand  and  clay,  extending  along  the  coast 
to  the  Mississippi ;  this  tract  abounds  with  tertiary  fossils,  which  appear 
chiefly  to  belong  to  the  upper  marine  formation  of  European  geologists. 
The  secondary  strata  are  occasionally  met  with  beneath  it,  and  sometimes 
approach  so  near  the  surface  as  to  be  readily  identified  by  their  fossils, 
It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  the  beds  of  ferruginous  sand  ex- 
tend nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  Atlantic  frontiers,  of  the  states  south 
of  Long  island.  One  of  the  most  abundant  mineral  productions  of  these 
beds  is  lignite,  which  is  found  at  the  deep  cut  of  the  Chesapeak  and  Dela- 
ware canal,  in  almost  every  variety,  from  charred  wood  to  well-charao 
terized  jet.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  small  fragments,  and  sometimes  in 
large  masses,  presenting  the  trunks  and  limbs  of  trees  thirty  feet  in  length* 

Though  occurring  largely  on  the  Atlantic  slope,  the  tertiary  formations 
are  by  no  means  confined  to  it ;  they  overlay  the  secondary  strata  to  a 
great  extent  on  both  sides  of  the  mountain  chains.  Of  all  visible  strata, 
marly  clay  is  one  of  the  most  universal ;  it  is  the  common  clay  of  all 
North  America.  In  this  clay,  sulphate  of  magnesia  frequently  occurs,  and 
sometimes  muriate  of  soda.  Bagshot  sand  and  crag  are  next  in  extent 
to  the  marly  clay,  and  generally  overlie  it.  The  plastic  clay  forma- 
tion is  stated  to  appear  very  distinctly  on  the  west  side  of  lake  Champlain, 
and  at  various  points  from  Martha's  Vineyard  to  the  eastward  of  Long 
island,  to  Florida  and  the  Mississippi.  The  silicious  limestone  of  Georgia 
is  asserted  to  be  decidedly  contemporaneous  with  the  calcaire  silicieuse  of 
the  Paris  basin.  In  Virginia,  the  marly  or  London  clay  is  found,  and  the 
sands  of  the  upper  marine  formation  are  conceived  to  occur  in  the  same 
state  and  in  Staten  island. 

Of  the  geology  of  the  region  west  of  the  Chippewayan  mountains,  noth- 
ing certain  is  known.  The  chains  which  stretch  nearer  to  the  Pacific  are* 
lofty,  and  are  presumed  to  be  primitive.  Mr.  Scrope  represents  the  moun- 
tains which  border  the  Pacific  ocean  as  volcanic. 

From  the  importance  which  fossil  remains  have  recently  assumed  in, 
geological  science,  much  interest  is  naturally  attached  to  those  contained 
in  the  strata  of  the  western  world.  It  will  be  long  before  so  vast  a  field 
of  inquiry  is  fully  explored,  and  with  Mr.  Maclure  in  1812,  we  may  still 
say  that  it  has  not  yet  been  examined  with  that  accuracy  of  discrimina- 
tion necessary  to  form  just  conclusions.  We  derive  such  knowledge  as 
is  possessed  on  the  subject  from  various  sources.  The  fossils  of  the  transition 
strata  consist  of  the  ancient  coralline  and  encrinital  families,  and  generally 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  253 

resemble  those  of  similar  rocks  in  other  parts  of  the  globe.  Organic  re- 
mains in  the  coal  formations  are  found  at  Westfield,  Connecticut;  at  Sun- 
derland, Massachusetts;  and  it  is  said  also  in  some  other  places.  At 
Westfield  they  were  found,  in  exploring  for  coal,  lying  upon  bituminous 
shale. 

The  following  information  is  furnished  in  an  article  by  Mr.  Caleb 
Atwater.  '  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Ohio  river,  and  on  the  waters  of  the 
Muskingum,  I  have  carefully  examined  not  a  few  of  the  fossil  trees  there 
existing.  Among  them  I  noticed  the  following,  viz.  black  oak,  black  wal- 
nut, sycamore  or  button  wood,  white  birch,  sugar  maple,  the  date  or  bread- 
fruit tree,  cocoanut-bearing  palm,  the  bamboo  and  the  dogwood;  and  I  have 
in  my  possession  the  perfect  impression  of  the  cassia  and  the  tea  leaf. 
Of  ferns,  I  have  beautiful  impressions  of  the  leaves,  and  of  the  bread-fruit 
tree  flowers,  fully  expanded,  fresh,  and  entire.  I  have  specimens  so  per- 
fect, and  so  faithful  to  nature,  as  to  dispel  all  doubts  as  to  what  they  once 
were.  The  larger  trees  are  found  mostly  in  sandstone,  although  the  bark 
of  the  date  tree,  much  flattened,  I  ought  to  say  perfectly  so,  is  found  in 
shale  covering  coal.  The  date  is  a  large  tree,  not  very  tall,  and  having 
numerous  wide-spreading  branches.  Nine  miles  west  of  Zanesville,  the 
body  of  a  bread-fruit  tree,  now  turned  to  sandstone,  may  be  seen ;  it  is 
exactly  such  sandstone  as  that  in  which  M.  Brongniart  found  tropical  plants 
imbedded  in  France.  It  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  mica  in  its 
composition.  The  cassia  was  found  in  such  sandstone  in  the  Zanesville 
canal.  The  bamboo  is  mostly  impressed  upon  ironstone,  especially  the 
roots,  and  the  trunk  and  leaves  are  found  in  the  micaceous  sandstone.  The 
ironstone  is  sometimes  apparently  made  of  bamboo  leaves,  the  leaves  of 
fern,  and  bamboo  roots.  It  happens  frequently  that  the  trunks  of  small 
trees  and  plants  are  flattened  by  pressure,  and  the  bark  of  them  partially 
turned  into  coal.  Thus  the  shale  often  contains  a  bark,  now  become  coal, 
and  a  stratum  of  shale  in  succession,  alternately,  for  several  inches  in 
thickness.' 

Some  further  interesting  particulars  respecting  fossil  and  other  remains 
will  be  found  in  the  following  description  of  them  by  Mr.  Atwater,  as 
occurring  in  the  state  of  Ohio.  '  I  am  credibly  informed,  that  in  digging  a 
well  at  Cincinnati,  in  this  state,  an  arrow-head  was  found  more  than  ninety 
feet  below  the  surface.  At  Pickaway  plains,  while  several  persons  were 
digging  a  well  several  years  since,  a  human  skeleton  was  found  seventeen 
feet  six  inches  below  the  surface.  This  skeleton  was  seen  by  several  per- 
sons, and  among  others,  by  Doct.  Daniel  Turney,  an  eminent  surgeon ; 
they  all  concurred  in  the  belief,  that  it  belonged  to  a  human  being.  Pick- 
away plains  are,  or  rather  were,  a  large  prairie,  before  the  land  was  im- 
proved by  its  present  inhabitants.  This  tract  is  alluvial  to  a  great  depth ; 
greater,  probably,  than  the  earth  has  ever  been  perforated,  certainly  than  it 
ever  has  been  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  surface  of  the  plain  is  at  least 
one  hundred  feet  above  the  highest  freshet  of  the  Scioto  river,  near  which 
it  lies.  On  the  surface  is  a  black  vegetable  mould,  from  three,  to  six,  and 
nine  feet  in  depth  ;  then  we  find  pebbles,  and  shells  imbedded  among  them : 
the  pebbles  are  evidently  rounded  and  smoothed  by  attrition  in  water,  exactly 
such  as  we  now  see  at  ihe  bottom  of  rivers,  ponds,  and  lakes. 

1 1  have  examined  the  spot  where  this  skeleton  was  found,  and  am  per- 
suaded that  it  was  not  deposited  there  by  the  hand  of  man,  for  there  are 

22 


254  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ho  marks  of  any  grave*  or  of  any  of  the  works  of  man ;  but  the  earth  and 
pebbles  appear  to  lie  in  the  very  position  in  which  they  were  deposited  by 
the  water.  On  the  north  side  of  a  small  stream,  called  Hargus  creek, 
Which  at  this  place  empties  itself  into  the  Scioto,  in  digging  through  a  hill 
composed  of  such  pebbles  as  I  have  described  in  Pickaway  plains,  at  least 
nine  feet  below  the  surface,  several  human  skeletons  were  discovered,  per- 
fect in  every  limb.  These  skeletons  were  promiscuously  scattered  about, 
and  parts  of  skeletons  were  sometimes  found  at  different  depths  below  the 
surface.  This  hill  is  at  least  fifty  feet  above  the  highest  freshets  in  the 
Scioto,  and  is  a  very  ancient  alluvion,  where  every  stratum  of  sand,  clay, 
and  pebbles  has  been  deposited  by  the  waters  of  some  stream.  Other 
skulls  have  been  taken  out  of  the  same  hill,  by  persons  who,  in  order  to 
make  a  road  through  it,  were  engaged  in  taking  it  away.  These  bones 
are  very  similar  to  those  found  in  our  mounds,  and  probably  belonged  to 
the  same  race  of  men  ;  a  people  short  and  thick,  not  exceeding  generally 
five  feet  in  height,  and  very  possibly  they  were  not  more  than  four  feet  six 
inches.  The  skeletons,  when  first  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  are  quite 
perfect,  but  afterwards  moulder  and  fall  into  pieces.  Whether  they  were 
overwhelmed  by  the  deluge  of  Noah,  or  by  some  other,  I  know  not ;  but 
one  thing  appears  certain,  namely  :  that  water  has  deposited  them  here, 
together  with  the  hill  in  which,  for  so  many  ages,  they  have  reposed. 
Indeed,  this  whole  country  appears  to  have  been  once,  and  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  covered  with  water,  which  has  made  it  one  vast  cemetery 
of  the  beings  of  former  ages.  Fragments  of  antique  pottery,  and  even 
entire  pots  of  coarse  earthen  ware,  have  been  found  likewise  in  the  exca- 
vations of  the  Illinois  salt-works,  at  the  depth  of  eighty  feet  and  more 
from  the  surface.  One  of  these  was  ascertained  to  hold  from  eight  to  ten 
gallons,  and  some  were  alleged  to  be  of  much  greater  capacity.  This  fossil 
pottery  is  stated  not  to  differ  materially  from  that  which  frequently  occurs 
in  the  mounds  supposed  to  have  been  formed  by  the  aboriginal  Indians.' 

The  largest  and  most  interesting  fossils  of  this  country  are  the  remains 
of  the  mastodon,  an  enormous  creature  of  an  extinct  race,  nearly  allied 
to  the  elephant,  and  long  considered  identical  with  it,  but  now  allotted  to 
a  distinct  genus  under  the  name  of  mastodon.  For  a  minute  and  detailed 
account  of  these  remains,  we  must  refer  our  readers  to  the  valuable  work 
of  Godman.  The  size  of  the  living  animal  may  be  conjectured  when  it 
is  stated,  that  the  head  at  the  posterior  part  is  thirty-two  inches  across,  the 
lower  jaw  two  feet  ten  inches  long,  and  the  tusks  ten  feet  seven  inches 
long,  and  seven  inches  and  three  fourths  in  diameter  at  the  base.  It  is 
wonderful  to  reflect  that  but  for  the  accidental  preservation  of  a  few  bones, 
We  should  never  have  known  the  existence  of  an  animal  so  huge  in  its 
dimensions,  and  necessarily  of  such  vast  strength  and  power. 

We  know  not  where,  better  than  in  the  present  connection,  to  introduce 
a  circumstance  hitherto  unexplained,  if  not  altogether  inexplicable.  There 
have  been  found,  it  appears  beyond  all  question,  in  naked  limestone  of 
the  elder  secondary  formation,  close  on  the  western  margin  of  the  Missis- 
sippi at  St.  Louis,  the  prints  of  human  feet.  The  prints  are  those  of  a 
man  standing  erect,  with  his  heels  drawn  in,  and  his  toes  turned  outward, 
which  is  the  most  natural  position.  They  are  not  the  impressions  of  feet 
accustomed  to  a  tight  shoe,  the  toes  being  very  much  spread,  and  the  foot 
flattened  in  the  manner  that  happens  to  those  who  have  been  habituated  to 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  255 

go  a  great  length  of  time  without  shoes.  The  prints  are  strikingly  natu- 
ral, exhibiting  every  muscular  impression  and  swell  of  the  heel  and  toes, 
with  great  precision  and  faithfulness  to  nature.  The  length  of  each  foot, 
as  indicated  by  the  prints,  is  ten  inches  and  a  half,  and  the  width  across 
the  spread  of  the  toes,  four  inches,  which  diminishes  to  two  inches  and  a 
half  at  the  swell  of  the  heels,  indicating,  as  it  is  thought,  a  stature  of  the 
common  size. 

Every  appearance  seems  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  these  impressions 
were  made  at  a  time  when  the  rock  was  soft  enough  to  receive  them  by 
pressure,  and  that  the  marks  of  feet  are  natural  and  genuine.  '  Such  was 
the  opinion  of  Governor  Cass  and  myself,'  says  Mr.  Schoolcraft,  '  formed 
upon  the  spot,  and  there  is  nothing  that  I  have  subsequently  seen  to  alter 
this  view  :  on  the  contrary,  there  are  some  corroborating  facts  calculated  to 
strengthen  and  confirm  it.'  At  Herculaneum,  in  the  same  neighborhood, 
similar  marks  have  been  found,  as  well  as  on  some  of  the  spurs  of  the 
Cumberland  mountains,  always  in  similar  limestone.  In  the  latter  case  it 
is  stated  that  the  impressions  are  elongated,  as  of  persons  slipping  in 
ascending  a  slimy  steep.  Opinions  are  much  divided  as  to  the  origin  and 
import  of  these  impressions.  Should  similar  observations  multiply,  im- 
portant inferences  may  perhaps  be  drawn  from  them ;  at  present  it  seems 
impossible  to  speak  respecting  them  decisively  or  satisfactorily. 

The  following  extraordinary  facts,  respecting  what  may  be  termed  living 
fossils,  appear  to  be  well  authenticated.  During  the  construction  of  the 
Erie  canal,  while  the  workmen  were  cutting  through  a  ridge  of  gravel,  they 
found  several  hundred  of  live  molluscous  animals.  '  I  have  before  me,' 
says  Professor  Eaton,  '  several  of  the  shells  from  which  the  workmen  took 
the  animals,  fried  and  ate  them.  I  have  received  satisfactory  assurances 
that  the  animals  were  taken  alive  from  the  depth  of  forty-two  feet.'  In  ad- 
dition to  this  discovery  in  diluvial  deposits,  mention  is  made  of  a  similar 
one  in  a  much  older  formation.  In  laying  the  foundation  of  a  house  at 
"Whitesborough,  the  workmen  had  occasion  to  split  a  large  stone  from  the 
millstone  grit.  '  It  was  perfectly  close-grained  and  compact.  On  opening 
it,  they  discovered  a  black,  or  dark  brown  spherical  mass,  about  three  inches 
in  diameter,  in  a  cavity  which  it  filled.  On  examining  it  particularly,  they 
found  it  to  be  a  toad,  much  larger  than  the  common  species  and  of  a  darker 
color.  It  was  perfectly  torpid.  It  was  laid  upon  a  stone,  and  soon  began 
to  give  signs  of  life.  In  a  few  hours,  it  would  hop  moderately  on  being 
disturbed.  They  saw  it  in  the  yard,  moving  about  slowly  for  several  days  ; 
but  it  was  not  watched  by  them  any  longer,  and  no  one  observed  its  farther 
movements.  They  laid  one  half  of  the  stone  in  the  wall,  so  that  the  cavity 
may  still  be  seen. 

'The  millstone  grit,'  says  Professor  Eaton,  who  gives  this  account,  ■  in 
which  this  toad  was  found,  is  the  oldest  of  the  secondary  rocks.  It  must 
have  been  formed  many  years  before  the  deluge.  Was  this  toad  more  than 
four  thousand  years  old?  or  was  it  from  an  egg  introduced,  through  a 
minute  and  undiscovered  cleavage,  into  this  cavity  or  geode,  made  precisely 
to  fit  the  size  and  form  of  a  toad  ?  I  was  particular  in  my  inquiry,  and 
learned  that  the  whole  stone  was  perfectly  compact,  without  any  open  cleav- 
age which  would  admit  an  egg.  Besides,  it  is  well  known  that  the  mill- 
stone grit  is  neither  porous  nor  geodiferous.  If  this  rock  stratum  was  de- 
posited upon  the  toad,  it  must  have  been  in  aqueous,  not  in  igneous  solu- 


256  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

tion,  and  the  toad  must  have  been  full  grown  at  the  time.  Toads  are  often 
found  in  compact,  hard,  gravelly  diluvial  deposits,  in  situations  which 
demonstrate  that  they  must  have  lived  from  the  time  of  the  deluge.  I 
think  I  am  warranted  in  saying  this  without  citing  authorities,  as  it  is  a 
common  occurrence.  Then  why  may  they  not  have  lived  a  few  centuries 
longer,  if  we  admit  them  a  life  of  at  least  three  thousand  years  V 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  GEOLOGY. 

Geological  researches  are  made  with  much  greater  facility  in  America  than  in  Eu- 
rope, especially  in  the  region  of  the  secondary  strata.  The  immense  extent  over  which 
they  can  be  traced,  the  undisturbed  condition  in  which  they  are  found,  and  their  gene- 
rally horizontal  position,  afford  great  facility  for  efforts  of  system  and  generalization. 
The  absence  of  the  newest  floetz-trap  rocks,  and  of  the  effects  of  the  violent  convulsions, 
so  frequent  in  the  vicinity  of  this  disputed  formation,  unquestionably  assist  geological 
research.  A  second  and  more  efficient  cause  is  found  in  the  extent  of  the  changes  that 
have  been  wrought  in  the  different  classes  of  rocks  on  the  European  continent  since 
their  original  formation,  by  the  effect  of  water,  and  the  continual  action  of  rivers  wear- 
ing deep  beds,  and  exposing  the  subordinate  strata.  Rivers  also  in  North  America  have 
not  generally  cut  so  deep  into  the  different  strata,  either  in  the  mountains,  or  during 
their  course  in  the  level  country,  as  materially  to  derange  the  stratifications.  Broken 
masses  of  one  formation  covering  the  tops  of  mountains,  whose  foundations  are 
composed  of  rocks  of  a  different  class,  seldom  occur.  A  third  cause  of  the  facility  of 
geological  observation  in  this  continent  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  whole  continent  east 
of  the  Mississippi  follows  the  arrangement  of  one  great  chain  of  mountains.  Europe, 
on  the  contrary,  is  intersected  by  five  or  six  distinct  ranges,  which  follow  different  laws 
of  stratification,  and  frequently  interrupt  each  other. 

The  effect  of  opening  this  new  field  of  observation  has  been  striking  and  important. 
It  has  been  to  confound  every  previous  effort  at  the  determination  and  arrangement  of 
general  strata.  European  geologists  themselves  have  acknowledged  that  the  general  strata 
must  be  determined  in  America.  The  absence  of  the  chalk  forcibly  illustrates  this  ; 
the  chalk  being  not  only  a  very  prominent  feature  in  the  geological  structure  of  Europe, 
but  the  grand  point  of  division  between  the  secondary  and  tertiary  formations.  The 
English  oolite  is  not  found  in  this  country.  It  has  been  affirmed  by  Professor  Eaton 
that  the  old  red  sandstone  is  not  a  general  stratum,  and  even  the  existence  of  primitive 
clay-slate  is  questioned  j  while  Mr.  Maclure  informs  us  that  tltough  the  primitive  for- 
mation contains  all  the  variety  of  rocks  contained  in  the  mountains  of  Europe,  yet 
neither  their  relative  situation  in  the  order  of  succession,  nor  their  relative  heights  in 
the  range  of  mountains,  correspond  with  European  observations.  The  order  of  suc- 
cession from  the  clay-slate  to  the  granite,  as  well  as  the  gradually  diminishing  height 
of  the  strata,  from  the  granite  through  the  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  hornblende  rock, 
down  to  the  clay-slate,  is  so  often  inverted  and  mixed,  as  to  render  the  arrangement  of 
any  regular  series  impracticable. 

It  is  of  course  out  of  the  question  in  these  remarks  to  present  a  detailed  account  of 
the  general  science  of  geology.  For  valuable  and  well-digested  treatises  on  this  sub- 
ject, we  refer  to  Cuvier's  Theory  of  the  Earth,  and  LyelVs  Principles  of  Geology.  The 
volumes  of  Silliman's  Journal,  and  Professor  Cleaveland's  works,  abound  in  important 
matter  on  the  geology  of  our  continent. 


257 


CHAPTER  XIX.— NATURAL  CURIOSITIES. 

It  is  our  intention  to  collect  under  this  general  head  a  few  miscellaneous 
descriptions,  that  could  not  have  been  properly  placed  under  any  other  divi- 
sion. The  space  that  we  can  devote  to  this  subject  is  small,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  enter  into  much  detail.  Among  the  most  admired  and  interest- 
ing natural  curiosities  of  our  country,  are  the  Pictured  Rocks,  of  lake  Su- 
perior, which  have  been  described  by  an  intelligent  traveller  to  whose  obser- 
vation we  have  been  already  largely  indebted. 

'  The  Pictured  Rocks,'  says  Mr.  Schoolcraft,  '  are  a  series  of  lofty  bluffs, 
which  continue  for  twelve  miles  along  the  shore,  and  present  some  of  the 


Pictured  Rocks. 

most  sublime  and  commanding  views  in  nature.  We  had  been  told,  by 
our  Canadian  guide,  of  the  variety  in  the  color  and  form  of  these  rocks, 
but  were  wholly  unprepared  to  encounter  the  surprising  groups  of  over- 
hanging precipices,  towering  walls,  caverns,  waterfalls,  and  prostrate  ruins, 
which  are  here  mingled  in  the  most  wonderful  disorder,  and  burst  upon  the 
view  in  ever- varying  and  pleasing  succession.  In  order  to  convey  any 
just  idea  of  their  magnificence,  it  is  necessary  to  premise,  that  this  part  of 
the  shore  consists  of  a  sandstone  rock  of  a  light  gray  color  internally,  and 
deposited  stratum  super-stratum  to  the  height  of  three  hundred  feet,  rising 
in  a  perpendicular  wall  from  the  water  and  extending  from  four  to  five 
leagues  in  length. 

1  This  rock  is  made  up  of  coarse  grains  of  sand,  united  by  a  calcareous 
cement,  and  occasionally  imbedding  pebbles  of  quartz  and  other  water- 
worn  fragments  of  rocks,  but  adhering  with  a  feeble  force,  and,  where  ex- 
posed to  the  weather,  easily  crushed  between  the  fingers.  Externally,  it 
presents  a  great  variety  of  color,  as  black,  red,  yellow,  brown,  and  white, 
33  22* 


258  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

particularly  along  the  most  permanent  parts  of  the  shore ;  but  where  masses 
have  newly  fallen,  its  color  is  a  light  gray.  This  stupendous  wall  of  rock, 
exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  waves,  which  are  driven  up  by  every  north  wind 
across  the  whole  width  of  lake  Superior,  has  been  partially  prostrated  at 
several  points,  and  worn  out  into  numerous  bays  and  irregular  indenta- 
tions. All  these  front  upon  the  lake,  in  a  line  of  aspiring  promontories, 
which,  at  a  distance,  present  the  terrible  array  of  dilapidated  battlements 
and  desolate  towers. 

'  Among  many  striking  features,  two  attracted  particular  admiration, — 
the  Cascade  La  Portaille,  and  the  Doric  Arch.  The  cascade  is  situated 
about  four  miles  beyond  the  commencement  of  the  range  of  bluffs,  and  in 
the  centre  of  the  most  commanding  part  of  it.  It  consists  of  a  handsome 
stream,  which  is  precipitated  about  seventy  feet  from  the  bluff  into  the  lake 
at  one  leap.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  rainbow,  rising  from  the  lake,  to  the  top 
of  the  precipice.  We  passed  near  the  point  of  its  fall  upon  the  surface  of 
the  lake,  and  could  have  gone,  unwetted,  between  it  and  the  rocks,  as  it  is 
thrown  a  considerable  distance  into  the  lake. 

1  The  Doric  Rock  is  an  isolated  mass  of  sandstone,  consisting  of  four 
natural  pillars,  supporting  a  stratum  or  entablature  of  the  same  material, 
and  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  work  of  art.  On  the  top  of  this  en- 
tablature rests  a  stratum  of  alluvial  soil,  covered  with  a  handsome  growth 
of  pine  and  spruce  trees,  some  of  which  appear  to  be  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in 
height.  To  add  to  the  factitious  appearance  of  the  scene,  that  part  of  the 
entablature  included  between  the  pillars  is  excavated  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
mon arch,  giving  it  very  much  the  appearance  of  a  vaulted  passage  into 
the  court  yard  of  some  massy  pile  of  antiquated  buildings.  A  little  to  the 
west  of  this  rock,  the  Miner's  river  enters  the  lake  by  a  winding  channel, 
overshadowed  with  trees,  and  intersected  by  a  succession  of  small  rapids.' 

Mineralized  Tree. — About  half  a  mile  from  the  village  of  Chitteningo, 
in  New  York,  a  fossil  or  mineralized  tree  was  some  years  ago  discovered. 
It  lies  at  the  base  of  the  Conasewago  mountains,  within  a  few  yards  of  a 
branch  of  the  Erie  canal,  which  runs  up  to  the  village.  The  tree  appears 
to  have  been  blown  down  or  broken  off;  there  are  eight  or  ten  feet  of  stump 
remaining,  with  some  part  of  the  large  end  near  the  root ;  the  stump  is 
about  three  feet  in  diameter,  the  bark,  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  wood  and 
two  or  three  knots  are  very  obvious ;  there  is  a  substance  very  much  re- 
sembling veins  disseminated  through  what  seems  to  have  once  been  the 
sap  vessels  of  the  tree.  The  lower  part  of  the  root  is  imbedded  in  the  soil, 
where  it  probably  once  grew.  Vast  quantities  of  mineralized  wood,  both 
in  small  and  large  masses,  are  scattered  in  all  directions  around  this  stump  ; 
fragments  which  from  their  loose  and  porous  texture,  seem  to  have  been 
petrified,  after  the  wood  began  to  decay.  Indeed  so  numerous  are  these 
fragments,  that  almost  every  stone  in  this  vicinity  appears  to  have  been 
once  a  living  plant. * 

The  DeviVs  Diving  Hole. — About  four  miles  below  the  falls  of  Niagara, 
on  the  American  side,  is  a  very  curious  place  called  the  Devil's  Diving 
Hole,  which  is  nearly  one  hundred  feet  deep  ;  the  edge  of  it  is  so  very  near 
the  road  that  they  have  taken  the  precaution  to  cut  down  some  trees,  so 
as  to  form  a  kind  of  barricado,  in  order  to  prevent  cattle  or  strangers  from 

*Silliman's  Journal. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  259 

falling  into  it.  This  hole,  as  it  is  called,  is,  more  properly  speaking,  the 
narrow  extremity  of  a  considerable  ravine,  which  has,  at  some  remote  pe- 
riod, been  formed  in  the  rock ;  it  shelves  off  as  it  descends  towards  the 
river,  and  is  in  length  about  two  hundred  yards  from  the  road  to  the  river. 
The  top  is  so  overgrown  with  bushes  that  a  hasty  view  would  induce  many 
to  suppose  it  to  be  really  a  hole  ;  but  a  closer  examination  soon  leads  their 
eye  along  the  windings  of  its  courses,  and  discovers  a  very  considerable 
breadth  at  no  great  distance.  A  hemlock  tree,  firmly  rooted  at  the  bottom, 
stretches  its  top  almost  to  the  surface,  and  is  so  conveniently  fitted  to  the 
hole  or  opening,  that  you  have  only  to  descend  five  or  six  feet,  when  its 
branches  afford  you  a  safe  and  easy  step-ladder  quite  to  the  bottom,  where 
you  will  find  a  copious  spring  of  excellent  water. 

An  occurrence  is  traditionally  described  as  having  taken  place  at  this 
spot  during  the  French  war,  the  circumstances  of  which  were  as  follows  : — 
A  British  detachment,  being  pursued  by  a  superior  French  force,  were  so 
hemmed  in  that  their  retreat  to  the  road  was  cut  off,  and  their  escape  effec- 
tually prevented  by  this  ravine.  Seeing  their  situation  irretrievable,  they 
laid  down  their  arms,  and  surrendered  themselves  prisoners  of  war.  Not- 
withstanding this  surrender,  the  French  rushed  upon  them  with  charged 
bayonets  and  precipitated  the  whole  party  down  this  precipice.  Here  they 
perished  with  the  exception  of  a  single  soldier,  who  was  preserved  by  fall- 
ing on  some  of  his  comrades. 

Natural  Bridge. — This  wonderful  bridge  is  considered  by  many  the 
greatest  natural  curiosity  in  this  country.  It  has  never  been  described  so 
well  as  by  Mr.  Jefferson,  and  though  his  account  of  it  has  been  so  fre- 
quently reprinted,  we  have  thought  best  to  adopt  it. 

•  The  Natural  Bridge,  the  most  sublime  of  nature's  works,  is  on  the 
ascent  of  a  hill,  which  seems  to  have  been  cloven  through  its  length  by 
some  great  convulsion.  The  fissure  just  at  the  bridge  is  by  some  admea- 
surements two  hundred  and  seventy  feet  deep,  by  others  only  two  hundred 
and  flvre.  It  is  about  forty-five  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  ninety  feet  at 
the  top  :  this  of  course  determines  the  length  of  the  bridge  and  its  height 
from  the  water.  Its  breadth  in  the  middle  is  about  sixty  feet,  but  more  at 
the  ends,  and  the  thickness  of  the  mass  at  the  summit  of  the  arch,  about 
forty  feet.  A  part  of  this  thickness  is  constituted  by  a  coat  of  earth,  which 
gives  growth  to  many  large  trees.  The  residue,  with  the  hill  on  both  sides, 
is  one  solid  rock  of  limestone. 

'  The  arch  approaches  the  semi-elliptical  form,  but  the  larger  axis  of  the 
ellipsis,  which  would  be  the  chord  of  the  arch,  is  many  times  longer  than 
the  transverse.  Though  the  sides  of  this  bridge  are  provided,  in  some 
parts,  with  a  parapet  of  fixed  rocks,  yet  few  men  have  resolution  to  walk 
to  them  and  look  over  into  the  abyss.  You  involuntarily  fall  on  your  hands 
and  feet,  creep  to  the  parapet,  and  peep  over  it.  Looking  down  from  this 
height  about  a  minute,  gave  me  a  violent  headache. 

'  If  the  view  from  the  top  be  painful  and  intolerable,  that  from  below  is 
delightful  in  an  equal  extreme.  It  is  impossible  for  the  emotions  arising 
out  of  the  sublime  to  be  felt  beyond  what  they  are  here,  so  beautiful  an 
arch,  so  elevated,  so  light,  and  springing,  as  it  were,  up  to  heaven,  the 
rapture  of  the  spectator  is  really  indescribable  ! 

1  The  fissure  continuing  narrow,  deep,  and  straight  for  a  considerable 
distance  above  and  below  the  bridge,  opens  a  short  but  very  pleasing  view 


260  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  the  North  mountain  on  one  side,  and  the  Blue  ridge  on  the  other,  at  the 
distance  each  of  them  of  about  five  miles.  This  bridge  is  in  the  county 
of  Rockbridge,  to  which  it  has  given  name,  and  affords  a  public  and  com- 
modious passage  over  a  valley,  which  cannot  be  crossed  elsewhere  for  a 
considerable  distance.  The  stream  passing  under  it  is  called  Cedar  creek. 
It  is  a  water  of  James  river,  and  sufficient  in  the  driest  seasons  to  turn  a 
grist-mill,  though  its  fountain  is  not  more  than  two  miles  above.' 

The  description  which  follows  is  from  another  writer.  'As  we  stood 
under  this  beautiful  arch,  we  saw  the  place  where  visitors  have  often  taken 
the  pains  to  engrave  their  names  upon  the  rock.  Here  Washington  climbed 
up  twenty-five  feet  and  carved  his  own  name,  where  it  still  remains.  Some 
wishing  to  immortalize  their  names  have  engraved  them  deep  and  large, 
while  others  have  tried  to  climb  up  and  insert  them  high  in  this  book  of 
fame. 

'A  few  years  since,  a  young  man,  being  ambitious  to  place  his  name  above 
all  others,  came  very  near  losing  his  life  in  the  attempt.  After  much 
fatigue,  he  climbed  up  as  high  as  possible,  but  found  that  the  person  who 
had  before  occupied  his  place  was  taller  than  himself,  and  consequently 
had  placed  his  name  above  his  reach.  But  he  was  not  thus  to  be  discour- 
aged. He  opened  a  large  jacknife,  and  in  the  soft  limestone  began  to 
cut  places  for  his  hands  and  feet.  With  much  patience  and  industry  he 
worked  his  way  upwards,  and  succeeded  in  carving  his  name  higher  than 
the  most  ambitious  had  done  before  him. 

1  He  could  now  triumph  ;  but  his  triumph  was  short,  for  he  was  placed 
in  such  a  situation  that  it  was  impossible  to  descend  unless  he  fell  upon 
the  ragged  rocks  beneath  him.  There  was  no  house  near,  from  which  his 
companions  could  get  assistance.  He  could  not  remain  in  that  condition, 
and,  what  was  worse,  his  friends  were  too  much  frightened  to  do  anything 
for  his  relief.  They  looked  upon  him  as  already  dead,  expecting  every 
moment  to  see  him  precipitated  upon  the  rocks  below  and  dashed  to  pieces. 
Not  so  with  himself.  He  determined  to  ascend.  Accordingly  he  plied 
himself  with  his  knife,  cutting  places  for  his  hands  and  feet,  and  gradually 
ascended  with  incredible  labor.  He  exerted  every  muscle.  His  life  was 
at  stake,  and  all  the  terrors  of  death  rose  before  him.  He  dared  not  look 
downwards  lest  his  head  should  become  dizzy,  and  perhaps  on  this  circum- 
stance his  life  depended. 

'  His  companions  stood  at  the  top  of  the  rock  exhorting  and  encouraging 
him.  His  strength  was  almost  exhausted  ;  but  a  bare  possibility  of  saving 
his  life  still  remained,  and  hope,  the  last  friend  of  the  distressed,  had  not 
yet  forsaken  him.  His  course  upwards  was  rather  oblique,  than  perpen- 
dicular. His  most  critical  moment  had  now  arrived.  He  had  ascended 
considerably  more  than  two  hundred  feet,  and  had  still  further  to  rise, 
when  he  felt  himself  fast  growing  weak.  He  now  made  his  last  effort 
and  succeeded.  He  had  cut  his  way  not  far  from  two  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  from  the  water,  in  a  course  almost  perpendicular ;  and  in  a  little  less 
than  two  hours,  his  anxious  companions  reached  him  a  pole  from  the  top, 
and  drew  him  up.  They  received  him  with  shouts  of  joy ;  but  he  him- 
self was  completely  exhausted.  He  immediately  fainted  away  on  reach- 
ing the  spot,  and  it  was  some  time  before  he  could  be  recovered. 

1  It  was  interesting  to  see  the  path  up  these  awful  rocks,  and  to  follow  in 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  261 

imagination  this  bold  youth  as  he  thus  saved  his  life.  His  name  stands 
far  above  all  the  rest,  a  monument  of  hardihood,  of  rashness,  and  of 
folly.' 

Natural  Stone  Walls. — On  the  Missouri,  at  the  distance  of  about  one 
hundred  miles  from  the  Great  Falls,  are  the  natural  stone  walls  which 
have  thus  been  described  by  Lewis  and  Clarke : 

'  We  came  to  a  high  wall  of  black  rock  rising  from  the  water's  edge  on 
the  south,  above  the  cliffs  of  the  river:  this  continued  about  a  quarter  of 
a  mile,  and  was  succeeded  by  a  high  open  plain,  till  three,  miles  further  a 
second  wall,  two  hundred  feet  high,  rose  on  the  same  side.  Three  miles 
farther,  another  wall  of  the  same  kind,  about  two  hundred  feet  high  and 
twelve  thick,  appeared  to  the  north.  These  hills  and  river  cliffs  exhibit 
a  most  extraordinary  and  romantic  appearance.  They  rise  in  most  places 
nearly  perpendicularly  from  the  water  to  the  height  of  between  two  and 
three  hundred  feet,  and  are  formed  of  very  white  sandstone,  so  soft  as  to 
yield  readily  to  the  impression  of  the  water,  in  the  upper  part  of  which 
lie  imbedded  two  or  three  horizontal  strata  of  white  freestone  insensible 
to  the  rain,  and  on  the  top  is  a  dark  rich  loam,  which  forms  a  gradually 
ascending  plain,  from  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half  in  extent,  when  the  hills 
again  rise  abruptly  to  the  height  of  about  three  hundred  feet  more. 

1  In  trickling  down  the  cliffs,  the  water  has  worn  the  soft  sandstone  into 
a  thousand  grotesque  figures,  among  which,  with  a  little  fancy,  may  bo 
discerned  elegant  ranges  of  freestone  buildings,  with  columns  variously 
sculptured,  and  supporting  long  and  elegant  galleries,  while  the  parapets 
are  adorned  with  statuary.  On  a  nearer  approach,  they  represent  every 
form  of  elegant  ruins ;  columns,  some  with  pedestals  and  capitals  entire, 
others  mutilated  and  prostrate ;  and  some  rising  pyramidically  over  each 
other  till  they  terminate  in  a  sharp  point.  These  are  varied  by  niches, 
alcoves,  and  the  customary  appearances  of  desolated  magnificence.  The 
illusion  is  increased  by  the  number  of  martins  that  have  built  their  globu- 
lar nests  in  the  niches,  and  hover  over  these  columns ;  as  in  our  country 
they  are  accustomed  to  frequent  large  stone  structures. 

'As  we  advance,  there  seems  no  end  to  the  visionary  enchantment  that 
surrounds  us.  In  the  midst  of  this  fantastic  scenery  are  vast  ranges  of 
walls,  which  seem  the  productions  of  art,  so  regular  is  the  workmanship. 
They  rise  perpendicularly  from  the  river,  sometimes  to  the  height  of  one 
hundred  feet,  varying  in  thickness  from  one  to  twelve  feet,  being  equally 
broad  at  the  top  as  below.  The  stones  of  which  they  are  formed,  are 
black,  thick,  and  durable,  and  composed  of  a  large  portion  of  earth,  inter- 
mixed and  cemented  with  a  small  quantity  of  sand,  and  a  considerable 
proportion  of  talc  or  quartz. 

'  These  stones  are  almost  invariably  regular  parallelopipeds  of  unequal 
sizes  in  the  wall,  but  equally  deep,  and  laid  regularly  in  ranges  over  each 
other  like  bricks,  each  breaking  and  covering  the  interstice  of  the  two  on 
which  it  rests.  But  though  the  perpendicular  interstice  is  destroyed,  the 
horizontal  one  extends  entirely  through  the  work.  The  stones,  too,  are 
proportioned  to  the  thickness  of  the  wall  in  which  they  are  employed, 
being  largest  in  the  thickest  walls.  The  thinner  walls  are  composed  of  a 
6ingle  depth  of  the  parallelopiped,  while  the  thicker  ones  consist  of  two  or 
more  depths.     These  walls  pass  the  river  at  several  places,  rising  from  tho 


262  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

water's  edge  much  above  the  sandstone  bluffs,  which  they  seem  to  pene- 
trate ;  thence  they  cross  in  a  straight  line,  on  either  side  of  the  river,  the 
plains  over  which  they  tower  to  the  height  of  from  ten  to  seventy  feet, 
until  they  lose  themselves  in  the  second  range  of  hills.  Sometimes  they 
run  parallel  in  several  ranges  near  each  other ;  sometimes  intersect  each 
other  at  right  angles,  and  have  the  appearance  of  walls  of  ancient  houses 
or  gardens.' 


263 


PART  II. 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  I.— POLITICAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  DIVISIONS. 

United  States.  The  territory  of  the  United  States  extends  from  twenty- 
five  to  fifty-four  degrees  north  latitude,  and  from  sixty-six  degrees  forty-nine 
minutes  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  degrees  west  longitude;  compris- 
ing one  million  eight  hundred  and  thirty-two  thousand  three  hundred  and 
fifteen  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  north  by  Russia  and  British  America; 
east  by  the  Atlantic  and  British  America  ;  south  by  the  Atlantic  and  the 
gulf  and  territory  of  Mexico,  and  west  by  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  ocean. 
This  extent  of  country  is  divided  into  twenty-four  states,  five  territories, 
and  the  district  of  Columbia.  The  states  are  familiarly  classed  under  the 
Eastern  or  New  England,  the  Middle,  the  Southern,  and  the  Western 
states.  The  first  division  comprehends  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut;  the  second,  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware  and  Maryland  ;  the  third,  Virginia, 
North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Louisiana; 
the  fourth,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Missouri. 
The  territories  are  Florida,  Michigan,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas.  There  are  no 
separate  governments  to  the  regions  west  of  the  Missouri  and  lake  Michigan ; 
they  are  popularly  known  as  the  North-West,  and  the  Oregon  territories. 
The  whole  extent  of  the  inhabited  country  now  described  includes  eight 
hundred  thousand  square  miles  ;  and  the  whole  population  is  twelve  mil- 
lion eight  hundred  and  fifty-eight  thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy;  of 
which  ten  millions  five  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  and  forty-four  are 
whites,  three  hundred  and  nineteen  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy- 
six  free  colored  persons,  and  two  million  nine  thousand  and  fifty 
slaves. 

I.  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES. 

Maine. — This  state  is  bounded  north  and  north-west  by  Lower  Canada; 
east  by  New  Brunswick ;  west  by  New  Hampshire,  and  south  by  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean.  The  north-eastern  boundary  is  yet  in  dispute.  Maine  is  divided 
into  ten  counties.*  The  towns  are  about  three  hundred  in  number; 
Augusta  is  the  capital.  The  other  principal  towns  are  Portland,  Bruns- 
wick, Bath,  Wiscasset,  Bangor,  Castine,  Hallowell,  York,  Saco,  Kenne- 

*  For  a  list  of  the  counties  in  this  and  the  other  states,  with  their  population,  see  th«  statis- 
fccal  tables  at  the  end  of  the  Yolume, 


264  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

bunk,  Eastport,  Machias,  Belfast,  Gardiner,  and  Waterville.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Saco,  Penobscot,  Androscoggin,  Kennebec,  Walloostook  and' 
Allagash,  head  streams  of  the  St.  John,  and  the  St.  Croix.  Among  the 
mountains  are  Bald,  Ebeeme,  Spencer  and  Katahdin.  The  lakes  are  Moose- 
head,  Umbagog,  Chesuncook,  and  Sebago.  Mount  Desert  is  the  largest  of 
the  islands  with  which  the  coast  is  strewn.  The  bays  are  Portland,  Passa- 
maquoddy,  Casco  and  Penobscot.  Population,  three  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-two. 

New  Hampshire  is  situated  between  forty-two  degrees  forty-one  minutes, 
and  forty-five  degrees  eleven  minutes  north  latitude,  and  between  seventy 
degrees  forty  minutes,  and  seventy-two  degrees  twenty-three  minutes 
west  longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Lower  Canada ;  south  by 
Massachusetts ;  east  by  Maine  and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  west  by  Con- 
necticut river,  which  separates  it  from  Vermont.  Its  extreme  length  from 
north  to  south,  is  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  miles  ;  and  its  greatest 
breadth  from  east  to  west,  ninety  miles  ;  containing  an  area  of  nine  thou- 
sand four  hundred  and  ninety-one  miles.  This  state  is  divided  into  eight 
counties.  Portsmouth  is  the  largest  town,  but  Concord  is  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment. The  number  of  towns  in  the  state  is  two  hundred  and  twenty, 
and  besides  those  mentioned  the  principal  are  Dover,  Exeter,  Amherst, 
Hanover  and  Haverhill.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  Merri- 
mac,  and  Piscataqua;  the  mountains  are  the  Monadnock,  Sunapee, 
Kearsarge,  Carr's,  and  Moosehillock.  The  White  mountains  are  the  most 
elevated  in  this  state,  and  the  highest  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  lakes 
are  Winnipiseogee,  Squam,  Ossipee,  Newfound,  Spafford's,  and  Connecti- 
cut ;  Umbagog  lies  partly  in  this  state,  and  partly  in  Maine.  The  pop- 
ulation by  the  last  census  was  two  hundred  sixty-nine  thousand  five 
hundred  and  thirty-three. 

Vermont  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  lake  Champlain  and  New  York; 
south  by  Massachusetts ;  east  by  the  Connecticut  river,  and  north  by  Lower 
Canada.  It  is  situated  between  forty-two  degrees  forty-four  minutes,  and 
forty-five  degrees  north  latitude ;  and  between  seventy-one  degrees  thirty- 
three  minutes,  and  seventy-three  degrees  twenty-six  minutes  west  longi- 
tude. It  is  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  miles  in  length  ;  its  breadth  is 
ninety  miles  on  the  north  line,  and  forty  on  the  south.  It  is  divided  into 
thirteen  counties,  and  two  hundred  and  forty-five  towns.  None  of  the 
towns  are  very  large.  Montpelier  is  the  seat  of  government.  Among  the 
chief  towns  are  Middlebury,  Bennington,  Montpelier,  Brattleboro',  Burling- 
ton, and  Windsor.  The  rivers,  all  of  which  are  small,  are  Lamoille, 
Onion,  Otter,  White,  and  Missisque ;  the  west  bank  of  the  Connecticut 
forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  state.  The  mountains  are  Ascutney, 
Kiilington's  Peak,  Camel's  Rump,  and  Mansfield,  peaks  of  the  Green  moun- 
tains. The  population  in  1830  was  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  six 
hundred  and  fifty-seven. 

Massachusetts  is  bounded  east  by  the  Atlantic;  west  by  New  York;  north 
by  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  and  south  by  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island 
and  the  Atlantic.  It  lies  between  forty-one  degrees  fifteen  minutes  and 
forty-two  degrees  fifty-four  minutes  noTth  latitude  ;  and  between  sixty-nine 
degrees  fifty-four  minutes  and  seventy-three  degrees  thirty  minutes  west 
longitude.     It  is  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  long  from  east  to  westj 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  265 

and  ninety-six  miles  broad  from  north  to  south.  Its  area  includes  seven 
thousand  and  eight  hundred  square  miles.  The  rivers  are  Connecticut, 
Merrimac,  Charles,  Concord,  Blackstone,  Miller's,  Chickopee,  Deerfieid, 
Westfield  and  Housatonic.  The  mountains  are  Saddle  mountain,  Tag- 
kannuc,  Holyoke,  Tom  and  Wachuset.  This  state  is  divided  into  fourteen 
counties  and  three  hundred  and  five  towns.  Boston  is  the  capital.  Salem 
and  New  Bedford  are  next  in  size  and  importance ;  Lowell,  Taunton, 
Springfield,  and  Waltham  are  extensively  engaged  in  manufactures  ;  Nan- 
tucket, Newburyport,  Plymouth  and  Marblehead  are  fishing  and  commer- 
cial ports.  Worcester,  Northampton,  and  Pittsiield  are  pleasant  inland 
towns.  The  population  in  1830  was  six  hundred  and  ten  thousand  and 
fourteen. 

Connecticut  is  bounded  north  by  Massachusetts ;  east  by  Rhode  Island ; 
south  by  Long  Island  sound,  and  west  by  New  York.  It  lies  between 
forty-one  degrees  and  forty-two  degrees  two  minutes  north  latitude ;  and 
between  seventy-one  degrees  twenty  minutes  and  seventy-three  degrees 
fifteen  minutes  west  longitude.  Its  length  is  eighty-eight  miles,  and  its 
average  breadth  about  fifty-three  ;  its  area  is  four  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  miles.  It  is  divided  into  eight  counties.  Hartford,  New 
Haven,  Middle  town,  New  London  and  Norwich  are  incorporated  cities  ; 
Bridgeport,  Danbury,  Guilford,  Killingworth,  Newtown,  Stamford,  Ston- 
ington  and  Waterbury  are  boroughs.  Hartford  and  New  Haven  are  the 
seats  of  the  state  government;  and  the  legislature  holds  its  sessions  alter- 
nately at  the  two  places.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  Housa- 
tonic, Thames,  Farmington  and  Naugatuck.  The  greatest  elevations  are 
a  continuation  of  the  Green  mountains.  The  population  of  this  state  is 
two  hundred  and  ninety-seven  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eleven. 

Rhode  Island  is  bounded  west  by  Connecticut ;  south  by  the  Atlantic 
ocean ;  north  and  east  by  Massachusetts.  It  lies  between  forty-one  and 
forty-two  degrees  north  latitude  ;  and  between  seventy-one  degrees  eight 
minutes  and  seventy-one  degrees  fifty-two  minutes  wrest  longitude.  Tim 
average  length  of  the  state  from  north  to  south  is  about  forty-two  miles ; 
its  mean  breadth  about  twenty-nine  miles  ;  its  whole  area,  including  Narra- 
ganset  bay,  comprises  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles 
It  contains  five  counties,  and  thirty-one  towns.  Providence  is  the  capital, 
and  in  population  and  wealth  the  second  town  in  New  England.  New- 
port, Bristol,  Pawtucket  and  Warwick  are  the  other  chief  towns.  Paw- 
tucket  is  the  only  river  of  any  importance ;  the  Pawtuxet  is  also  the  seat 
of  a  number  of  manufactories.  The  islands  are  Rhode  Island,  Conanicut, 
Prudence  and  Block.  Narraganset  bay  extends  more  than  thirty  miles 
into  the  state.  The  population  is  ninety-seven  thousand  two  hundred 
and  twelve. 

II.  MIDDLE  STATES. 

New  York  is  bounded  east  by  Vermont,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut; 
north  by  lake  Ontario  and  the  river  St.  Lawrence  ;  west  by  Pennsylva- 
nia, lake  Erie  and  Niagara  river  ;  south  by  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 
Its  length  is  three  hundred  and  forty,  its  breadth  three  hundred  and  four 
miles ;  and,  including  Long  island,  it  contains  forty-six  thousand  and 
34  23 


266  BOOK  OF  THE  UNTTED  STATES. 

eightyfive  square  miles.  It  is  comprised  between  forty  degrees  thirty 
minutes  and  forty-five  degrees  north  latitude ;  and  between  seventy-three 
degrees  and  seventy-nine  degrees  fifty-five  minutes  west  longitude.  It  is 
divided  into  eight  districts,  which  are  subdivided  into  fifty-six  counties. 
There  are  seven  hundred  and  sixty -two  towns  and  cities.  The  population 
is  nearly  two  millions.  New  York  city  is  the  largest  in  the  western  world ; 
Albany  is  the  seat  of  government,  and  the  second  city  in  the  state.  Brook- 
lyn, Troy,  Hudson,  Poughkeepsie,  Newburgh,Catskill,  Plattsburgh,  Roches- 
ter and  Buffalo  are  all  important  towns.  The  mountains  are  the  Peruvian, 
Catskill  and  Shawangunk.  The  Hudson,  Mohawk,  Gennessee,  Black, 
Oswegatchie  and  Susquehannah  are  the  chief  rivers.  The  lakes  are  On- 
tario, Champlain,  George,  Oneida,  Skeneateles,  Owasco,  Cayuga,  Seneca, 
Crooked,  Canandaigua.  and  Chatauque.  The  islands  are  Long,  Shelter, 
Grand  and  Manhattan.  The  bay  of  New  York  is  the  only  large  harbor  ; 
there  are  several  harbors  on  lake  Ontario. 

New  Jersey  is  bounded  north  by  New  York  and  the  Atlantic  ;  south  by 
the  Atlantic  ;  west  by  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania.  Its  length  is  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-three,  its  breadth  fifty-two  miles  ;  its  area  in  square  miles  is 
seven  thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety.  It  lies  between  thirty-eight  de- 
grees seventeen  minutes  and  forty-one  degrees  twenty-one  minutes  north 
latitude  ;  and  seventy-five  degrees  thirty  minutes  and  seventy-three  degrees 
fifty-three  minutes  west  longitude.  The  state  is  divided  into  fourteen  coun- 
ties. Trenton  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  other  principal  towns  are 
Newark,  Paterson,  Hackensack,  Morristown,  Newton,  Perth  Amboy,  Bel- 
videre  and  Elisabeth  town.  The  chief  rivers  are  Second,  Hackensack,  Pas- 
saic and  Raritan.  Raritan  bay  is  a  spacious  estuary,  on  the  eastern  coast, 
affording  ready  access  at  all  seasons  to  Perth  Amboy,  the  chief  seaport  town 
of  the  state.  The  population  of  New  Jersey  is  three  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy-nine. 

Pennsylvania  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  New  York,  and  the  north-west  by 
lake  Erie  ;  on  the  east  by  the  river  Delaware  which  divides  it  from  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  ;  on  the  south  by  Virginia,  Maryland  and  a  small 
portion  of  Delaware  ;  on  the  west  by  Virginia  and  Ohio.  It  lies  between 
thirty-nine  degrees  forty-three  minutes  and  forty-two  degrees  north  latitude ; 
and  between  seventy-four  degrees  and  eighty  degrees  forty  minutes  west 
longitude.  It  is  divided  into  the  eastern  and  the  western  districts  ;  con- 
taining fifty-one  counties,  and  six  hundred  and  fifty-one  townships.  The 
population  of  the  state  is  one  million  three  hundred  and  forty-seven  thou- 
sand six  hundred  and  seventy-two.  Harrisburgis  the  seat  of  government. 
Philadelphia  is  the  chief  city,  and  the  second  in  the  union.  Pittsburg, 
Reading,  Lancaster,  Easton  and  Bethlehem  are  large  towns.  The  rivers 
of  this  state  are  the  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  Tioga  and  Monongahela. 
The  mountains  are  the  South,  Kittatiny,  Sideling,  Ragged,  Great  Warrior, 
East  Wills,  Alleghany,  Laurel  and  Chesnut  ridges. 

Delaware  is  bounded  south  and  west  by  Maryland  ;  east  by  the  ocean 
and  Delaware  river  and  bay,  and  north  by  Pennsylvania.  Its  greatest 
width  is  twenty-three  miles,  and  its  length  ninety-two  miles  ;  it  is  the 
smallest  state  in  the  union  with  the  exception  of  Rhode  Island.  It  is 
comprised  within  thirty-eight  degrees  twenty-nine  minutes  and  thirty-nine 
degrees  forty-seven  minutes  north  latitude ;  and  within  seventy-four  de- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  267 

grees  fifty-six  minutes  and  seventy-five  degrees  forty  minutes  west  longi- 
tude. Delaware  is  divided  into  three  counties,  which  are  subdivided  into 
twenty-four  hundreds.  Dover  is  the  capital ;  the  other  principal  towns  are 
Wilmington  and  Newcastle.  Brandywine  and  Christiana  creeks  are  the 
only  streams  ;  Delaware  bay  forms  a  large  part  of  the  eastern  boundary. 
The  population  is  seventy-six  thousand  three  hundred  and  five. 

Maryland  is  bounded  south  and  west  by  Virginia  ;  east  by  Delaware 
and  the  ocean  ;  north  by  Pennsylvania.  It  is  divided  into  nineteen  coun- 
ties. Annapolis  is  the  seat  of  government.  Baltimore  is  the  third  com- 
mercial city  in  the  union  ;  the  other  important  towns  are  Fredericktown 
and  Hagerstown.  The  rivers  are  the  Potomac,  Susquehanna,  Patapsco, 
Severn  and  Patuxent.  The  northern  half  of  Chesapeak  bay  is  com- 
prised in  this  state,  including  many  small  islands.  Maryland  lies  between 
thirty-eight  degrees  and  thirty-nine  degrees  forty-four  minutes  north  lati- 
tude ;  and  between  seventy-five  degrees  ten  minutes  and  seventy-nine  de- 
grees twenty  minutes  west  longitude.  It  contains  thirteen  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  fifty  square  miles.  Its  population  is  about  four  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand. 

III.  SOUTHERN  STATES. 

Virginia  is  bounded  south  by  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  ;  north  by 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland ;  east  by  Maryland  and  the  Atlantic  ; 
and  west  by  Ohio  and  Kentucky.  It  lies  between  thirty-six  degrees  forty 
minutes  and  forty  degrees  forty-three  minutes  north  latitude  ;  and  seventy- 
five  degrees  twenty-five  minutes  and  eighty-three  degrees  forty  minutes 
west  longitude.  Its  mean  length  from  east  to  west  is  three  hundred  and 
fifty-five  miles  ;  its  mean  breadth  from  north  to  south  is  one  hundred  and 
eighty-five  miles.  It  is  divided  into  one  hundred  and  ten  counties,  forty- 
five  of  which  are  situated  on  the  west,  and  sixty-five  on  the  east  of  the 
Blue  ridge.  Richmond  is  the  capital.  The  other  principal  towns  are 
Norfolk,  Petersburg,  Fredericksburg,  Lynchburg,  Wheeling,  Winchester, 
Shepardstown,  Staunton,  Martensburg,  Lexington,  Fincastle,  Williams- 
burg and  Charlottesville.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Potomac,  Shenandoah, 
Rappahanock,  York  and  James  ;  these  empty  into  the  Chesapeak  bay,  and 
other  streams  intersect  different  portions  of  the  country.  The  mountains 
are  ranges  of  the  Apalachian  chain  ;  the  Alleghany  ridge  is  continued  from 
Pennsylvania ;  the  other  ridges  are  Greenbriar,  North  mountain,  Broad 
mountain,  Back  Bone,  Jackson  river  mountain,  Iron  mountain  and  Great 
Flat  Top.  The  highest  summits  are  the  Peaks  of  Otter  in  the  Alleghany 
ridge.  The  population  of  Virginia  is  one  million  two  hundred  and  eleven 
thousand  two  hundred  and  seventy-two. 

North  Carolina  is  bounded  west  by  Tennessee  ;  south  by  South  Caro- 
lina and  the  ocean  ;  east  by  the  ocean  ;  and  north  by  Virginia.  It  contains 
forty-three  thousand  and  eight  hundred  square  miles  ;  extending  from 
thirty-three  degrees  fifty  minutes  to  thirty-six  degrees  thirty  minutes  north 
latitude  ;  and  seventy-five  degrees  forty-five  minutes  to  eighty-four  degrees 
west  longitude.  It  is  divided  into  sixty-two  counties.  Raleigh  is  the  seat 
of  government ;  Newbern  is  the  largest  town.  The  other  towns  of  im- 
portance are  Fayetteville  and  Wilmington.  The  rivers  are  the  Roanoke, 
Chowan,   Pamlico,    Cape  Fear  and  Yadkin ;  the  mountains,  Iron,  Bald, 


268  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  Smoky.     The  sounds  are  Albemarle  and  Pamlico ;  the  coast  is  skirted 
by  small  islands.     The  population  is  seven  hundred  and  thirty-eight  thou 
sand  four  hundred  and  seventy. 

South  Carolina  is  bounded  south  and  west  by  Georgia ;  east  by  the 
Atlantic,  and  north  by  North  Carolina.  It  is  two  hundred  miles  long  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  broad  ;  lying  between  thirty-two  degrees  and 
thirty-five  degrees  eight  minutes  north  latitude  ;  and  seventy-eight  degrees 
twenty-four  minutes  and  eighty-three  degrees  thirty  minutes  west  longi- 
tude. It  contains  thirty  thousand  and  eighty  square  miles  ;  and  is  divided 
into  twenty-nine  districts.  Charleston  is  the  chief  city  and  great  commer- 
cial port ;  it  was  formerly  the  seat  of  government.  Columbia  is  now  the 
capital.  Georgetown,  Beaufort  and  Camden  are  the  other  principal  towns. 
The  rivers  are  the  Great  Pedee,  Santee,  Edisto  and  Savannah.  The 
population  of  South  Carolina  is  five  hundred  and  eighty-one  thousand  four 
hundred  and  fifty-eight. 

Georgia  is  bounded  west  by  Alabama;  south  by  Florida;  east  by  South 
Carolina  and  the  Atlantic  ;  north  by  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  It  ex- 
tends from  thirty  degrees  thirty  minutes  to  thirty-five  degrees  north  latitude  ; 
and  from  eighty  degrees  fifty  minutes  to  eighty-six  degrees  six  minutes  west 
longitude  ;  its  length  is  two  hundred  and  seventy,  and  its  breadth  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles.  It  is  divided  into  seventy-six  counties.  Savannah 
is  the  largest  town  ;  Milled geville  is  the  seat  of  government.  Augusta  and 
Macon  are  the  other  principal  towns.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Savannah, 
Oakmulgee, Oconee,  St.  Mary's,  Alatahama  and  Chatahoochee.  The  moun- 
tains are  the  peaks  of  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Blue  ridge,  and  the 
Lookout  mountain.  Georgia  is  bordered  by  ranges  of  small  islands.  The 
population,  exclusive  of  Indians,  is  five  hundred  and  sixteen  thousand  five 
hundred  and  sixty-seven. 

Alabama  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Florida  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico  ; 
west  by  Mississippi ;  east  by  Georgia,  and  north  by  Tennessee.  It  lies  be- 
tween thirty  degrees  twelve  minutes  and  thirty-five  degrees  north  latitude  ; 
and  eighty-five  degrees  and  eighty-eight  degrees  thirty  minutes  west  lon- 
gitude. Its  breadth  is  one  hundred  and  sixty,  and  its  length  two  hundred 
and  eighty  miles  ;  the  whole  area  including  forty-six  thousand  square  miles. 
This  state  is  divided  into  thirty-six  counties.  Tuscaloosa  is  the  seat  of 
government.  Mobile  is  the  great  commercial  depot,  and  the  only  town  of 
consequence.  Among  the  other  towns  are  Blakely,  St.  Stephens'  and 
Cahawba.  In  the  northern  part  of  this  state  is  the  western  extremity  of 
the  Apalachian  mountains,  consisting  chiefly  of  limestone  rocks.  Alaba- 
ma is  the  longest  river ;  this  unites  with  the  Tombeckbee,  and  takes  the 
name  of  Mobile.  The  population  of  Alabama,  not  including  Indians,  is 
three  hundred  and  eight  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-seven. 

Mississippi  is  bounded  south  by  Louisiana  ;  west  by  Louisiana  and  the 
territory  of  Arkansas  ;  north  by  Tennessee,  and  east  by  Alabama.  Its 
breadth  is  one  hundred  and  fifty,  and  its  length  three  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  miles  ;  it  contains  forty-five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty  square 
miles.  It  lies  between  thirty  degrees  ten  minutes  and  thirty-five  degrees 
north  latitude ;  between  eighty  degrees  thirty  minutes  and  eighty-one  de- 
grees thirty-five  minutes  west  longitude.  It  is  divided  into  twenty-six 
counties.  Natchez  is  the  only  large  town  in  the  state.  Jackson  is  the  seat 
of  government.     Monticello,  Warrenton  and  Vicksburgh  are  considerable 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  2G9 

places.  The  rivers  that  water  this  state  are  the  Tombeckbee,  Pascagoula, 
rearl,  Yazoo  and  Big  Black.  The  Mississippi  washes  the  western  limit. 
The  population  is  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  six. 

Louisiana  is  bounded  east  by  Mississippi,  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  west 
by  Texas ;  south  by  the  gulf,  and  north  by  the  Arkansas  territory  and 
Mississippi.  It  is  divided  into  the  Eastern  and  Western  districts ;  which 
are  subdivided  into  thirty-one  parishes.  New  Orleans  is  the  seat  of  go- 
vernment, and  the  commercial  mart  of  all  the  western  country.  Donald- 
sonville,  Baton  Rouge,  St.  Francisville,  Point  Coupee,  Alexandria  and 
Natchitoches  are  considerable  places.  The  rivers  are  the  Mississippi,  Red, 
Washita,  and  Sabine.  The  lakes  are  Maurepas,  Pontchartrain,  and  Borgne. 
The  Chandeleur  islands  are  mere  heaps  of  sand  ;  Barataria  has  been 
of  some  note  as  a  resort  for  pirates.  The  population  of  Louisiana  is  two 
hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy-five. 

IV.  WESTERN  STATES. 

Tennessee  is  bounded  south  by  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi ;  west 
by  the  river  Mississippi,  separating  it  from  Missouri  and  Arkansas  ;  east  by 
North  Carolina,  and  north  by  Kentucky.  Its  breadth  is  one  hundred  and 
four,  and  its  length  is  about  four  hundred  and  thirty  miles  ;  its  area  is  forty 
thousand  square  miles.  It  lies  between  thirty-five  and  thirty-six  degrees  thir- 
ty-six minutes  north  latitude ;  and  between  eighty-one  degrees  thirty  minutes 
and  ninety  degrees  ten  minutes  west  longitude.  It  is  divided  into  East  and 
West  Tennessee  ;  the  former  has  twenty-two  counties,  and  the  latter  forty. 
Nashville  is  the  seat  oC  government,  and  the  largest  town.  Knoxville, 
Murfreesborough  and  Memphis  are  growing  settlements.  The  mountains 
are  the  Laurel,  Stone,  Yellow,  Iron,  Bald  and  Unaka,  peaks  of  a  continued 
chain  ;  Welling's  and  Copper  Ridge,  Church,  Powell's  and  Bay's  moun- 
tains are  in  the  north-east.  The  Cumberland  Ridge  intersects  the  state, 
running  from  north-east  to  south-west.  The  rivers  are  the  Tennessee, 
Cumberland,  Obian,  Forked  Deer,  Big  Hatchee  and  Wolf.  The  popula- 
tion of  Tennessee  is  six  hundred  and  eighty-four  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  twenty-two. 

Kentucky  is  bounded  west  by  Missouri  and  Illinois ;  east  by  Virginia  ; 
south  by  Tennessee ;  north  by  Indiana  and  Ohio.  Its  length  is  three  hun- 
dred miles,  its  mean  breadth  one  hundred  and  fifty;  its  area  includes 
about  forty  thousand  square  miles.  It  lies  between  thirty-six  degrees 
thirty  minutes  and  thirty-nine  degrees  ten  minutes  north  latitude  ;  and  be- 
tween eighty-one  degrees  fifty  minutes  and  eighty-nine  degrees  twenty 
minutes  west  longitude.  It  is  divided  into  eighty-three  counties.  Frank- 
fort is  the  seat  of  government.  Lexington,  Louisville,  Maysville,  Wash- 
ington, Paris,  Georgetown  and  Versailles  are  the  chief  towns.  The  rivers 
that  water  this  state  are  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  Cumberland,  Tennessee, 
Licking,  Kentucky,  Green  and  Big  Sandy.  The  population  is  six  hundred 
and  eighty-eight  thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty-four. 

Ohio  is  bounded  north  by  Michigan  territory  and  lake  Erie ;  east  by 
Pennsylvania  ;  south-east  by  the  Ohio  river,  which  separates  it  from  Vir- 
ginia, and  west  by  Indiana.  Its  length  is  two  hundred  and  ten  miles,  its 
mean  breadth  two  hundred  ;  its  area  includes  forty  thousand  square  miles. 

23* 


270  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

It  lies  between  thirty-eight  degrees  thirty  minutes  and  forty-one  degrees 
nineteen  minutes  north  latitude  ;  and  between  eighty  degrees  thirty-five 
minutes  and  eighty-four  degrees  forty-seven  minutes  west  longitude.  It  is 
divided  into  seventy-three  counties.  Cincinnati  is  the  largest  city ;  Colum- 
bus is  the  seat  of  government.  Zanesville,  Steubenville,  Chilicothe,  Day- 
ton, Marietta  and  Circleville  are  flourishing  towns.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Ohio,  Muskingum,  Scioto,  Great  Miami,  Little  Miami,  Maumee, 
Sandusky  and  Cuyahoga.  The  population  is  nine  hundred  thirty-seven 
thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy-nine, 

Indiana  is  bounded  north  by  the  lake  and  territory  of  Michigan  ;  south 
by  the  Ohio,  which  divides  it  from  Kentucky;  east  by  Ohio,  and  west  by 
Illinois.  Its  breadth  is  one  hundred  and  fifty,  and  its  length  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles.  It  lies  between  thirty-seven  degrees  forty-seven  minutes 
and  forty-one  degrees  fifty  minutes  north  latitude  ;  and  eighty-four  degrees 
forty-two  minutes  and  eighty-seven  degrees  forty-nine  minutes  west  longi- 
tude. It  is  divided  into  sixty-four  counties.  Indianapolis  is  the  seat  of 
government.  Vincennes,  New  Albany,  JefTersonville,  Vevay  and  Madison 
are  flourishing  settlements.  The  rivers  that  water  this  state  are  the  Ohio, 
Wabash,  White  Water  and  Tippecanoe.  The  population  is  three  hundred 
and  forty-one  thousand  five  hundred  and  eighty-two. 

Illinois  is  bounded  north  by  the  North-west  territory  ;  north-east  by  lake 
Michigan  ;  east  by  Indiana  ;  south-east  by  the  Ohio,  which  separates  it  from 
Kentucky ;  west  and  south-west  by  the  Upper  Mississippi  river,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  Missouri  and  the  Sioux  district.  It  extends  from  north  lati- 
tude thirty-seven  degrees  to  forty-two  degrees  thirty  minutes  ;  and  from 
eighty -seven  degrees  seventeen  minutes  to  ninety-one  degrees  fifty  minutes 
west  longitude.  Its  mean  breadth  is  one  hundred  and  sixty,  and  its  length 
is  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles  ;  its  area  includes  fifty-six  thousand  square 
miles.  It  is  divided  into  fifty-two  counties.  The  chief  town  and  seat  of 
government  is  Vandalia ;  the  other  principal  settlements  are  Kaskaskia, 
Cahokia,  Bellville  and  Shawneetown.  The  rivers  are  the  Mississippi,  Illi- 
nois, Rock,  Kaskaskia  and  Little  Wabash.  The  population  is  one  hundred 
fifty-seven  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy-five. 

Missouri  is  bounded  south  by  Arkansas  ;  east  by  Illinois,  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  ;  west  and  north  by  the  territory  of  Missouri.  It  contains  about 
sixty  thousand  square  miles  ;  its  length  being  two  hundred  and  seventy, 
and  its  breadth  two  hundred  and  twenty  miles.  Its  limits  are  between 
thirty-six  degrees  and  forty  degrees  thirty  minutes  north  latitude;  and 
between  eighty-nine  degrees  and  ninety-four  degrees  ten  minutes  west  lon- 
gitude. It  is  divided  into  thirty-eight  counties.  The  city  of  Jefferson, 
which  has  been  laid  out  within  a  few  years,  is  the  seat  of  government. 
St.  Louis  is  the  largest  town.  Potosi,  St.  Genevieve  and  Herculaneum 
are  flourishing  towns.  The  chief  elevations  are  the  Ozark  and  Iron  moun- 
tains. The  rivers  are  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Osage,  Gasconade,  Mara- 
mec,  St.  Francis,  White,  Black,  Currant,  Grand  and  Chariton.  The  popu- 
lation is  above  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand. 

V.  TERRITORIES  AND  DISTRICTS. 

Arkansas  Territory  is  bounded  north  by  Missouri  and  the  territory  be- 
yond ;  south  by  Louisiana  and  the  Mexican  states  ;  east  by  the  Mississippi, 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  271 

dividing  it  from  Tennessee  and  Mississippi ;  west  by  the  Mexican  and  Mis- 
souri territories.  It  is  five  hundred  miles  in  its  greatest,  and  three  hun- 
dred in  its  medial  length ;  its  breadth  is  two  hundred  and  forty  miles  ;  its 
area  more  than  fifty  thousand  square  miles.  It  lies  between  thirty-three 
and  thirty-six  degrees  thirty  minutes  north  latitude  ;  and  between  ninety  and 
one  hundred  degrees  west  longitude.  It  is  divided  into  twenty-three  counties. 
Little  Kock  is  the  seat  of  government ;  Dwight  is  a  missionary  station. 
The  mountains  are  the  Black  and  Masserne.  The  rivers  are  Arkansas, 
White,  St.  Francis,  Cache,  Washita,  Bartholomew  and  Red.  The  popu- 
lation is  thirty  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty-three. 

Michigan  Territory,  politically,  includes  the  peninsula  of  Michigan  and 
the  North-western  territory.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Canada,  and 
lakes  Superior  and  Huron ;  south  by  Ohio,  Illinois  and  Indiana ;  west  by 
Missouri  territory  ;  east  by  lakes  Huron,  St.  Clair,  Erie,  and  their  waters. 
It  lies  between  forty-one  degrees  thirty-one  minutes  and  forty-nine  degrees 
north  latitude ;  and  eighty-two  degrees  and  ninety-five  degrees  west  longi- 
tude ;  and  contains  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  square  miles.  It  is 
divided  into  seventeen  counties.  Detroit  is  the  capital  and  only  large 
town.  The  rivers  are  the  Wisconsin,  Chippeway,  St.  Croix,  Mississagai- 
gon,  St.  Louis,  Fox,  Grand,  St.  Joseph's,  Saginum,  and  Raisin.  Lake 
Michigan  lies  almost  wholly  within  this  territory ;  it  is  bordered  by  Supe- 
rior and  Huron. 

Missouri  Territory  is  nine  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  eight  hundred 
in  breadth.  It  is  bounded  north  by  the  British  possessions ;  east  by  the 
North-west  territory,  Illinois  and  Missouri  ;  south  and  south-west  by  the 
territories  of  the  Mexican  republic  ;  west  by  the  Rocky  mountains.  It  lies 
between  thirty-four  and  forty-nine  degrees  north  latitude  ;  and  ninety  and 
one  hundred  and  twelve  degrees  west  longitude ;  its  area  is  estimated  at 
four  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  square  miles.  The  United  States  have 
two  military  posts  in  this  territory.  The  mountains  of  this  territory  are 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  rivers  are  the  Missouri,  Riviere  de 
Corbeau,  St.  Peter's,  Cannon,  Ioway,  Yellowstone,  La  Platte,  Kansas, 
Osage,  Runningwater,  Arkansas,  Negracka,  and  Grand  Saline.  This  ter- 
ritory is  inhabited  by  various  Indian  tribes,  whose  numbers  are  not  known. 

Oregon  Territory  is  a  vast  country,  whose  southern  boundary  is  on  the 
forty-second  parallel  to  the  Pacific  ;  our  north-west  boundary  is  in  dispute 
with  Russia  ;  our  division  from  the  British  possessions  is  in  the  forty-ninth 
parallel.  The  Pacific  is  its  western  limit ;  Arkansas  and  Missouri  terri- 
tories form  its  eastern.  It  lies  between  forty-one  and  forty-nine  degrees 
north  latitude,  and  between  one  hundred  and  seven  and  one  hundred  and 
thirty  west  longitude ;  it  contains  about  three  hundred  thousand  square 
miles.  The  Rocky  mountains,  and  the  unnamed  chain  between  this  range 
and  the  Pacific,  present  great  elevations.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Oregon 
and  its  tributaries.  This  region  is  claimed  by  the  United  States  on  the 
gTound  of  priority  of  discovery  and  occupation.  A  settlement  called  Asto- 
ria was  formed  in  1811  at  the  mouth  of  Oregon  or  Columbia  river,  by  a 
number  of  American  citizens.  The  number  of  Indian  inhabitants  is  esti- 
mated at  about  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand. 

Florida  Territory  is  bounded  north  by  Georgia  and  Alabama ;  south  and 
west  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  east  by  the  Atlantic.  It  extends  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-one  degrees  north  latitude ;   and  from  eighty  degrees 


272  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

thirty  minutes  to  eighty-seven  degrees  twenty  minutes  west  longitude ;  its 
length  is  three  hundred  and  fifty,  and  its  breadth  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles.  Its  area  includes  about  fifty  thousand  square  miles.  It  is  divided 
into  fifteen  counties.  St.  Augustine  is  the  largest  town  ;  the  other  con- 
siderable places  are  Pensacola  and  Tallahassee.  The  rivers  are  the  St. 
Mary's,  St.  John's,  and  Appalachicola.  The  population  is  about  thirty- 
four  thousand  and  five  hundred. 

The  District  of  Columbia  is  a  territory  ten  miles  square,  under  the  im- 
mediate government  of  Congress.  It  is  divided  into  two  counties  and  three 
cities.  The  cities  are  Washington,  Alexandria  and  Georgetown.  This 
district  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Potomac,  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  was  ceded  to  the  general  government  in  1790,  by  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland,  within  whose  territory  it  was  situated.  The  capital 
at  Washington,  from  which  American  geographers  often  compute  their 
meridian,  is  in  thirty-eight  degrees  fifty-three  minutes  north  latitude,  and 
seventy-seven  degrees  one  minute  and  forty-eight  seconds  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich.  The  population  of  the  district  is  thirty-nine  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  fifty-eight. 


273 


CHAPTER  II.— CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

Albany  is  the  scat  of  government  for  the  state  of  New  York,  and  ia 
situated  on  the  west  side  of  Hudson's  river,  one  hundred  and  forty-four 
miles  from  the  city  of  New  York,  to  which  it  is  next  in  rank.  This  city 
is  unrivalled  for  situation,  being  nearly  at  the  head  Of  sloop  navigation,  on 
one  of  the  noblest  rivers  in  the  world.  It  enjoys  a  pure  air,  and  is  the 
natural  emporium  ol  the  increasing  trade  of  a  large  extent  of  country  west 
and  north.  In  the  old  part  of  the  town,  the  streets  are  very  narrow,  and 
the  houses  mean,  being  all  built  in  the  Dutch  taste,  with  the  gable  end 
towards  the  street,  and  ornamented,   or  rather  disfigured,  on  the  top  with 


Albany. 

large  iron  weathercocks  ;  but  in  that  part  which  has  been  more  recently 
erected,  the  streets  are  commodious,  and  many  of  the  houses  are  handsome. 

The  Capitol  stands  on  an  elevation  at  the  end  of  the  main  street,  and 
presents  a  fine  appearance.  It  is  a  fine  stone  edifice,  with  an  Ionic  portico 
in  front,  supported  by  columns  thirty-three  feet  in  height.  The  public 
square  adjacent  is  adorned  with  beautiful  walks  and  avenues. 

The  Farmers'  and  Mechanics'  bank  and  the  Albany  bank,  both  at  the 
foot  of  State  street,  are  both  of  white  marble,  and  are  handsome  buildings. 
There  are  about  sixteen  churches  in  this  city.  Albany  has  received  more 
permanent  and  evident  advantages  from  the  canals  than  any  other  place  in 
the  state.  Since  1825,  the  population  has  increased  from  fifteen  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  seventy-one  to  twenty-six  thousand.  The  first  settle- 
ment at  Albany  was  made  about  1614,  when  a  stockade  was  built  on  a  spot 
just  below  the  steam-boat  dock.  The  charter  of  the  city  was  granted  in 
1686,  a  few  months  before  that  of  New  York.  The  city  "and  township  are 
a  mile  in  breadth,  and  extend  thirteen  miles  along  the  river.  The  neigh- 
borhood of  Albany  abounds  in  pleasant  villages. 
35 


274  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Alexandria  is  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  the  district  of  Columbia,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Potomac,  six  miles  below  Washington.  It  is  a  place 
of  some  business  and  resort  during  the  session  of  Congress,  and  contains 
some  fine  buildings.  Of  late,  Alexandria  has  not  much  increased,  notwith- 
standing it  enjoys  good  commercial  advantages.  This  city  is  regularly 
built,  and  has  good  streets,  well  paved  and  clean.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in 
flour.     Population  about  eight  thousand  three  hundred. 

Amherst  is  a  town  of  Hampshire  county,  Massachusetts,  ninety-one 
miles  west  of  Boston.     It  is  the  seat  of  a  college  which  was  incorporated 


Amherst  College. 

in  1821,  with  the  title  of  the  Amherst  Collegiate  Institution.  This  semi- 
nary has  seven  professors  and  four  tutors.  Amherst  is  the  seat  also  of  an 
academy,  and  a  school  called  the  Mount  Pleasant  Institution.  Population, 
nvo  thousand  six  hundred  and  thirty-one. 

Annapolis,  the  capital  of  Anne  Arundel  county,  and  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Maryland,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Severn  river,  about  two 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  Chesapeak  bay,  thirty  miles  south  of  Balti- 
more, and  forty  north-east  of  the  city  of  Washington.  It  is  a  place  of 
little  note  in  the  commercial  world ;  but  being  in  a  pleasant  situation,  and 
commanding  a  beautiful  prospect  of  the  Chesapeak,  and  the  shore  on  the 
other  side  of  the  bay,  it  is  a  very  pleasant  residence.  The  houses  are 
built  of  brick,  and  for  the  most  part  large  and  elegant,  denoting  great 
wealth.  The  state  house  is  one  of  the  most  superb  structures  in  the  United 
States.  Here  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Maryland.  Population  two 
thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty-three. 

Augusta,  capital  of  Maine,  stands  on  the  west  branch  of  the  Kennebec 
river,  two  miles  above  Hallowell.  It  is  a  pleasant  town,  and  contains  some 
neat  public  buildings.  The  new  state  house  is  built  of  granite,  and  is  a 
very  handsome  edifice.  It  contains  a  spacious  hall  for  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, and  two  smaller  ones  for  the  senate  and  the  council.  On  the 
side  of  the  river  opposite  to  the  state  house  is  the  United  States  Arsenal, 
consisting  of  about  a  dozen  buildings  of  stone,  some  of  which  are  large 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  275 

and  handsome.  This  place  has  considerable  trade,  and  the  river  below  is 
navigable  for  vessels  of  one  hundred  tons.     Population  four  thousand. 

Augusta,  capital  of  the  state  of  Georgia,  stands  on  the  south-west  bank 
of  the  river  Savannah,  about  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  from  the  sea. 
It  is  regularly  built  of  brick  upon  a  level  spot,  and  surrounded  by  a  fertile 
country.  It  has  a  good  trade  in  cotton,  and  other  productions  of  the 
interior.     Population,  six  thousand  six  hundred  and  ninety-six. 

Baltimore  is  a  large  city,  standing  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  Patapsco, 
in  Maryland.  The  basin  on  which  it  stands  has  only  five  or  six  feet  water 
at  high  tide,  so  that  the  city  can  be  approached  only  by  small  vessels.  For 
large  ships,  the  harbor  is  at  some  distance,  at  a  place  called  Fell's  point, 
where  wharves  have  been  built,  along  side  which  vessels  of  six  hundred 
tons  burden  can  lie  with  perfect  safety.  Numbers  of  persons  have  been 
induced  to  settle  on  this  point  on  account  of  the  shipping ;  and  regular 
streets  have  been  laid  out,  with  a  large  market-place.  But  though  these 
buildings,  generally  speaking,  are  considered  as  part  of  Baltimore,  yet  they 
are  a  mile  distant  from  the  other  part  of  the  town. 

The  city  is  the  chief  commercial  mart  for  the  country  upon  Chesapeak 
bay  and  its  waters.  It  is  finely  situated,  and  regularly  built,  in  great  part 
of  brick ;  the  public  buildings  and  monuments  indicate  great  enterprise 
and  opulence. 

Baltimore  was  laid  out  in  1729,  on  an  area  of  sixty  acres,  purchased  at 
forty  shillings  per  acre,  and  partly  paid  for  in  tobacco  at  a  penny  a  pound. 
Its  progress  was  slow  and  unpromising;  and  in  1752  it  contained  but 
twenty-five  houses.  With  its  population  of  more  than  eighty  thousand, 
it  may  now  be  considered  the  third  or  fourth  city  in  the  union.  According 
to  its  re-charter  in  1816,  Baltimore  now  includes  ten  thousand  acres, 
and  contains  a  lunatic  asylum,  three  theatres,  an  exchange,  a  public  libra- 
ry, and  forty-five  churches. 

The  Cathedral  is  built  after  the  Ionic  order,  on  a  plan  drawn  by  the 
celebrated  architect  Latrobe.  Its  width  is  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven, 
its  length  one  hundred  and  ninety,  and  its  height  to  the  summit  of  the 
cross  surmounting  the  dome,  is  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  feet.  It 
contains  several  fine  paintings,  and  the  largest  organ  in  the  United  States. 
The  Merchants'  Exchange,  built  by  private  subscription  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  citizens,  is  a  spacious  and  splendid  edifice. 

The  Battle  Monument  is  an  elegant  marble  structure,  fifty-five  feet  high, 
erected  in  memory  of  those  who  fell  in  defence  of  the  city  on  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  of  September,  1814.  The  Washington  Monument  is  built 
of  white  marble,  on  an  elevation  in  the  north  part  of  the  city ;  it  is  one 
hundred  and  sixty-three  feet  high,  and  on  its  summit  is  placed  a  colossal 
statue  of  Washington.  This  monument  is  embellished  with  bas-reliefs, 
and  other  decorations. 

Baltimore  is  the  greatest  flour  market  in  the  United  States.  In  its  im- 
mediate neighborhood,  are  above  sixty  flour  mills,  a  single  one  of  which 
has  produced  thirty-two  thousand  barrels  in  a  year.  Within  the  same 
compass  are  numerous  manufactories  of  cotton,  cloth,  powder,  paper,  iron, 
glass,  steam  engines,  and  other  articles.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail- 
road extends  a  distance  of  three  hundred  miles,  from  this  city  to  the  Ohio 
river  at   Pittsburgh.     The  Baltimore  and    Susquehanna   rail-road   is   to 


276 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


extend  seventy-six  miles  to  York  in  Pennsylvania.      The  Chesapeak  and 
Ohio  canal,  of  the  proposed  length  of  three  hundred  and  forty-one  miles, 


Battle  Monument,  Baltimore. 


was  commenced  in  1828.     The  population  of  Baltimore  is  about  eighty- 
five  thousand.^ 


*  Baltimore  has  the  honor,  I  believe,  of  being  the  first  city  which  has  raised  an  ar- 
chitectural memorial  of  its  gratitude  to  Washington.  It  consists  of  a  column  of  white 
marble,  rising  from  a  quadrangular  base.  The  shaft  of  the  column  is  about  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  high,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  colossal  statue,  which,  from  its 
throne,  seems  proudly  to  overlook  the  city.  The  design  of  this  monument,  which  is 
vet  unfinished,  is  simple  and  grand,  and  does  honor  to  the  taste  of  the  city.  Its  gross 
keight,  including  the  statue  and  pedestal,  is  about  a  hundred  and  sixty  feet. 

In  one  of  the  squares  of  the  city,  there  is  what  is  called  the  Battle  Monument,  a  sort 
of  trophy  column,  erected  to  commemorate  the  repulse  of  the  attack  on  the  city  during 
the  late  war,  and  the  names  of  those  who  fell  in  its  defence.  This  structure,  which  is 
about  fifty  feet  in  height,  consists  of  a  column  representing  the  Roman  fasces,  symbo- 
lical of  the  union,  rising  from  a  square  pedestal,  which  tapers  in  the  Egyptian  style, 
with  a  griffin  at  each  corner.  Above  is  the  statue  of  Victory,  with  an  eagle  at  her  side 
The  effect  of  the  whole  is  sadly  injured  by  a  most  anomalous  perplexity  of  petty  details. 
Indeed  so  vicious  is  this  monument,  in  point  of  taste,  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  it  the 
production  of  the  same  period  which  has  adorned  the  city  with  the  noble  structure  to 
Washington. 

I  remember  being  asked  by  a  lady,  in  one  of  the  first  visits  I  paid  in  Baltimore, 
whether  I  had  seen  this  monument.  Having  answered  in  the  negative,  she  proceeded 
to  inform  me  that  it  was  very  beautiful,  but,  as  if  struck  by  a  sudden  recollection, 
somewhat  eagerly  apologised  for  the  introduction  of  the  subject,  on  account  of  the 
painful  feelings  which  this  memorial  of  failure  in  his  country's  arms,  could  not  fail  to 
excite  in  an  English  spectator.  In  reply,  I  took  the  liberty  to  assure  her  that  her  re- 
grets on  this  matter  were  entirely  gratuitous ;  that  I  should  have  great  pleasure  in  ex- 
amining the  monument,  and  really  entertained  no  apprehension  of  suffering  from  any 
pungency  of  feeling  on  the  occasion.  It  was  easy  to  observe,  however,  that  my  dis- 
claimers, like  the  inaugural  nolo  episcopari  of  the  bishops,  went  for  nothing  with  my 
fair  auditor.  Her  apologies  for  having  wounded  my  feelings,  became  even  more  stren- 
uous than  before  ;  and  as  it  was  evidently  agreeable  that  I  should  appear  in  the  light 
of  a  mortified  man,  I  at  length  judged  it  better  to  desist  from  farther  disclamation.  If 
I  know  any  thing  of  John  Bull,  he  is  not  quite  so  sensitive  a  person,  as  it  pleases  the 
good  people  on  this  side  of  the  water  to  believe  him  j  and  the  idea  of  an  Englishman, 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  277 

Bangor  is  a  flourishing  town  of  Penobscot  county,  Maine,  situated 
thirty-five  miles  above  Castine.  It  is  built  upon  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
Kenduskeag  and  Penobscot.  The  increase  of  this  town  within  a  few  years 
has  been  very  surprising.  Building-lots  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  that 
in  1832  were  held  at  three  hundred  dollars,  are  now  valued  at  eight  hun- 
dred or  a  thousand.  Woodlands  at  three,  four,  or  five  miles  distance,  that 
were  then  sold  at  rive,  seven,  or  ten  dollars  the  acre,  are  now  selling  from 
twenty  to  fifty.  Rents  and  all  marketable  commodities  are  proportionably 
high. 

1  Bangor,'  says  a  correspondent  of  the  Portland  Advertiser,  '  has  much 
the  appearance  of  a  hundred  villages  springing  up  on  the  non-slave-hold- 
ing side  of  the  Ohio,  with  this  difference,  that  the  buildings  there  are 
chiefly  of  wood,  cheaply  built,  and  hastily  thrown  up ;  and  here  they  are 
fine  blocks  of  brick  with  granite  fronts,  or  handsome  white  houses  that 
would  do  credit  to  any  estate  in  Virginia  or  Carolina.  I  do  not  remember 
seeing  what  can  be  called  a  miserable  house  in  Bangor.  The  Exchange  is 
a  building  that  would  do  credit  to  many  of  our  large  cities.  The  churches 
are  numerous,  and  often  elegantly  built.  Already  they  are  numerous 
enough  for  a  city;  and  it  is  such  a  spectacle  that  distinguishes  New  Eng- 
land ;  for  no  where,  not  even  in  the  middle  states,  are  such  churches,  and 
eo  numerous  to  be  seen,  as  any  village  in  New  England  of  any  size  can 
exhibit.' 

The  water  power  in  this  vicinity  is  said  to  be  superior  to  that  of  any 
town  in  the  United  States.  Jts  present  great  source  of  wealth  is  the  lum- 
ber business,  which  has  been  carried  on  to  a  very  great  extent.  Thirty 
years  ago,  Bangor  was  a  wilderness;  according  to  the  last  census,  its  popu- 
lation was  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-seven;  but  it  has  much 
increased  within  three  years. 

Bath,  a  town  of  Maine,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Kennebec,  twelve  miles 
from  the  sea,  is  at  the  head  of  the  winter  navigation ;  is  pleasantly  situated, 

at  the  present  day,  being  distressed  by  regret  at  the  failure  of  the  attack  on  Baltimore, 
is,  perhaps,  somewhat  closely  connected  with  the  ludicrous. 

Baltimore  is  celebrated  for  its  hospitality  and  the  beauty  of  its  women,  and  I  can 
bear  testimony  to  the  justice  of  its  reputation  for  both.  In  no  other  city  of  the  United 
States  is  the  former  so  frequent  and  habitual,  and  in  none  are  there  so  few  of  the  sor- 
did characteristics  of  traffic  apparent  to  a  stranger.  There  struck  me  as  being  at  Bal- 
timore, more  effort  than  elsewhere,  to  combine  the  pleasures  of  social  life  with  profes- 
sional labor.  The  effect  of  this  is  generally  felt  in  society.  The  tone  of  conversatioa 
is  lighter  and  more  agreeable,  and  topics  of  mere  commercial  interest  are  rarely  ob- 
truded at  the  dinner  table. 

In  Baltimore,  there  is  not  much  pretension  of  any  sort,  and  the  average  of  literary 
accomplishment  is,  perhaps,  lower  than  in  Philadelphia  or  Boston.  In  such  matters, 
however,  a  transient  visitor  can  form,  at  best,  but  an  uncertain  and  very  fallible  judg- 
ment ;  but  I  can  with  truth  assert,  that  my  recollections  of  Baltimore  are  of  the  most 
agreeable  kind,  and  that  I  quitted  it  with  a  strong  sentiment  of  regard  for  several  of 
its  inhabitants,  which  time  has  yet  done  nothing  to  diminish. 

The  ladies  of  Baltimore,  I  have  already  intimated,  are  remarkable  for  personal  at- 
traction ;  indeed,  I  am  not  aware  that,  in  proportion  to  the  numbers  assembled,  I  have 
ever  seen  so  much  beauty  as  in  the  parties  of  Baltimore.  The  figure  is,  perhaps,  defi- 
cient in  height,  but  sylph-like  and  graceful ;  the  features  are  generally  regular  and 
delicately  modelled,  and  the  fair  Baltimoreans  are  less  remarkable  than  the  Ameri- 
can ladies  usually  are,  for  the  absence  of  a  certain  fulness  and  grace  of  proportion,  to 
which,  from  its  rarity,  one  is  led,  perhaps,  to  attach  somewhat  too  much  value  as  an 
ingredient  of  beauty.— Hamilton's  America.  24 


STB  Book  of  the  united  states. 

and  has  great  advantages  for  commerce.  Ship-building  is  carried  on  here 
to  a  large  extent ;  and  in  1827  the  value  of  the  shipping  of  Bath  was  a 
million  of  dollars.  This  town  is  almost  isolated  by  some  of  the  numerous 
arms  of  the  sea  which  penetrate  that  part  of  the  coast.  Population,  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy-three. 

Baton  Rouge,  a  beautiful  village  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mississip- 
pi, one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  above  New  Orleans,  is  the  capital  of  a 
parish  of  the  same  name  in  the  eastern  district  of  Louisiana.  It  is  a 
small  town,  situated  on  the  last  bluff  that  is  seen  on  descending  the  river, 
and  about  thirty  or  forty  feet,  above  its  highest  overflow.  The  village  is  to- 
lerably compact,  and  the  United  States'  barracks  are  built  in  a  very  hand- 
some style.  'The  town  itself,' says  Mr.  Flint, '  especially  in  the  months 
"when  the  greatest  verdure  prevails,  when  seen  from  a  steam-boat  in  the 
river,  rising  with  such  a  fine  swell  from  the  banks,  and  with  its  singularly 
shaped  French  and  Spanish  houses,  and  its  green  square,  looks  like  a  finely 
painted  landscape.'     Population,  one  thousand  two  hundred. 

Beaufort,  principal  town  of  Beaufort  district,  South  Carolina,  situated 
on  the  western  bank  of  Port  Royal  river,  is  a  pleasant  and  healthy  place, 
containing  a  college,  three  churches,  and  about  eleven  hundred  and  fifty 
inhabitants.     Its  harbor  is  spacious. 

Belfast,  the  capital  of  Waldo  county,  Maine,  has  a  fine  situation  and 
good  harbor,  and  is  a  flourishing  town.  It  is  twelve  miles  north-west  of 
Castine,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Penobscot  river.  Its  coasting  trade 
is  very  considerable.  Population,  three  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy 
seven. 

Bennington  is  the  chief  town  of  the  county  of  the  same  name  in  Ver- 
mont. It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Green  mountains,  near  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  state.  It  has  several  manufactories,  and  a  marble  quar- 
ry, and  is  celebrated  for  two  victories  of  General  Stark,  over  the  British, 
in  1777.  It  is  the  largest  and  oldest  town  in  the  state,  having  been  char- 
tered by  Governor  Wentworth  in  1749,  and  first  settled  by  the  Separatists 
tinder  Robinson  in  1761.  Population,  three  thousand  four  hundred  and 
nineteen.  , 

Bethlehem,  in  Albany  county,  NewT  York,  includes  much  rich  alluvial 
land  near  Hudson  river,  inhabited  by  descendants  of  early  Dutch  settlers. 
It  contains  several  caverns.     Population,  six  thousand  and  eighty-two. 

Bethlehem,  in  Northampton  county,  Pennsylvania,  is  situated  on  a  fine 
acclivity  rising  from  the  Lehigh  river.  It  was  founded  in  1741  by  the 
tJnited  Brethren,  or  Moravians,  under  Count  Zinzendorf.  The  same  order 
still  retain  the  ownership,  and  have  established  here  a  seminary  of  con- 
siderable note  for  female  education.  The  houses  are  neat  and  substantial. 
*There  is  but  one  place  of  public  worship,  in  which  service  is  performed 
in  English  and  German.  The  situation  of  this  village  is  remarkably  pic- 
turesque and  romantic.  There  are  ten  other  towns  of  this  name  in  the 
tJnited  States. 

Beverly,  town  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  is  a  seaport,  and  con- 
nected with  Salem  by  a  bridge.  It  wras  formerly  a  part  of  Salem.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  the  fisheries  and  in  com- 
merce.    Population,  four  thousand  and  seventy-nine. 

Blakely  is  a  seaport  of  Baldwin  county,  Alabama,  on  the  Tensa,  a  branch 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  279 

of  the  Mobile.  It  was  founded  in  1816,  and  is  a  nourishing  place.  Its 
situation  is  healthy,  and  it  has  a  commodious  harbor. 

Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  and  the  chief  city  of  New  Eng- 
land, is  situated  at  the  head  of  Massachusetts  bay,  on  a  peninsula  of  an 
uneven  surface,  about  a  mile  in  width,  and  nearly  three  miles  long.  Its 
original  Indian  name  was  Shawmut,  and  it  was  afterwards  called  Tri- 
mountain ;  its  present  name  was  given  in  honor  of  the  Rev.  John  Cotton, 
one  of  its  earliest  pastors,  who  emigrated  from  Boston  in  Lincolnshire, 
England.  In  the  older  parts  of  the  city,  the  streets  are  crooked,  narrow, 
and  intricate ;  laid  out  with  no  reference  to  beauty  or  order.  The  more 
recent  streets  are  wider,  straight,  and  regular;  with  edifices  of  great  ele- 
gance and  large  dimensions.  The  avenues  leading  into  the  adjacent  coun- 
try are  the  natural  isthmus  which  connects  the  city  with  Roxbury,  the 
mill  dam,  six  bridges  and  three  rail-roads.  There  is  also  a  ferry  between 
Boston  and  Chelsea,  with  steamboats  for  the  conveyance  of  foot  passengers 
and  carriages.  Of  the  bridges,  four  are  thrown  over  Charles  river,  con- 
necting the  capital  with  Cambridge  and  Charlestown,  and  two  unite  it 
with  South  Boston. 

The  harbor  has  been  before  described.  It  is  dotted  with  numerous 
islands,  and  affords  ample  accommodation  for  a  fleet  of  five  hundred  sail. 
The  approach  to  the  city  from  the  sea  is  highly  picturesque  and  beautiful. 
The  wharves  and  piers  are  ample,  covered  with  spacious  stores  of  brick 
and  granite,  and  presenting  as  great  conveniences  for  the  transaction  of 
business  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  world. 

The  local  divisions  of  Boston  are  into  North  Boston,West  Boston,  South 
End,  and  South  Boston.  To  these  we  may  now  add  East  Boston,  compre- 
hending what  was  formerly  called  Noddle's  Island,  a  tract  of  about  six 
hundred  acres,  purchased  by  a  company  in  1832  for  the  purpose  of  extend- 
ing the  city  in  that  direction.  The  Common  is  a  beautiful  promenade  at 
the  west  end  of  the  city,  containing  an  extent  of  nearly  fifty  acres,  agreea- 
bly varied  by  small  eminences,  the  most  prominent  of  which  still  exhibits 
the  vestiges  of  a  fortification  thrown  up  by  the  British  soldiers  during  the 
revolution.  A  little  north  of  this  mound  is  a  small  sheet  of  fresh  water. 
This  spacious  green  is  surrounded  by  malls,  lined  with  magnificent  elms. 
On  three  sides  are  rows  of  fine  private  dwelling-houses,  including  some  of 
the  most  elegant  mansions  in  the  city. 

On  an  eminence  overlooking  the  common  stands  the  State  House ;  a 
conspicuous  and  striking  edifice,  the  view  from  whose  dome  is  most  inter- 
esting and  extensive.  The  broad  harbor  with  its  green  and  picturesque 
islands,  the  adjacent  country  covered  by  pleasant  villages,  and  with  a 
pleasing  alternation  of  hill  and  valley,  interspersed  with  orchards  and 
woodland — and  at  its  base,  the  avenues  of  a  crowded  and  busy  city,  form  a 
combination  of  beauty  that  cannot  fail  to  delight  every  beholder.  Beyond 
the  islands  of  the  bay,  the  eye  stretches  eastward  to  the  waters  of  the 
ocean ;  and  to  the  north  lies  Charlestown  with  the  navy-yard,  and  the 
monument  erecting  and  soon  to  be  completed  on  Bunker  hill.  To  the  west 
is  a  view  of  Cambridge,  with  the  various  edifices  attached  to  the  univer- 
sity. The  state  house  was  erected  about  thirty-eight  years  since.  It  is 
of  an  oblong  form,  one  hundred  and  seventy-three  feet  front,  and  sixty-one 
deep ;  a  dome   thirty-five  feet  in  height  and  fifty-two  feet  diameter,  sur 


280 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


mounts  the  edifice,  and  the  whole  terminates  with  a  circular  lantern  twenty- 
live  feet  high.  The  basement  story  is  ornamented  with  rows  of  Doric 
pillars ;  in  an  open  chamber  projected  from  the  north  centre  of  this  story 
is  placed  Chantry's  noble  statue  of  Washington.  This  building  contains 
the  usual  accommodation  for  the  various  offices  of  state,  besides  the  senate 
chamber,  council  chamber  and  representatives'  hall. 

Faneuil  Hall  is  famous  in  American  annals.  It  is  a  building  of  good 
proportions,  and  convenient  size,  though  of  no  great  architectural  preten- 
sions ;  its  history  is  sacred  to  the  spirit  of  eloquence,  courage  and  patriot- 
ism. The  building  has  a  cupola  which  presents  a  good  view  of  the  harbor ; 
the  great  hall  is  nearly  eighty  feet  square,  and  about  twenty-eight  feet 
high.  It  is  decorated  with  an  original  full  length  painting  of  Washington, 
by  Stuart,  and  another  of  the  same  size  by  Colonel  Sargent,  representing 
Mr.  Faneuil,  the  noble  donor  of  the  edifice.  Faneuil  Hall  Market  is  situ- 
ated to  the  east  of  Faneuil  hall.  It  is  a  splendid  building  of  granite, 
live  hundred  and  thirty-five  feet  and  nine  inches  in  length.  The  basement 
story  is  occupied  by  market  stalls ;  on  the  second  floor  is  a  spacious  hall, 
used  for  public  assemblies  and  caucuses,  called  Quincy  Hall,  in  honor  of 
the  distinguished  gentleman  in  whose  mayoralty  the  edifice  was  projected 
and  built. 

The  City  Hall,  formerly  known  as  the  old  state  house,  was  built  in 
nearly  its  present  form  in  the  "year  1747.     It  stands  at  the  head  of  State 


City  Hall. 

street,  and  on  the  line  of  Washington  street,  the  principal  avenue  of  the 
city.  In  this  building  are  the  post  office,  the  marine  news  room,  and  the 
merchants'  exchange  ;  from  this  there  is  a  winding  stair-case  leading 
to  the  hall  of  the  common  council,  and   that  of  the  mayor  and  aldermen 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


281 


together  with  various  public  offices  connected  with  the  city  administration. 
Other  public  buildings,  of  great  beauty  to  the  city,  are  the  United  States 
Branch  Bank,  and  the  Masonic  Temple.  The  latter  building  fronts  on 
the  common ;  it  is  of  the  Gothic  order. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  churches  of  the  city  is  that  known  as 
the  King's  Chapel.     Its  exterior  is  plain,  and  in  appearance  it  is  unfin- 


King's  Chapel. 

ished,  being  built  entirely  of  unhammered  stone.  It  was  first  opened  for 
divine  service  in  1754.  The  tower  is  ornamented  by  a  colonnade  of  large 
wooden  pillars,  and  the  whole  presents  the  appearance  of  massy  grandeur 
suited  to  distinguish  in  former  days  the  p:!ace  of  worship  for  the  public 
functionaries.  In  the  interior,  the  governor's  pew  was  formerly  distin- 
guished above  the  rest,  but  was  taken  down  a  few  years  since.  The 
style  of  architecture  is  of  the  Corinthian  order.  There  are  several  monu- 
mental marbles,  which  add  to  the  interest  with  which  the  church  is  visited. 
It  is  now  the  only  house  in  which  the  old  fashion  of  square  pews  is 
retained.  Brattle  street  church  is  interesting  from  historical  associations. 
Governors  Hancock  and  Bowdoin  were  liberal  benefactors  of  this  society. 
The  name  of  the  former  was  inscribed  on  one  of  the  rustic  quoins  at  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  building.  The  British  soldiery  defaced  it,  and  the 
stone  remains  in  the  condition  in  which  they  left  it.  A  similar  inscrip- 
tion, unmutilated,  appears  on  one  of  the  rustic  quoins  at  the  south-west 
corner  of  the  tower  ;  and  on  one  in  the  north-west  corner,  the  name  of 
Dr.  John  Greenleaf  appears,  who,  with  Gov.  Bowdoin,  advanced  the  mo- 
ney for  refitting  the  church,  it  having  been  improved  as  a  barrack,  during 
the  siege-  A  shot,  which  was  sent  from  the  American  army  at  Cam- 
36  24* 


2S2  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

bridge,  struck  the  tower  on  the  night  preceding  the  evacuation  of  the  town. 
It  was  picked  up  and  preserved,  and  is  now  fastened  in  the  spot  where  it 
struck.     General  Gage's  head  quarters  were  in  the  house  opposite.  Trinity 


Trinity  Church. 

church  in  Summer  street  is  a  beautiful  granite  edifice,  built  in  1829.  It 
is  one  of  the  chief  architectural  ornaments  of  the  city  ;  and  for  beauty 
of  proportion,  strength  and  solidity,  is  perhaps  unsurpassed  in  this  coun- 
try. The  number  of  worshipping  assemblies  in  this  city  is  between  fifty 
and  sixty. 

The  places  of  public  amusement  in  Boston  are  not  numerous,  nor 
remarkably  well  patronized.  The  Tremont  theatre  affords  the  only  dra- 
matic entertainment  that  is  much  resorted  to  by  strangers  and  people  of 
fashion.  It  is  a  handsome  building,  with  a  front  of  Quincy  and  Hallowell 
granite.  This  front  is  in  imitation  of  the  Ionic  order,  with  four  pilasters 
and  two  anto?s,  one  on  each  angle,  supporting  an  entablature  and  pediment, 
and  elevated  on  a  bnsement  seventeen  feet.  The  Warren  theatre  is  a 
minor  est  blishmeiit,  and  is  much  frequented.  The  New  England  Museum 
attracts  numerous  visitors. 

Of  the  hotels  of  Boston,  we  can  only  particularly  mention  the  Tremont 
House,  a  splendid  building,  in  the  pleasantest  quarter  of  the  city,  and  esteem- 
ed the  best  house  in  the  country.  'Most  gratifying  is  it  to  a  traveller  in  the 
United  States,'  says  a  recent  tourist, '  when,  sick  to  death  of  the  discomforts 
of  the  road,  he  finds  himself  fairly  housed  in  the  Tremont  hotel.  The 
establishment  is  on  a  large  scale,  and  admirably  conducted.'     This  stinted 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


283 


approbation  is  one  of  the  few  tokens  of  satisfaction  that  Mr.  Hamilton  gives  in 
his  unsparing  though  witty  and  entertaining  volumes ;  it  is  not  the  less 
acceptable,  because  it  is  extorted. 


Tremont  House. 

In  the  year  1833,  there  were  twenty-nine  banks  in  the  city,  which  em- 
ployed a  capital  of  twenty  million  one  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The 
oldest  is  the  Massachusetts'  bank,  which  was  incorporated  in  1785.  There 
are  twenty-four  insurance  companies,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  seven 
millions  and  a  quarter.  The  charitable  institutions  of  the  city  are  nume- 
rous. Of  these,  one  of  the  most  important  is  the  Institution  for  the  Edu- 
cation of  the  Blind,  recently  established  under  very  favorable  circumstances. 
Besides  this  are  the  Asylum  for  Indigent  Boys,  the  Female  Asylum,  Chari- 
table Mechanic  Association,  Prison  Discipline  Society,  and  many  others. 
The  Massachusetts  General  Hospital  is  situated  in  the  west  part  of  the 
town  ;  it  has  been  pronounced  the  finest  building  in  the  state.  The 
Quarantine  Hospital  is  situated  on  Kainsford  island,  in  the  harbor,  and 
about  six  miles  from  the  city. 

The  number  of  periodicals  issued  in  this  city  is  above  seventy,  inclusive 
of  dailies  and  annuals.  The  first  paper  published  in  the  country  was  the 
Boston  News  Letter,  commenced  in  1704,  and  continued  for  nearly  seventy- 
two  years.  The  oldest  surviving  journal  established  since  the  revolution 
is  the  Columbian  Centinel,  which  was  commenced  in  1784. 

Boston  is  celebrated  for  her  public  schools,  and  the  great  efforts  which 
have  been  made  by  her  citizens  in  the  cause  of  education.  The  expendi- 
tures for  these  institutions,  during  the  year  ending  August,  1S33,  amounted 
to  over  seventy  thousand  dollars.  Social  libraries  are  numerous.  The 
Boston  Athenaeum  was  established  in  1806,  and  contains  above  twenty- 
eight  thousand  volumes.  Though  accessible  only  to  men  of  fortune,  as 
the  price  of  a  share  is  three  hundred  dollars,  it  is  still  a  useful  institution. 


284  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Annual  subscribers  are  admitted  at  ten  dollars.  This  noble  establish- 
ment is  situated  in  Pearl  street,  in  a  fine  building,  for  the  half  of  which 
the  proprietors  were  indebted  to  the  munificence  of  the  late  James  Perkins, 
Esq.  Attached  to  the  Athenseum  is  a  gallery  of  the  fine  arts,  in  which  is 
held  an  annual  exhibition  that  has  hitherto  been  the  source  of  a  conside- 
rable income.  The  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  are  highly  respectable  institutions  which 
have  issued  numerous  volumes  of  great  value,  and  possess  considerable 
libraries.  On  the  whole,  the  libraries  of  Boston  are  neither  so  large  nor 
so  generally  accessible  as  might  be  expected  from  the  wealth  and  liberality 
of  her  citizens. 

Middlesex  canal  unites  the  water  communication  between  Boston  and 
the  Merrimack  river,  at  the  bend  in  Chelmsford ;  the  company  for  its  con- 
struction was  incorporated  in  1793.  The  toll  has  amounted  some  years  to 
about  twenty-five  thousand  dollars.  Rail-roads  are  now  nearly  completed 
that  will  connect  this  city  with  Providence,  Worcester,  and  Lowell.  The 
marine  railway,  which  affords  facilities  for  the  repair  of  large  vessels,  has 
been  in  successful  operation  since  1826.  One  of  the  greatest  improvements 
of  late  years  has  been  the  building  of  Mercantile  wharf,  which  ranges  in 
front  of  the  harbor,  between  City  wharf  and  Lewis's  wharf.  It  has  made 
access  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  city  very  convenient  from  the  cen- 
tral parts,  and  has  led  to  great  improvements. 

Since  1822,  when  the  city  was  incorporated,  Boston  has  been  governed 
by  a  mayor,  eight  aldermen,  and  a  common  council  of  forty-eight  members, 
chosen  annually.  With  the  town  of  Chelsea,  it  constitutes  the  county  of 
Suffolk,  and  sends  one  representative  to  Congress.  As  a  commercial  city, 
it  holds  a  second  rank  among  the  seaports  of  the  United  States.  There 
are  many  manufactures  in  the  city,  and  much  wealth  of  the  citizens  is 
invested  in  the  manufactories  of  Waltham,  Lowell,  and  other  towns.  Popu- 
lation, eighty  thousand.^ 

*  The  road,  as  we  approached  Boston,  lay  through  a  more  populous  country,,  and  we 
passed  a  height,  which  commanded  a  fine  view  of  the  bay.  At  length,  entering  on  a 
long  street,  I  found  myself  surrounded  by  the  busy  hum  of  a  great  city.  The  first 
impression  was  decidedly  favorable.  There  is  in  Boston  less  of  that  rawness  of  outline, 
and  inconsistency  of  architecture,  which  had  struck  me  in  New  York.  The  truth  is, 
that  the  latter  has  increased  so  rapidly,  that  nine  tenths  of  the  city  have  been  built 
within  the  last  thirty  years,  and  probably  one  half  of  it  within  a  third  of  the  period. 
In  Boston,  both  wealth  and  population  have  advanced  at  a  slower  pace.  A  compara- 
tively small  portion  of  the  city  is  new,  and  the  hand  of  time  has  somewhat  mellowed 
even  its  deformities,  contributing  to  render  that  reverend,  which  was  originally  rude. 

There  is  an  air  of  gravity  and  solidity  about  Boston  ;  and  nothing  gay  or  flashy,  in 
the  appearance  of  her  streets,  or  -he  crowd  who  frequent  them.  New  York  is  a  young 
giantess,  weighing  twenty  stone,  and  yet  frisky  withal.  Boston,  the  matron  of  stayed 
and  demure  air,  a  little  past  her  prime,  perhaps,  yet  showing  no  symptom  of  decay. 
The  former  is  brisk,  bustling,  and  annually  outgrowing  her  petticoats.  The  latter  fat, 
fair,  and  forty,  a  great  breeder,  but  turning  her  children  out  of  doors,  as  fast  as  she  pro- 
duces them.  But  it  is  an  old  and  true  apophthegm,  that  similes  seldom  run  on  all  fours, 
and  therefore  it  is  generally  prudent  not  to  push  them  too  far. 

Boston  stands  on  an  undulating  surface,  and  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea. 
The  harbor  is  a  magnificent  basin,  encircled  by  a  beautiful  country,  rising  in  gentle 
acclivities,  and  studded  with  villas.  There  is  nothing  very  handsome  about  the  town, 
which  is  rather  English  in  appearance,  and  might  in  truth  be  easily  mistaken  for  one 
of  our  more  populous  seaports.  A  considerable  number  of  the  buildings  are  of  granite, 
or,  more  properly  speaking,  of  sienite ;  but  brick  is  the  prevailing  material,  and  houses 
of  framework  are  now  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  the  streets  inhabited  by  the  better  orders. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  285 

Bordentown,  a  town  of  New  Jersey,  in  Burlington  county,  stand 
ing  on  a  steep  sand  bank  on  the  west  side  of  the  Delaware,  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  villa  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  ex-king  of  Spain.  This  is 
a  long  white  building,  with  two  low  square  towers  at  the  ends,  and  a  shot* 
tower  near  it  by  the  river. 

Brattleboro'  is  a  pleasant  village,  in  Windham  county,  Vermont,  on  the 
Connecticut.  It  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain  above  the  river;  at  the 
bridge  over  the  stream  are  several  manufactories,  the  chief  of  which  are 
of  paper  and  machinery,  which  are  made  here  in  large  quantities.  The 
situation  of  the  village  is  quite  romantic  and  picturesque.  Population,  two 
thousand  and  two  hundred. 

Bridgeport,  in  Fairfield  county  on  Long  Island  sound,  maintains  an 
active  intercourse  with  New  York  by  means  of  sloops  and  steamboats,  and 
furnishes  that  city  with  a  great  amount  of  produce.  The  harbor  is  shoal, 
but  with  a  good  channel ;  the  town  is  pleasant  and  thriving.  Population 
two  thousand  and  eight  hundred. 

Brighton,  a  town  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  is  celebrated  for 
its  annual  cattle  show  and  fair  which  has  been  held  here  ever  since  the 
revolution.  Vast  numbers  of  cattle  for  the  Boston  market  are  brought  here 
from  all  quarters  of  the  country.  The  soil  is  good,  and  well  cultivated- 
Population,  one  thousand. 

Bristol,  a  thriving  town,  situated  on  Narragansett  bay,  about  half  way 
between  Providence  and  Newport,  is  distinguished  for  its  pleasant  situation, 
healthful  climate,  rich  soil,  and  a  commodious,  safe  harbor.  This  town 
suffered  greatly  during  the  revolutionary  war,  a  great  part  of  it  having  been 
destroyed  by  the  British ;  but  it  is  now  in  a  very  nourishing  state,  and  has 
a  good  shipping  trade :  onions  in  great  quantities,  and  a  variety  of  provi- 
sions and  garden  roots,  are  raised  here  for  exportation.  Mount  Hope, 
celebrated  in  the  early  history  of  New  England  as  the  residence  of  king 
Philip,  is  within  the  limits  of  Bristol  ;  it  is  a  cone-shaped  hill,  with  a 
pointed  summit,  and  exhibits  a  charming  prospect.  Population,  three  thou- 
sand and  fifty-four. 

Brooklyn,  a  large  town  on  Long  Island,  separated  from  the  city  of  New 
York  by  the  narrow  channel  of  East  river.  It  is  properly  a  suburb  of  that 
city,  and  is  a  place  of  great  business.  It  is  regularly  built,  and  contains 
many  fine  houses,  the  residence  of  merchants  from  the  city.     The  United 

The  streets  are  narrow,  and  often  crooked,  yet,  as  already  stated,  they  exhibit  more 
finish  and  cleanliness  than  are  to  be  found  in  New  York.  In  architecture,  I  could  dis- 
cover little  to  admire.  The  state  house  stands  on  an  eminence  commanding  the  city  ; 
it  is  a  massive  square  building,  presenting  in  front  a  piazza  of  rusticated  arches,  sur- 
mounted by  a  gratuitous  range  of  Corinthian  columns,  which  support  nothing.  The 
building  in  front  has  a  small  attic  with  a  pediment,  and  from  the  centre  rises  a  dome, 
the  summit  of  which  is  crowned  by  a  square  lantern. 

The  comparative  diffusion  of  literature  in  Boston  has  brought  with  it  a  taste  for  the 
fine  arts.  The  better  houses  are  adorned  with  pictures;  and  in  the  Athenaeum — a 
public  library  and  reading  room — is  a  collection  of  casts  from  the  antique.  Establish- 
ments for  the  instruction  of  the  people  in  the  higher  branches  of  knowledge,  are  yet 
almost  unknown  in  the  United  States,  but  something  like  a  Mechanics'  Institute  has  at 
length  been  got  up  in  Boston,  and  I  went  to  hear  the  introductory  lecture.  The  apart- 
ment, a  large  one,  was  crowded  by  an  audience  whose  appearance  and  deportment  were 
in  the  highest  degree  orderly  and  respectable.  The  lecture  was  on  the  steam  engine, 
the  history,  principle,  and  construction  of  which  were  explained  most  lucidly  by  the 
lecturer,  w^ho  belonged,  I  was  assured,  to  the  class  of  operative  mechanics.— Men  and 
Manners  in  America. 


286  '      BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

States  navy  yard  is  in  the  east  quarter,  upon  a  bay  called  the  Wall- 
about.  Near  this  town  a  bloody  and  disastrous  battle  was  fought  with  the 
British  in  1776.  The  town  stands  on  an  eminence,  and  commands  fine 
views  of  the  city  and  bay.  A  constant  intercourse  is  kept  up  with  New 
York  by  steamboats.  It  is  the  third  town  in  the  state  in  regard  to  its 
population,  which  amounts  to  about  sixteen  thousand. 

Brookville  is  pleasantly  situated  in  the  forks  of  Whitewater,  and  is  the 
seat  of  justice  of  Franklin  county,  Illinois.  It  was  laid  out  in  the  year 
1811 ;  but  no  improvements  were  made  until  the  succeeding  year,  and  then 
but  partially,  owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  the  frontiers;  its  vicinity  to 
the  Indian  boundary  being  about  fifteen  miles.  The  late  war  completely 
checked  the  emigration  to  this  country,  and  consequently  the  town  ceased 
to  improve  ;  since  that  period,  it  has  improved  and  been  noted  for  the  en- 
terprise of  its  citizens.  It  is  now,  however,  decaying.  It  contains  about 
a  hundred  houses. 

Brunswick  is  a  town  of  Cumberland  county,  Maine,  situated  on  the  south 
side  of  Androscoggin  river,  twenty-six  miles  north-east  of  Portland.  The 
river  has  many  falls  at  this  place,  on  which  are  situated  numerous  mills, 
and  manufactories  of  cotton  and  woollen.  It  is  chiefly  distinguished  as 
the  seat  of  Bowdoin  college,  which  was  established  here  in  1794.  This 
institution  is  partly  supported  by  funds  bequeathed  by  governor  Bowdoin, 
of  Massachusetts,  from  whom  the  college  takes  its  name.  Population  of 
Brunswick,  three  thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty-seven. 

Buffalo,  delightfully  situated  near  the  margin  of  lake  Erie,  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty-seven  miles  from  Albany,  and  twenty-two  from  the  falls 
of  Niagara,  is  a  place  of  considerable  importance,  and  the  emporium  of 
ihe  lake  commerce.  The  principal  streets  are  from  sixty-six  to  one  hundred 
feet  wide ;  these  are  intersected  by  others  of  equal  width,  and  as  many  of 
the  houses  are  of  brick,  two  and  three  stories  high,  they  make  a  neat  and 
handsome  appearance.  Buffalo,  standing  on  the  great  road  leading  from 
Albany  to  Ohio,  possesses  natural  advantages  for  trade,  equal  to  any  inter- 
nal place  in  the  United  States. 

Its  harbor  is  singularly  fitted  for  the  two  kinds  of  navigation  that  are 
here  brought  together,  the  entrance  from  the  lake  being  sheltered  by  the 
point  on  which  the  light-house  is  erected,  and  the  two  small  rivers  which  here 
unite  their  waters  affording  every  convenience  for  landing  and  re-shipping 
goods ;  a  number  of  basins  and  lateral  canals  communicate  with  the 
great  canal.  This  harbor  is  thronged  with  steamboats  and  every  kind  of 
water  craft ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  busy  and  bustling  places  in  the  country. 

'  In  Buffalo,'  says  a  recent  writer,  '  the  miserable  descendants  of  the 
Iroquois  or  Six  Nations  may  constantly  be  seen  in  the  streets.  The  Senecas 
have  three  villages  within  nine  miles.  If  any  man  wishes  to  observe  the 
effect  of  an  intercourse  between  whites  and  Indians,  let  hini  go  to  Buffalo. 
There  he  may  see  red  nien,  reeling  drunk  in  the  streets,  begging  in  the 
most  abject  manner  for  liquor,  and  the  women  in  the  lowest  stage  of 
moral  and  physical  degradation.  They  are  in  some  measure  civilized, 
some  of  them  having  adopted  the  costume  of  the  whites,  and  living  by  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil.  Should  they  continue  to  reside  in  their  present 
dwelling-place,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  change  will  be  complete.  When 
the  chase  will  no  longer  afford  them  a  subsistence  ;  when  they  are  completely 
hemmed  in  by  the  whites,  they  must  of  necessity  have  recourse  to  agricul* 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


287 


ture  for  ihe  means  of  living,  and  knowledge  must  be  the  attendant  of  in- 
dustry— but  as  long  as  they  are  able  to  live,  no  matter  how  wretchedly,  in 
idleness,  they  will  not  work,  and  will  continue  to  retrograde.'  Population, 
eight  thousand  seven  hundred. 

Burlington,  in  Chittenden  county,  Vermont,  on  lake  Champlain,  is  a 
flourishing  and  commercial  town.  It  is  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill, 
commanding  an  extensive  view  of  the  lake,  and  a  beautiful  prospect  of 
the  town.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  university  of  Vermont,  and  of  several 
manufactories.  Its  commerce  is  considerable.  Population,  three  thousand 
five  hundred. 

Burlington  City  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  eighteen  miles 
north-east  from  Philadelphia.  The  main  streets  are  conveniently  spacious, 
and  mostly  ornamented  with  rows  of  trees  in  the  fronts  of  the  houses, 
which  are  regularly  arranged.  The  river  opposite  the  town  is  about  a 
mile  wide,  and  under  shelter  of  two  islands,  affords  a  safe  and  convenient 
harbor ;  but,  though  well  situated  for  trade,  Burlington  is  too  near  the  opu- 
lent city  of  Philadelphia  to  admit  of  any  considerable  increase  of  foreign 
commerce.     Population,  two  thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy. 

Cahokia,  in  St.  Clair  county,  Illinois,  is  situated  on  a  small  stream,  about 
one  mile  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  five  miles  below  St.  Louis.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated,  and  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  French  people.  This  town 
contains  a  post-office  and  a  Roman  catholic  chapel,  and  is  the  seat  of 
justice  for  the  county. 

Cambridge,  a  town  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  lies  west  of 
Boston,  was  settled  in  1631.  It  is  a  fine  village,  containing  many  very  plea- 
sant residences,  and  is  divided  into  three  distinct  portions.  East  Cambridge 
is  a  suburb  of  Boston,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  Cragie's  bridge  ;  it  is 
flourishing,  and  has  some  glass  and  iron  manufactories.     Old  Cambridge 


Harvard  University. 

is  about  three  miles  from  the  city,  and  is  the  seat  of  Harvard  college,  the 
oldest  and  richest  university  in  the  United  States;  this  institution  is  fully- 
described  in  another  portion  of  the  volume.  In  the  western  part  lies  Fresh 
Pond,  a  fine  sheet  of  water,  much  resorted  to  in  summer  by  citizens  of  the 
neighboring  towns.     In  the  south-westerly  part  is  a  beautiful  hilly  grove. 


288  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

called  Mount  Auburn,  recently  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  a  cemetery,  and 
forming  one  of  the  most  beautiful  burial  places  in  the  world. *  The  first 
printing-press  in  America  was  set  up  here,  and  was  used  by  Stephen  Day, 

#  Mount  Auburn. — If  the  taste  of  our  readers  resembles  our  own,  we  can  assure  them 
that  they  will  have  no  reason  to  regret  the  exertion,  if  they  take  a  walk  through  the  retreats 
of  Mount  Auburn,  at  the  present  season  of  the  year.  They  may  suppose  that  the  fall  of  the 
leaf  has  deprived  the  place  of  most  of  its  attractions  ;  but  it  is  one  of  the  recommendations 
of  this  beautiful  spot,  that  it  remains  pleasant  through  so  many  months.  As  the  spring 
opens,  it  is  a  favorable  place  to  watch  the  restoration  of  nature — the  return?  9f  the 
bird  to  his  favorite  home,  and  the  opening  of  the  sealed  urns  of  the  flower ;  in  the 
summer,  a  fine  retreat  from  the  sultriness  is  offered  by  its  deep  caverns  of  green,  formed 
by  heavy  masses  of  rich  and  various  foliage,  such  as  is  found  in  no  other  part  of  this 
region  ;  and  now,  in  the  closing  year,  even  after  the  splendid  drapery  of  autumn  is  taken 
down,  and  the  rustle  of  the  dead  leaf,  together  with  the  sullen  whistle  of  the  wind 
through  its  deserted  avenues,  seems  to  speak  of  nothing  but  desolation,  the  lover  of 
nature  still  finds  every  thing  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  feelings  which  such  a  place  is 
desired  to  awaken.  There  is  something  melancholy  in  the  sight,  indeed,  but  the  asso- 
ciations are  neither  painful  nor  oppressive.  We  know  that  the  spring  will  return,  and 
the  voice  of  the  bird  will  wake  the  earth  from  its  slumber ;  the  trees  will  be  covered 
with  beauty,  and  the  streams  move  on  again  with  music  in  their  flow ;  by  a  familiar 
association,  we  are  reminded  that  a  similar  happy  and  reviving  change  awaits  those 
who  have  gone  down  to  the  dust  in  peace,  when  that  which  is  sown  in  weakness  shall 
be  raised  in  power.  When  thoughts  like  these  are  brought  home  to  the  breast,  there  is 
consolation  in  them  ;  even  the  eye  filled  with  tears,  may  brighten  with  the  hope  of  im- 
mortality. 

We  trust  that  the  same  good  judgment  which  has  presided  over  the  work  thus  far,  will 
conduct  it  to  its  close.  It  stands  in  complete  and  honorable  contrast  with  most  resting 
places  of  the  dead.  There  are  few  of  those  monuments,  which  seem  intended  to  com- 
memorate the  folly  of  the  living,  rather  than  the  memory  of  the  departed — few  of  those 
inscriptions  which  tell  us  of  those  who  sleep  below,  not  what  they  were,  but  what  they 
ought  to  have  been.  We  cannot  say  that  we  admire  the  rocky  cells  of  the  tomb,  with  their 
heavy  iron  grates ;  but  the  taste  in  this  respect  is  generally  governed  by  early  associa- 
tions, and  we  shall  not  presume  to  censure  feelings  which  we  do  not  understand.  Among 
the  monuments  are  many  of  great  beauty  ;  we  were  struck  with  a  plain  black  marble 
obelisk  of  exquisite  polish,  ornamented  only  by  a  single  cross,  in  relief,  on  the  surface 
of  the  stone.  There  are  several  granite  obelisks,  of  plain  and  almost  severe  simplicity, 
which  are  admirably  suited  to  the  place  and  the  purpose  :  several  fine  monuments  of 
white  marble,  among  which  are  an  unfinished  column,  and  a  cenotaph  erected  by  the 
mechanics  of  Boston  to  the  memory  of  a  lamented  young  man,  who  died  at  a  distance 
from  his  home.  We  apprehend  that  the  whitest  of  this  marble,  however  bright  at  first, 
will  be  soon  defaced  and  blackened  by  the  droppings  from  the  trees  above ;  it  is  gene- 
rally less  firm  and  hard  than  such  as  is  veined  and  shaded,  and  therefore  not  so  well 
suited  for  memorials  that  are  meant  to  resist  the  elements  and  the  waste  of  time.  The 
classical  form  is  generally  preferred  for  this  purpose,  and  with  good  reason  ;  the  ancients 
have  left  us  little  to  do  in  these  respects  but  to  follow  their  example.  We  did  not  see 
a  single  copy  of  the  tomb  discovered  by  Dr.  Clarke,  in  Naxos,  which  is  in  our  view  one 
of  the  most  imposing,  and  is  found  in  some  places  in  this  country.  The  cippus  is  well 
calculated  also  for  our  purposes  :  we  want  monuments  of  simple  outline ;  for  there  is 
taste  enough  in  our  community  generally,  to  feel  that  fine  decorations  are  out  of  their 
place  in  cities  of  the  dead.  The  outline  is  more  to  be  regarded  than  the  color  :  marble 
of  pearly  whiteness  would  contrast  beautifully  with  the  green  back-ground ;  but  since  it 
is  less  suited  to  the  exposure  required,  it  is  well  to  use  the  hardier  material  in  which 
our  country  abounds. 

The  generations  of  men  are  so  rapidly  passing  away,  that  a  few  years  will  make  this 
interesting  place  rich  in  mournful  and  sacred  associations.  We  noticed  the  monur 
ment  of  Hannah  Adams,  the  first  tenant  of  the  place,  remarkable  for  her  fair  and  dis- 
criminating mind,  and  still  more  so  for  her  child-like  singleness  of  heart.  Spurzheim 
also  is  there — honored  for  his  enlarged  and  liberal  feeling,  by  those  who  had  no  confi- 
dence in  his  philosophical  speculations.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  cenotaph 
erected  to  a  young  man  of  high  promise,  by  which  his  friends  have  commemorated  hip 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  289 

who  printed  the  Freeman's  Oath.  During  the  siege  of  Boston,  in  1776, 
the  American  army  encamped  here,  and  vestiges  of  some  of  their  intrench- 
ments  still  remain  in  the  neighborhood.  Population,  six  thousand  one 
hundred. 

Camden,  in  Kershaw  district,  South  Carolina,  on  the  Wateree,  is  the 
seat  of  justice  for  the  district.  It  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  the  battles 
fought  in  its  vicinity  during  the  revolutionary  war.  Population,  one  thou- 
sand. A  flourishing  town  of  the  same  name  in  Oneida  county,  New 
York,  has  a  population  of  about  two  thousand. 

Canandaigua,  capital  of  Ontario  county,  New  York,  on  the  outlet  of 
the  lake  of  the  same  name,  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  towns  in  the  country. 
The  principal  street  runs  along  the  ridge  of  a  hill,  which  rises  from  the 
north  end  of  the  lake,  for  the  distance  of  a  mile ;  it  is  handsomely  planted 
with  trees,  and  the  houses,  which  are  generally  painted  white  with  green 
blinds,  present  a  very  neat  appearance.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a 
large  square ;  the  neighborhood  abounds  with  pleasant  gardens.  Popula- 
tion, five  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-two. 

Castine,  a  town  of  Maine,  built  on  a  promontory  at  the  head  of  Penob- 
scot bay,  is  placed  in  a  commanding  situation,  and  has  an  excellent  harbor. 
It  was  taken  by  the  British  during  the  last  war,  but  was  restored  in  1815. 
Population  about  one  thousand  two  hundred. 

Catskill,  principal  town  of  Greene  county,  New  York,  is  situated  on  the 
west  bank  of  the   Hudson  river,  nearly  opposite  the  city  of  Hudson,  and 

virtues  and  their  own  loss.  But  it  is  not  always  those  whose  loss  is  most  widely  felt, 
whose  memory  is  most  fondly  remembered ;  many  who  go  to  the  grave  almost  unknown, 
will  give  sacredness  to  this  place  in  the  feeling  of  those  who  loved  them.  The  parent 
will  regard  it  with  emotion,  because  there  he  saw  his  child  laid  upon  a  colder  pillow 
than  a  mother's  breast — or  the  youth,  who  perished  in  the  brightness  of  his  rising,  and 
left  his  friends  to  mourn  not  only  for  all  he  was,  but  all  they  hoped  he  would  have  been. 
The  community  will  turn  to  it,  as  the  place  where  the  generous  and  enlightened,  the 
useful  and  honored,  rest  from  their  labors  ;  where  those  who  have  passed  through  the 
various  changes  of  public  confidence,  carry  their  rivalship  and  ambition  down  to  the 
dust.  Each  inclosure  will  have  its  recollections  gathered  about  it  like  the  summer  leaves 
over  the  monument ;  the  feelings  of  men  of  various  pursuits  and  characters  will  be 
drawn  from  all  directions  toward  this  single  point  of  melancholy  attraction.  The  me- 
morial which  one  passes  coldly  by,  will  fix  the  attention  of  another :  the  stone  which  is 
to  one  simply  a  memorial  of  a  stranger,  will  be  gazed  upon  by  another  till  '  his  heart 
is  faint,  and  his  eyes  are  dim.' 

We  cannot  but  hope  that  this  example  will  be  followed ;  the  community  at  large 
have  yet  to  learn  the  right  feeling  of  respect  for  the  dead.  That  respect  is  not  shown 
only  by  the  care  which  guards  the  sepulchre  from  violation — nor  by  setting  up  ghastly 
monuments,  covered  with  tales  of  idle  vanity  or  unmeaning  affection.  Whoever  goes 
into  the  burial  places  of  many  of  our  villages,  sees  naked  marbles,  which  after  a  few 
years  lean  with  age,  and  find  no  hand  to  restore  them.  Nature,  as  if  ashamed  of  man, 
seems  endeavoring  to  hide  what  he  has  done  with  her  tall  golden  rod  and  towering 
plants,  which  grow  as  luxuriantly  as  if  they  were  fed  from  the  graves  below  ; — and  all 
is  surrounded,  not  protected,  by  a  vile  paling  of  unpainted  wood,  which  defends  it  from 
no  animal  but  man.  The  true  respect  for  the  dead  will  be  shown  by  making  their 
resting  place  such,  that  the  stranger  shall  not  retreat  from  it  in  disgust  and  scorn,  by 
employing  the  decorations  of  nature,  which  are  always  at  command.  One  tenth  part  of 
the  expense  which  is  now  lavished  on  the  absurd  and  ungraceful  head-stones  in  almost 
every  village  of  New  England,  would  make  their  burial  grounds,  places  which  could 
be  pointed  out  to  the  traveller  without  regret  and  shame  ;  and  what  is  still  better,  would 
permit  the  living  to  go  and  draw  instruction  from  communion  with  the  dead.— Boston 
Daily  Advertiser. 

37  25 


290  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

thirty-one  miles  south  of  Albany.  It  exhibits  gentle  elevations  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  the  soil  is  generally  good ;  it  is  well  watered,  has  fine 
meadows,  and  good  mill  sites.     Population,  four  thousand  nine  hundred. 

Charleston,  the  chief  city  of  South  Carolina,  stands  upon  a  piece  of 
land  projecting  into  the  bay,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper 
rivers,  and  has  a  deep  and  safe  harbor.  Ships  drawing  twenty  feet 
of  water  pass  the  bar.  The  city  is  regularly  built ;  the  fine  houses  are 
very  large,  many  of  them  inclosed  like  the  great  hotels  in  Paris,  and  all 
of  them  covered  with  verandas,  and  situated  in  gardens  neatly  dressed,  and 
in  summer  and  fall,  not  only  adorned  with  the  finest  evergreen  shrubs,  but 
with  a  great  variety  of  beautiful  roses,  jonquils,  and  other  flowers.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  of  the  streets  are  dirty  and  unpaved,  and  the  houses 
in  some  parts  of  the  town  have  a  filthy  appearance.  The  churches  and 
public  buildings  are  handsome,  especially  St.  Michael's  church,  with  its 
steeple  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  feet  high.  The  post  office  is  a  large, 
handsome  building.  Most  of  the  finest  buildings  here  were  erected  pre- 
viously to  the  revolution.  There  are  many  charitable  institutions,  among 
which  the  Orphan  Asylum  stands  in  the  first  rank. 

The  society  of  Charleston  is  refined,  intelligent  and  hospitable.  The 
commerce  of  the  place  consists  chiefly  in  the  export  of  rice  and  cotton.. 
On  account  of  its  level  character,  the  city  is  liable  to  occasional  inunda- 
tion ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  fine  commercial  mart,  and  highly  prosperous, 
exhibiting  most  of  the  institutions  which  mark  a  liberal  and  opulent  com- 
munity. This  city  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  revolution.  Popu- 
lation, thirty  thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty-nine. 

Charlestown,  in  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  is, an  irregular  town, 
containing  some  fine  situations.  Here  are  the  United  States  navy  yard, 
and  the  finest  dry-dock  in  the  country  ;  the  Massachusetts  state  prison,  an 
insane  hospital,  and  the  Ursuline  convent.  This  town  was  burnt  in  1775, 
by  the  British  troops.  On  the  eminence  of  Bunker  Hill,  a  splendid  monu- 
ment of  granite  has  been  for  some  time  in  an  unfinished  state;  but  there 
is  every  hope  of  its  immediate  completion.  Population  about  nine  thou- 
sand.    There  are  ten  other  towns  of  this  name  in  the  United  States. 

Chilicothe,  in  Ross  county,  Ohio,  formerly  the  seat  of  the  state  govern- 
ment, is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Scioto,  on  a  beautiful  and  exten- 
sive plain.  It  is  laid  out  on  a  large  scale,  with  a  great  number  of  out- 
lots  attached  to  it.  The  plan  is  regular  ;  the  streets  cross  each  other  at 
tight  angles,  and  every  square  is  divided  into  four  parts.  In  the  vicinity 
are  several  mills  and  manufactories,  and  the  Grand  canal  is  cut  through 
the  town.  The  town  was  laid  out  in  1796,  on  the  site  of  an  old  Indian 
village.     Population,  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty-six. 

Cincinnati,  the  largest  town  in  Ohio,  is  handsomely  built,  and  surround- 
ed by  a  range  of  fine  wooded  hills,  which  command  a  beautiful  prospect. 
The  plain  on  which  it  is  situated  occupies  about  four  square  miles ;  the 
height  of  the  rising  ground  above  the  alluvial  plain  is  about  fifty  feet. 
The  population  is  much  mixed,  being  composed  of  emigrants  from  all  parts 
of  the  union,  and  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  Its  progressive  in- 
crease has  been  most  wonderful.  In  1813,  Cincinnati  numbered  about 
four  thousand  inhabitants ;  in  1820,  ten  thousand;  in  1832,  more  than  thir- 
ty thousand. 

It  has  extensive  flour  and  sawmills,  worked  by  steam*  and  Various  mam> 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  291 

factures.  The  public  buildings  are  twenty-four  churches,  the  College, 
Athenaeum,  Medical  College,  Mechanics'  Institute,  four  market  houses,  a 
theatre,  two  museums,  a  famous  and  tasteless  bazaar,  a  bank  for  the  United 
States  branch,  court  house,  and  other  edifices.  The  charitable  and  reli- 
gious associations  are  numerous.  There  are  sixteen  periodical  publica- 
tions. There  are  three  city  insurance  companies,  and  two  branches  of 
companies  at  Hartford,  Connecticut.  Water  is  furnished  for  the  inhabi- 
tants from  the  Ohio  river,  and  is  distributed  over  town  at  an  average 
expense  of  eight  dollars  for  a  family. 

Vast  remains  of  ancient  fortifications,  embankments,  stone  walls,  earthen 
mounds,  the  latter  containing  rude  stone  coffins  filled  with  human  bones, 
have  been  discovered  within  the  precincts  of  this  town ;  and  many  curious 
articles  dug  up,  composed  of  jasper,  rock  crystal,  cannel-coal,  copper, 
sculptural  representations  on  different  substances,  altogether  tending  to 
prove  that  this  country  was  formerly  inhabited  by  a  race  of  men  very  differ- 
ent from  the  present  American  Indians. 

Circleville,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Pickaway  county,  Ohio,  is  situated  on 
the  Pickaway  bottom,  about  half  a  mile  east  of  the  Scioto.  Its  site  is  two 
mounds  of  earth,  one  circular,  and  the  other  square,  containing  about 
twenty  acres.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a  small  vacant  circle.  From, 
this  focus  the  streets  diverge  in  regular  radii.  The  growth  of  this  town 
has  been  owing  to  the  wealth  of  the  surrounding  plantations.  Population, 
one  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirty-six. 

Columbia,  the  capital  city  of  South  Carolina,  is  situated  on  the  Conga- 
ree,  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  north-north-west  of  Charleston.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  college  of  the  state.  The  town  is  regularly  built,  and  occupies 
an  elevated  plain  gently  sloping  on  every  side.  Population,  three  thousand 
three  hundred  and  ten.  There  are  eleven  other  towns  called  Columbia  in 
the  United  States. 

Columbus,  the  metropolis  of  the  state  of  Ohio,  is  situated  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Scioto,  on  an  elevated  plain  of  several  hundred  acres.  It  is 
situated  near  the  middle  of  Franklin  county,  and  within  twenty  miles  of 
the  centre  of  the  state,  in  a  fine  fertile  country.  It  was  founded  in  1812, 
in  the  midst  of  a  thick  forest.  It  contains  a  state  house,  court  house, 
penitentiary,  a  classical  seminary,  three  churches,  and  an  asylum  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb.     Population,  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  thirty-seven. 

Concord,  a  town  of  Merrimack  county,  New  Hampshire,  is  the  capital 
of  the  state.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Merrimack, 
along  which  spread  some  rich  intervals.  The  chief  village  is  on  the  west 
side,  and  forms  a  street  two  miles  in  length.  It  contains  a  state  house 
and  a  state  prison,  both  of  granite.  It  was  first  settled  in  1724,  and 
twenty  years  afterwards  suffered  severely  from  the  Indians.  By  the  river 
and  Middlesex  canal,  Concord  has  a  boat  navigation  to  Boston ;  and  it  is 
a  place  of  considerable  trade.  Population,  three  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  twenty-seven. 

Concord,  a  village  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  is  celebrated  as 
the  place  of  meeting  of  the  first  provincial  congress  in  1774,  and  the  first 
opposition  to  the  British  arms.    Population,  two  thousand  and  seventeen.* 

*  There  are  seventeen  other  towns,  named  Concord,  in  different  parts  of  ihe  United 
States. 


292  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Covington,  a  town  of  Genesee  county,  New  York,  has  a  soil  of  ordinary 
quality,  well  watered.  Population,  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  six- 
teen. 

Dayton,  chief  town  of  Montgomery  county,  Ohio,  is  situated  on  the  left 
hank  of  Great  Miami  river,  near  the  point  where  it  is  met  by  the  canal. 
It  is  a  flourishing  place,  with  many  mills  and  factories.  Population  about 
three  thousand. 

Detroit,  the  capital  of  Michigan  territory,  is  situated  on  the  bank  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name.  During  the  French  jurisdiction,  it  was  the 
farthest  post  on  the  lakes  except  Macinac.  Since  1815,  this  town  has 
rapidly  improved  ;  before,  it  was  small  and  of  no  importance  except  in  a 
military  view.  It  is  famous  for  the  siege  here  sustained  by  Major  Gladwyn 
against  the  united  tribes  of  Indians  under  Pontiac,  and  for  its  surrender  to 
the  British  forces  in  the  year  1812,  by  General  Hull.  The  ground  plan  of 
the  city  of  Detroit  is  laid  out  like  that  of  Washington,  and  the  buildings 
are  very  much  scattered.  The  jail,  state  house,  and  two  churches,  consti- 
tute the  chief  public  buildings.  The  Erie  canal  has  done  much  to  increase 
the  prosperity  of  this  town,  and  the  Ohio  canal  will  give  it  an  additional 
impulse.     Population  about  two  thousand  five  hundred. 

The  streets  of  Detroit  are  generally  crowded  with  Indians  of  one  tribe 
or  other,  who  collect  here  to  sell  their  skins ;  at  night,  all  those  who  are 
not  admitted  into  private  houses,  and  remain  there  quietly,  are  turned  out 
of  the  town,  and  the  gates  shut  upon  them.  The  French  inhabitants  em- 
ployed upon  the  lakes  and  rivers  are  very  dexterous  watermen,  and  will 
navigate  a  small  bark  in  a  rough  sea  with  incredible  skill.  They  have 
nothing  like  enterprise  in  business,  and  are  very  fond  of  music,  dancing, 
and  smoking  tobacco  ;  the  women  have  generally  lively  and  expressive 
countenances. 

The  fort  stands  on  a  low  ridge,  in  the  rear  of  the  town,  at  the  distance 
of  about  two  hundred  yards.  From  the  summit  of  this  ridge,  the  country 
gradually  subsides  to  a  low  swampy  plain,  from  five  to  nine  miles  across, 
covered  with  thick  groves  of  young  timber.  Beyond  this  plain  commences 
a  surface  moderately  hilly. 

Dover,  a  town  of  Kent  county,  Delaware,  and  capital  of  the  state.  It  is 
handsomely  laid  out  and  built  on  a  small  stream  that  runs  into  the  Dela- 
ware. The  houses  are  mostly  of  brick,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a 
spacious  square  surrounded  by  the  public  buildings. 

Dover,  a  town  of  Strafford  county,  New  Hampshire,  is  situated  on  the 
falls  of  the  Cocheco,  a  stream  running  into  the  Piscataqua.  The  falls  have 
several  pitches,  one  of  which  is  forty  feet  perpendicular,  affording  a  vast 
water  power,  which  has  been  applied  to  manufacturing  purposes.  This 
town  was  settled  in  1623,  and  is  the  oldest  in  the  state.  The  greater  part 
of  the  timber  exported  from  New  Hampshire  is  brought  to  Dover.  Popu- 
lation, five  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty-nine. 

Easton,  a  town  of  Northampton  county,  Pennsylvania,  situated  on  the 
Delaware,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lehigh,  is  a  handsome  town,  regularly  laid 
out  with  a  large  square  in  the  centre.  The  union  of  three  canals  at  this 
point,  gives  it  vast  facilities  for  trade.  The  scenery  of  the  neighborhooa  is 
remarkably  picturesque.  The  town  is  laid  out  at  right  angles.  Popula- 
tion, throe  thousand  six  hundred. 

Eastport,  a  town  of  Washington  county,  Maine,  and  the  most  eastern 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  293 

point  of  the  United  States.  It  is  situated  on  Moose  island  in  Passama- 
quoddy  bay,  and  is  favorably  situated  for  an  extensive  traffic  up  the  Passa- 
maquoddy  and  the  other  rivers  falling  into  the  bay  of  Fundy.  The  prin- 
cipal business  is  afforded  by  the  fisheries  and  the  lumber  trade.  Popula- 
tion, two  thousand  five  hundred. 

Economy,  a  beautiful  village  of  Beaver  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Ohio,  a  few  miles  below  Pittsburg.     It  is  inhabited  solely  by  the  sect  of 


Economy. 

Harmonists,  under  the  celebrated  Rapp.  The  village  is  regularly  built, 
and  the  streets  are  laid  out  at  right  angles.  Industry  is  the  characteristic 
of  the  inhabitants,  who  are  of  German  origin.  The  property  purports  to 
be  held  in  common,  though  it  has  been  stated  that  the  legal  tenure  of  it  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  principal.  The  grape  is  extensively  cultivated  here  ; 
a  thriving  trade  is  carried  on  with  the  neighboring  country,  and  the  estab- 
lishment is  in  a  thriving  condition.     Population,  eight  hundred. 

Elizabeihtoiu/i,  a  town  of  Essex  county,  New  Jersey,  situated  on  a  creek 
of  Newark  bay,  was  originally  settled  by  emigrants  from  Connecticut.  It 
has  some  good  gardens,  and  supplies  many  agricultural  products  for  the 
New  York  market.  Population,  three  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty- 
five. 

Exeter,  a  town  of  Rockingham  county,  New  Hampshire,  fourteen  miles 
south-west  from  Portsmouth,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  navigation  on 
Swamscot  river,  a  branch  of  the  Piscataqua.  Formerly,  ship-building  was 
carried  on  here  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  vessels  were  employed  in  the 
West  Indian  trade;  at  present,  this  business  is  much  decreased,  but  several 
manufactories  have  been  established.  Here  is  a  celebrated  academy,  incor- 
porated in  1781.    Population,  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty-three. 

Fayetteville,  a  village  of  Cumberland  county,  North  Carolina,  is  situat- 
ed at  the  head  of  uninterrupted  boat  navigation  on  Cape  Fear  river.  In 
1831,  it  was  desolated  by  a  destructive  fire  ;  but  it  is  rapidly  regaining  its 
former  flourishing  condition.  Population,  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
Bixty-eight. 

Frankfort,  the  metropolis  of   Kentucky,  and  chief  town  of  Franklin 

25* 


294 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


county,  stands  on  the  east  bank  of  Kentucky  river,  sixty  miles  above  its 
entrance  into  the  Ohio.  The  river,  which  is  hereabout  one  hundred  yards 
wide,  with  bold  limestone  banks,  forms  a  handsome  curve,  and  waters  the 
southern  and  western  parts  of  the  town.  The  bottoms  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  are  very  broad,  but  subject  to  inundation.  Frankfort  is  about 
sixty-two  miles  from  Louisville.     Population,  one  thousand  nine  hundred. 

Fredericksburg,  a  port  of  entry,  and  chief  town  of  Spottsylvania  county 
Virginia,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rappahanoc  river,  is  a  flourish- 
ing place.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  tide  water.  Population,  three  thousand 
three  hundred  and  eight. 

Fredericktoivn,  in  Frederick  county,  Maryland,  is  situated  forty-seven 
miles  from  Baltimore,  on  the  Pittsburg  road,  and  is  a  flourishing  place, 
carrying  on  considerable  manufactures,  and  a  brisk  inland  trade  through  a 
fertile  and  well-cultivated  country.  Jt  is  the  second  town  in  the  state,  and 
increases  with  rapidity.  Population,  seven  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
five. 

Galena,  a  village  in  Illinois,  the  centre  of  a  celebrated  lead-mining  dis- 
trict, from  which  it  takes  its  name.  It  is  situated  on  Fever  river,  five  miles 
before  it  empties  into  the.  Mississippi. 

Gardiner,  a  flourishing  town  in  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Kennebec  river.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  lumber,  and 
in  manufactures  of  cotton  and  iron,  and  many  very  valuable  mills.     In  this 


Church  in  Gardiner. 


town  is  a  Gothic  church,  built  of  granite,  and  considered  the  finest 
specimen  of  architecture  in  the  state.  Population,  three  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  nine. 

Georgetown,  city  of  the  district  of  Columbia,  and  separated  from  Wash- 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


295 


ington  only  by  a  small  creek,  is  finely  situated  on  a  series  of  heights  at  a 
bend  of  the  Potomac.  It  is  well  laid  out,  and  contains  some  good  private 
residences.  The  Catholic  college  is  an  ancient  pile  of  building,  with  a 
large  library,  and  some  good  paintings.  The  Chesapeak  and  Ohio  canal 
passes  through  this  town.  Tobacco  and  flour  are  exported  in  considerable 
quantities.     Population,  eight  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty-one. 

Gloucester,  a  seaport  of  Massachusetts,  in  Essex  county,  and  on  the 
peninsula  of  cape  Ann,  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  fishing  towns  in 
the  country.  The  harbor,  which  is  defended  by  a  battery  and  forts,  is 
accessible  for  large  ships.  This  town  suffered  severely  from  fire  a  few 
years  ago ;  but  the  damage  has  been  nearly  repaired.  Population,  seven 
thousand  five  hundred  and  thirteen. 

Hagerstown,  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  is  a  well-built  and  flour- 
ishing place,  surrounded  by  a  fertile  country.  It  is  a  handsome  town,  and 
the  houses  are  generally  of  stone  or  brick.  Population,  three  thousand 
four  hundred. 

Hallowell,  in  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
and  wealthy  towns  in  the  state.  The  river  is  navigable  to  this  place  for 
vessels  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons.  Hallowell  granite  is  extensively 
quarried  and  wrought,  and  is  much  esteemed.  The  commerce  of  the  place 
is  considerable,  confined  chiefly  to  the  lumber  trade.  Population,  three 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty-four. 

Hanover,  in  Grafton  county,  New  Hampshire,  situated  on  the  Connect- 
icut, is  a  pleasant  village,  and  the  seat  of   Dartmouth  college,  which  was 


Dartmouth  College. 

established  in  1771.  It  received  its  name  from  one  of  its  principal  bene- 
factors, the  earl  of  Dartmouth.  This  town  is  crossed  from  north  to  south 
by  Moose  mountain.     Population,  two  thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty- 


one. 


Harrisburg,  the  seat  of  government  of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  is  in 
Dauphin  county,  and  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Susquehanna, 
ninety-six  miles  from  Philadelphia.  It  is  regularly  built,  and  has  a  hand- 
some state  house,  and  other  public  edifices.  A  bridge  here  crosses  the 
Susquehanna.     Population,  four  thousand  three  hundred  and  eleven. 


296 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Hartford,  city,  the  capital  of  Hartford  county,  and,  jointly  with  New* 
Haven,  the  seat  of  government  of  Connecticut.  It  stands  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Connecticut,  at  the  head  of  sloop  navigation.  It  is  handsome- 
ly built,  and  contains  many  fine  public  edifices,  among  which  are  a  Gothic 
church,  much  admired  for  its  architecture ;  a  state  house,  a  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum,  a  retreat  for  the  insane,  and  a  seminary  called  Washington  col- 
lege. This  institution  was  founded  in  1826.  Hartford  enjoys  a  conside- 
rable commerce  with  Boston,  New  York,  and  the  southern   cities.     The 


t =-^  g||              ==—       ^^Er 

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Bill 

- 

HSflSBBgHBlBi  ^^^J^^fe^'^j^y^^ 

fife  T>r,i 

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v;-;-Jv.!a       _               ._•'-...  -..      ■:, 

C~    -  -^T-r  ■-'"-  ~~     "Vr^ 

Hartford,  Conn. 

bookselling  trade  is  carried  on  here  extensively,  and  there  is  much  in- 
land traffic  with  the  towns  on  the  Connecticut,  and  in  the  neighborhood. 
On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  is  East  Hartford,  which  is  connected 
with  the  city  by  a  bridge.  The  inhabitants  point  out  to  the  stranger  an 
ancient  oak  tree  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city,  which  bears  the  name  of 
the  Charter  Oak,  and  is  interesting  on  account  of  its  connection  with  our 
early  history.     Population,  nine  thousand  eight  hundred. 

Haverhill,  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  on  the  Merrimack,  twelve 
miles  above  Newburyport.  Population,  three  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
twelve.  This  is  a  pleasantly  situated  town,  and  has  considerable  ship- 
building and  trade  by  the  river.  It  was  settled  in  1640,  and  suffered 
much  in  the  early  Indian  wars.  In  1698,  the  Indians  attacked  and  set  fire 
to  the  town. 

Hudson,  a  city  of  New  York,  in  Columbia  county,  with  considerable 
manufacturing  business.  The  streets  are  spacious,  and  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles,  and  the  houses  are  supplied  with  water  brought  in  pipes 
from  a  spring  two  miles  distant.  The  trade  is  considerable,  and  vessels 
of  the  largest  size  can  unload  here.  It  is  seated  on  an  eminence,  on  the 
east  side  of  Hudson  river.  It  is  twenty-eight  miles  south  of  Albany. 
Population,  five  thousand  three  hundred  and  ninety-two. 

Indianapolis,  capital  of  Indiana,  situated  in  Marion  county,  on  the  west 
bank  of  White  river,  in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  fer- 
tile bodies  of  land  in  the  world,  though  recently  settled,  promises  to  be 
one  of  the  largest  towns  between  Cincinnati  and  the  Mississippi.     The 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  297 


'4&i££ 


country  about  it  is  said  by  Mr.  Flint  to  be  settling  with  unexampled  rapidi- 
ty.    Population,  twelve  hundred. 

Jameston,  an  ancient  town  in  James  City  county,  Virginia,  the  first  En- 
glish settlement  in  the  states,  was  established  in  1608.  It  stands  on  an 
island  in  James  river,  thirty-two  miles  above  its  mouth.  It  is  now  in 
ruins,  and  almost  desolate.  Two  or  three  old  houses,  the  ruins  of  an  old 
steeple,  a  church-yard,  and  faint  traces  of  rude  fortifications,  are  the  only 
memorials  of  its  former  importance. 

Jefferson  City,  seat  of  justice  for  Cole  county,  Missouri,  and  capital  of 
the  state,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  Missouri  river,  about  nine  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Osage.  It  is  a  new  town,  containing  two  hundred 
houses  and  twelve  hundred  inhabitants,  and,  after  Little  Rock  in  Arkansas, 
is  the  most  western  state  capital  of  the  United  States. 

Kaskaskia,  an  ancient  village  of  Illinois,  and  seat  of  justice  for  Randolph 
county,  is  situated  on  Kaskaskia  river,  eleven  miles  from  its  mouth.  It 
was  one  of  the  earliest  French  settlements  in  the  Mississippi,  and  once 
contained  seven  thousand  inhabitants ;  it  is  now  very  much  reduced,  num- 
bering only  one  thousand.  The  situation  of  this  town  is  represented  as 
very  beautiful. 

Kennebunk,  a  town  of  York  county,  Maine,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of 
the  same  name,  has  considerable  lumber  trade.  The  principal  harbor  is 
obstructed  by  a  sandbar,  and  in  1820  an  appropriation  was  made  by  Con- 
gress to  build  a  pier  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Population,  two  thousand 
two  hundred  and  thirty-three. 

Knoxville,  the  chief  town  of  East  Tennessee,  is  situated  one  hundred 
and  eighty  miles  from  Nashville,  on  the  north  side  of  Holston  rirer,  where 
it  is  three  hundred  yards  wide ;  on  a  beautiful  spot  of  ground,  twenty-two 
miles  above  the  junction  of  the  Holston  with  the  Tennessee.  The  college 
of  this  town  is  one  of  the  oldest  seminaries  in  the  state.  Population,  three 
thousand. 

Lancaster,  a  handsome  town  of  Pennsylvania,  and  capital  of  a  county 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  a  pleasant  and  flourishing  place,  situate  in  a  fer- 
tile and  well-cultivated  country,  and  contains  a  court  house,  a  jail,  two 
banks,  and  nine  places  of  worship.  A  college  was  founded  here  in  1787 ; 
but  the  buildings  are  now  appropriated  to  schools.  Here  are  manufactures 
of  guns  and  other  hardware ;  and  about  a  mile  distant  is  a  large  cotton 
manufactory.  The  town  has  considerable  trade,  which  increases  with  the 
surrounding  country.  It  is  seated  near  Conestoga  creek,  which  runs  into 
the  Susquehanna,  sixty-one  miles  west  by  north  of  Philadelphia.  Popu- 
lation, seven  thousand  seven  hundred  and  four. 

Lancaster,  oldest  town  in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  finely  situ- 
ated on  both  sides  of  the  Nashua,  has  manufactories  of  combs  and  cotton, 
and  an  extensive  engraving  and  stereotyping  establishment.  In  beauty  of 
scenery  the  neighborhood  is  surpassed  by  that  of  few  towns  in  New  Eng- 
land.    Population,  two  thousand  and  fourteen. 

Lansinburg,  a  town  of  Rensselaer  county,  New  York,  is  principally  built 
on  a  single  street,  parallel  with  the  river.  A  high  hill  rises  abruptly  be- 
hind the  town,  on  which  is  seen  the  celebrated  diamond  rock,  emitting  a 
brilliant  lustre  in  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Population,  two  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  sixty-three. 

Lexington,  a  town  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  will  ever  ba 
38 


298  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

memorable  in  American  nibtory,  for  the  early  revolutionary  struggles.  The 
first  battle  was  fought  here  between  the  British  troops  and  the  Americans 
on  the  nineteenth  of  April,  1775.  A  monument  has  been  erected  on  the 
green  at  Lexington  in  commemoration  of  this  event. 

Lexington,  capital  of  Fayette  county,  Kentucky,  is  the  oldest  town  in 
the  state,  and  was  for  many  years  the  seat  of  government.  It  stands  in  a 
beautiful  spot,  on  a  branch  of  the  Elkhorn  river,  in  the  centre  of  the  rich- 
est tract  in  the  state.  The  principal  street  is  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in 
length,  spacious  and  well  paved.  The  buildings  are  much  superior  in  size 
and  elegance  to  those  of  the  other  towns  in  the  state,  and  may  be  com- 
pared to  those  of  the  Atlantic  country.  The  Transylvania  university  is 
established  here.  The  public  inns  are  large  and  convenient.  The  town 
has  manufactories  of  woolen,  cotton,  and  paper.  The  general  appearance 
of  the  town  is  neat,  and  the  neighborhood  is  adorned  with  many  handsome 
villas,  and  finely  ornamented  rural  mansions.  Population,  six  thousand 
one  hundred  and  four. 

Litchfield,  capital  of  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut,  is  situated  on  an 
elevated  plain,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  and  hilly  country.  It  contains  nu- 
merous mills  and  manufactories.  A  law  school  was  established  here  in 
1782,  by  Judge  Reeve,  which  has  been  for  many  years  highly  celebrated. 
Population,  four  thousand  five  hundred. 

Little  Rock,  the  seat  of  government  of  Arkansas  territory,  is  situated 
on  a  high  bluff  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river  Arkansas,  and  derives  its 
name  from  the  high  masses  of  rock  above  it.     It  was  laid  out  in  1820. 

Lockport,  a  town  of  Niagara  county,  New  York,  on  the  Erie  canal. 
Here  are  the  most  remarkable  works  on  the  canal,  consisting  of  ten  locks, 
overcoming  an  ascent  of  sixty  feet.  Besides  these,  there  is  an  excavation 
through  the  mountain  ridge,  for  three  miles,  cut  in  the  rock.  The  town 
is  a  place  of  considerable  trade.  Population,  three  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  twenty-three. 

Louisville,  a  city  of  Jefferson  county,  Kentucky,  on  a  plain  elevated 
about  seventy  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Ohio,  opposite  to  the  rapids  or 
falls,  is  a  handsome  town,  and  the  largest  in  the  state.  Eight  broad  and 
straight  streets  run  parallel  with  the  river,  and  command  a  pleasant  view 
of  the  opposite  shore.  They  are  paved  with  blocks  of  limestone ;  the 
houses  are  built  chiefly  of  brick.  This  is  the  most  commercial  city  of  the 
west,  commanding  the  trade  of  a  great  extent  of  country.  Manufactures 
are  yet  in  their  infancy.  The  Louisville  and  Portland  canal  passes 
through  this  town,  round  the  falls;  it  is  about  two  miles  in  length,  and  cut 
through  a  limestone  rock.  It  admits  the  passage  of  the  largest  steamboats, 
and  thus  opens  a  line  of  free  navigation  from  Pittsburg  to  the  sea.  This 
canal  was  finished  in  1831.  It  has  been  estimated  that  seventy-five  thou- 
sand travellers  pass  through  Louisville  annually.  The  resident  population 
is  about  fourteen  thousand. 

Lowell,  a  town  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Concord  and  Merrimack  rivers,  is  celebrated  for  its  exten- 
sive manufacturing  establishments,  and  for  its  rapid  increase.  It  was. in- 
corporated in  1826.  In  1831,  the  quantity  of  cotton  manufactured  here 
was  estimated  at  five  million  one  hundred  thousand  pounds.  The  water 
power  is  held  and  managed  by  a  company  possessing  a  great  amount  of 
real  estate,  and  a  capital  of  six  hundred  thousand  dollars.     A  rail-road 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  299 

from  Boston  to  Lowell  is  in  rapid  progress.  The  two  largest  companiea 
are  the  Merrimack,  with  a  capital  of  a  million  and  a  half;  and  the  Law- 
rence, with  a  capital  of  one  million  two  hundred  thousand  dollars.  Popu- 
lation about  seven  thousand  five  hundred. 

Lynchburg,  a  town  of  Columbia  county,  Virginia,  is  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  and  commercial  towns  in  the  state.  It  has  several  tobacco 
warehouses  and  factories,  cotton  and  woolen  manufactories,  and  in  the 
vicinity  are  extensive  flour  mills.  The  surrounding  country  is  rugged  and 
mountainous.  Lynchburg  was  established  in  1786.  Population,  four 
thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty-six. 

Lynn,  a  town  of  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  is  noted  for  its  extensive 
manufacture  of  shoes.  About  a  million  and  a  half  pair  of  women's 
shoes  are  made  here  every  year.  There  is  a  mineral  spring  in  this  town, 
with  a  hotel  in  its  neighborhood.  Population,  six  thousand  one  hundred 
and  thirty-eight. 

Mackias,  on  the  bay  of  that  name,  in  Washington  county,  Maine,  con- 
sists of  two  villages,  one  at  the  falls  at  the  east  branch  of  Machias  river, 
and  the  other  at  the  falls  of  the  west  branch,  six  and  a  half  miles  apart, 
each  containing  a  post  office.  The  village  at  the  east  falls  is  at  the  head  of 
the  tide,  two  miles  above  the  junction  of  the  branches,  and  contains 
various  mills.  The  village  at  the  west  falls,  contains  the  court  house,  jail, 
and  various  mills  ;  there  are  many  saw  mills  in  this  town,  which  cut  up- 
wards of  ten  million  feet  of  boards  in  a  year.  The  tonnage  of  the  ship- 
ping in  1827  amounted  to  five  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty-six ;  much 
of  this  is  employed  in  the  transportation  of  plaster  from  the  British  terri- 
tory adjacent  to  Passamaquoddy  bay.  Population,  two  thousand  seven? 
hundred  and  seventy-five. 

Marblehead,  a  town  of  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  situated  on  a 
peninsula  projecting  into  Massachusetts  bay.  It  is  compactly,  though 
irregularly  built ;  it  was  settled  soon  after  Salem,  and  has  been  very  flour- 
ishing and  opulent.  It  suffered  severely  during  the  revolution  and  the 
last  war.  In  the  fishing  business  it  has  greatly  excelled  all  other  towns  in 
the  United  States.  Population  in  1810,  five  thousand  eight  hundred ;  in 
1830,  five  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty. 

Marietta,  in  Washington  county,  Ohio,  is  finely  situated  near  the  mouth 
of  Muskingum  river,  in  the  centre  of  a  fertile  neighborhood.  It  was  one 
of  the  earliest  settlements  of  the  state  ;  but  it  has  suffered  severely  from 
sickness  and  inundations  of  the  river.  Ship-building  was  formerly  car- 
ried on  here,  but  has  been  discontinued.  The  inhabitants  are  noted  for 
industry  and  sobriety.  Population,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  four- 
teen. 

Maysville,  in  Mason  county,  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio,  stands  on  a  narrow 
bottom  below  the  mouth  of  Limestone  creek,  and  has  considerable  trade 
and  manufactures.  It  is  the  principal  commercial  depot  for  the  north-east 
portions  of  the  state.  It  is  a  very  busy  and  flourishing  town.  Population, 
about  four  thousand. 

Middlebury,  in  Addison  county,  Vermont,  situated  on  Otter  creek,  has 
a  college,  two  academies,  several  churches,  and  manufactures  of  cotton, 
iron,  and  marble.  A  quarry  of  fine  marble  was  discovered  here  in  1804, 
and  is  now  wrought  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Population,  three  thousand 
four  hundred  and  sixty-eight. 


300  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Middletown,  a  city  of  Middlesex  county,  Connecticut,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Connecticut  river,  and  thirty-four  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  a  plea- 
sant place,  and  has  considerable  trade  and  manufactures.  In  1816,  it 
owned  a  larger  shipping  than  any  other  town  in  the  state.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood is  a  lead  mine,  which  was  wrought  during  the  war.  A  college, 
under  the  name  of  the  Wesleyan  University,  was  opened  in  this  city  in 
1831.     Population,  six  thousand  nine  hundred. 

Milled geville,  capital  of  Baldwin  county,  Georgia,  and  metropolis  of  the 
state,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Oconee,  eighty-seven  miles  south- 
west of  Augusta.  It  is  a  depot  of  cotton  for  the  Savannah  and  Darien 
markets.  It  contains  several  public  buildings,  and  has  four  weekly  papers. 
Population  about  two  thousand. 

Mobile,  a  city  of  Mobile  county,  Alabama,  on  the  west  side  of  Mobile 
river,  at  its  entrance  into  the  bay.  When  this  town  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  United  States,  in  1813,  it  contained  about  three  hundred  inha- 
bitants ;  it  now  numbers  between  three  and  four  thousand.  It  is  pleasant- 
ly situated  on  a  spot  elevated  above  the  overflow  of  the  river ;  but  the  ad- 
jacent country  is  a  marsh  or  a  forest.  Fire  and  the  yellow  fever  have 
committed  great  ravages  here ;  but  trade  has  increased  rapidly,  and  in  the 
cotton  business  Mobile  is  inferior  only  to  Charleston  and  New  Orleans. 

Montpelier,  shire  town  of  Washington  county,  Vermont,  and  seat  of 
government,  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  Onion  river,  about  ten  miles 
north-east  of  the  centre  of  the  state,  and  is  a  great  thoroughfare  for  travel- 
lers. It  was  incorporated  in  1818,  contains  a  number  of  public  buildings 
and  good  seats  for  manufactories.     Population,  three  thousand. 

Nantucket,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  of  the  same  extent  with  the  island 
and  county  of  that  name,  contains  seven  houses  of  public  worship,  two 
banks,  and  two  insurance  offices.  It  was  formerly  called  Sherburne.  The 
trade  suffered  greatly  during  the  late  war  and  the  revolution,  but  has  since 
been  more  nourishing.  There  are  extensive  spermaceti  works  here.  Edu- 
cation is  well  attended  to,  and  the  people,  who  are  chiefly  Friends  or 
Quakers,  are  generally  moral  and  industrious.  Population,  seven  thousand 
two  hundred  and  two. 

Nashville,  capital  of  Davidson  county,  and  seat  of  government  of  Ten- 
nessee, is  regularly  built,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  south  side  of  Cumber- 
land river,  and  is  much  the  largest  town  in  the  state.  It  is  a  rich  and 
flourishing  place.  Steamboats  from  New  Orleans  ascend  the  river  to  this 
point.  The  state  penitentiary,  a  fine  stone  building,  is  here  erected.  The 
University  of  Nashville  was  incorporated  in  1806,  and  is  now  in  a  very 
prosperous  condition.     Population,  five  thousand  six  hundred. 

Natchez,  a  city  of  Mississippi,  and  much  the  largest  town  of  the  state, 
stands  on  a  bluff,  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  river.  The  houses  have  an  air  of  neatness,  though  few  are  distin- 
guished for  elegance  or  size.  To  enable  the  inhabitants  to  enjoy  the 
evening  air,  almost  every  house  has  a  piazza  and  balcony.  The  soil  of 
the  adjoining  country  is  rich,  and  vegetation  of  most  kinds  attains  to  un- 
common luxuriance ;  the  gardens  are  ornamented  with  orange  trees,  figs, 
plums,  peaches,  and  grape-vines.  Natchez  is  the  principal  town  in  this 
region  for  the  shipment  of  cotton  to  New  Orleans,  and  at  the  business 
seasons  the  streets  are  almost  barricadoed  with  bales.  In  this  place  is  thfl 
Planters'  bank,  with  a  capital  of  three  millions. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  301 

The  reputation  of  Natchez  in  regard  to  morals  seems  to  be  rather  at  a 
discount.  The  lower  town  is  said  to  have  a  worse  character  than  any- 
place on  the  river ;  and,  particularly  in  the  spring,  to  present  a  congregation 
of  the  most  abandoned  and  desperate.  The  following  picture  by  a  recent 
traveller  is  probably  overcharged :  '  In  the  evening,  a  steamer  stops  at 
Natchez  to  land  or  take  in  goods,  the  passengers  observe  several  houses 
lighted  up,  and  hear  the  sounds  of  fiddles  and  merriment,  and  they  run  up 
to  see  what  is  going  on  ;  they  find  men  and  women  dancing,  gambling 
and  drinking ;  the  bell  of  the  steamboat  rings  to  announce  that  she  is  about 
to  continue  her  voyage,  the  lights  in  the  houses  of  entertainment  are  im- 
mediately extinguished,  and  the  passengers  run  out,  afraid  of  being  too 
late  for  the  boat,  and  run  down  toward  the  landing;  ropes  are  drawn  across 
the  road,  the  passengers  fall  heels  over  head,  a  number  of  stout  ruffians 
throw  themselves  upon  them,  and  strip  them  of  their  money  and  watches*' 
and  they  get  on  board  in  doleful  plight,  and  of  course  never  see  or  hear 
more  of  their  plunderers !'     Population,  three  thousand. 

Natchitoches,  commonly  pronounced  Nackitosh,  a  town  of  Louisiana,  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  south-west  bank  of  Red  river,  at  the  head  of 
steamboat  navigation.  The  trade  between  Louisiana  and  the  Mexican 
states  centres  here,  and  it  must  eventually  become  a  place  of  great  size  and 
importance.  This  town  was  established  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago, 
and  its  population  is  a  mixture  of  Americans,  French,  Spaniards,  and  In- 
dians. 

New  Albany,  in  Floyd  county,  Indiana,  is  an  industriofis  and  flourishing 
village,  with  a  ship-yard  for  building  steamboats.  During  the  summer, 
many  steamboats  are  laid  up  here  to  be  repaired.  Population,  one  thou- 
sand nine  hundred. 

Neivark,  capital  of  Essex  county,  New  Jersey,  is  handsomely  built,  and 
finely  situated  on  the  west  side  of  Passaic  river.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  towns  in  the  country.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  shoes, 
leather,  coaches,  and  cabinet  work.  Morris  canal  passes  through  this 
town.     Population,  eleven  thousand. 

New  Bedford,  port  of  entry  in  Bristol  county,  Massachusetts,  stands  on  an 
arm  of  Buzzard's  bay,  about  fifty-two  miles  south  of  Boston.  '  We  entered 
New  Bedford,'  says  a  recent  tourist,  '  through  Fairhaven,  by  way  of  the 
ferry.  From  Fairhaven  the  town  shows  to  better  effect  than  from  any 
other  point.  A  stranger,  perhaps,  might  be  surprised  at  the  great  apparent 
extent  of  New  Bedford  as  seen  from  this  place.  Passing  through  the 
villa  of  Fairhaven  (a  place  of  no  inconsiderable  size  by  the  by,)  it  opens 
before  him,  with  its  spires,  its  shipping  and  buildings,  like  a  beautiful 
panoramic  painting  of  some  great  city.  It  appears  much  larger,  however, 
than  it  is.  Its  population  is  ten  thousand.  Its  commerce  is  principally 
in  the  whale  fishery,  employing  one  hundred  and  fifty  whale  ships. 
The  "  county  road"  displays  many  elegant  mansions,  the  dwellings  of  some 
of  the  more  wealthy  inhabitants.  New  Bedford  is  considered  a  very 
wealthy  place,  and  the  inhabitants  active  and  enterprising.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  them  are  Quakers.' 

Newbern,  in  Craven  county,  North  Carolina,  was  once  the  capital,  and 
is  still  the  largest  town  *  f  the  state.  It  is  situated  on  the  Neuse,  thirty 
miles  above  its  entrance  into  Pamlico  sound.     The  river  is  navigable  to 

26 


302 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


this  place,  aild  its  Commerce  is  considerable.  Population,  three  thousand 
eight  hundred. 

New  Brunswick,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  partly  in  Middlesex  and  partly 
in  Somerset  county,  on  the  south-west  side  of  Raritan  river,  is  built  on  a 
low  but  healthy  situation,  and  has  considerable  trade.  Besides  the  other 
public  institutions  usually  found  in  towns  of  similar  size,  this  has  a  theo- 
logical seminary,  and  a  college ;  both  established  by  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church.     Population,  seven  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirty-one. 

Newburgk,  a  port  of  entry  in  Orange  county,  New  York,  is  a  well-built 
village,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  commanding 
a  delightful  view  of  the  river  and  the  highlands.     The  principal  streets  are 


NeWburgh. 

paved.  A  considerable  amount  of  shipping  is  owned  in  this  village ;  agri- 
culture and  manufactures  are  also  extremely  flourishing.  Population,  six 
thousand  five  hundred. 

Newburypoft,  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mer- 
rimack, is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  situation,  and  the  regularity  of 
its  streets.  It  stands  upon  a  gentle  declivity  sloping  down  to  the  river ; 
the  streets  are  generally  straight  and  at  right  angles,  and  the  town  lies 
along  the  bank  of  the  river  for  about  a  mile.  The  principal  streets  pass 
through  the  whole  width  of  the  town,  from  the  summit  of  the  declivity  to 
the  river.  The  buildings  are  generally  handsome,  and  the  streets  clean. 
Few  towns  in  the  United  States  surpass  Newburyport  in  beauty.  It  was 
desolated  by  a  fire,  which  broke  out  on  the  night  of  May  31,  1811,  and 
destroyed  nearly  three  hundred  buildings.  The  place  has  never  re- 
covered from  the  effects  of  this  calamity ;  at  the  present  day,  the  traveller 
is  struck  with  the  view  of  a  wide  heap  of  grass*grown  ruins,  in  the  heart 
of  a  populous  town. 

The  harbor  of  this  place  is  good,  but  obstructed  at  the  entrance  by  a 
dangerous  bar ;  attempts  are  now  making  to  improve  it  by  a  break-water 
On  the  south  side  bf  the  channel.  The  mercantile  enterprise  of  the  place 
has  latterly  been  diverted  from  commerce  to  the  fisheries*     Ship-building 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


303 


is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  a  manufactory  of  hosiery  has 
been  established  in  the  place.  This  town  has  seven  churches,  two 
banks,  two  insurance  offices,  and  two  newspapers.  A  handsome  chain 
bridge  crosses  the  river  from  the  centre  of  the  town.  The  celebrated 
preacher,  George  Whitefield,  died  in  this  town  in  1760,  and  is  now  en- 
tombed in  the  Presbyterian  church  in  Federal  street,  where  an  elegant 
monument  has  been  erected  recently  to  his  memory.  Population,  six  thou- 
sand three  hundred  and  eighty-eight. 

New  Castle,  seat  of  justice  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  in  Delaware, 
and  formerly  capital  of  the  state.  The  village  extends  lengthwise  along 
the  Delaware  river,  on  a  rising  plain,  and  is  tolerably  compact  and  well 
built.  It  once  enjoyed  considerable  trade.  Population,  two  thousand  four 
hundred  and  sixty-three. 

New  Harmony,  or  Harmony,  a  town  in  Posey  county,  in  the  south- 
western part  of  Indiana,  on  the  Wabash,  formerly  the  seat  of  the  Harmo- 
nists, under  the  German,  Rapp,  and  more  recently  of  the  followers  of 
Owen,  of  Lanark.  The  former  establishment  was  removed  to  Economy, 
and  the  latter  abandoned. 

New  Haven,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Connecticut,  in  New  Haven  county,  lies 
at  the  head  of  a  bay  that  runs  out  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  is  situated 
on  a  beautiful  plain,  bordered  on  the  north  by  bold  and  perpendicular  emi- 
nences. It  is  regularly  laid  out  and  consists  of  two  parts,  the  old  and 
new  town.     The   old  town  is  divided  into  squares  of  different  extents. 


The  public  buildings  of  the  city 
state  house  is  a  fine  edifice,  on 
the  churches  have  a  commandin 
architecture,  and  built  of  stone, 
wood,  handsome  and  convenient, 
are  finely  ornamented  with  trees 
of  the  residences,  give  the  town 
The  harbor  of  New  Haven  is 


New  Haven. 

are  handsome  and  well  situated.     The 

the  model  of  the  Parthenon.     Several  of 

g  appearance  ;  two  of  them  are  of  Gothic 

Private  dwelling-houses   are  mostly  of 

The  public  square  and  principal  streets 

;  and  beautiful  gardens  attached  to  many 

a  rural  and  delightful  appearance. 

shallow,  and  gradually  filling  with  mud ; 


304  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

but  it  is  well  defended  from  winds,  and  the  maritime  commerce  of  the 
port  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  town  in  Connecticut.  Its  interior 
trade  is  assisted  by  the  Farmington  canal.  Packets  and  steamboats  ply 
regularly  and  frequently  between  this  port  and  New  York.  The  Indian 
name  of  this  town  was  Quinipiack.  It  was  first  settled  by  the  English  in 
163S,  and  was  the  capital  of  the  colony  of  New  Haven,  which  remained 
distinct  from  that  of  Connecticut  till  1665.  The  state  legislature  meets 
here  and  at  Hartford  alternately.  Yale  College,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished literary  institutions  in  America,  is  established  in  this  city;  connect- 
ed with  this  are  a  theological,  a  medical,  and  a  law  school.  Many  acade- 
mies and  smaller  seminaries  are  also  established  here.  Population,  about 
eleven  thousand. 

New  London,  a  city  of  New  London  county,  Connecticut,  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  state,  has  a  fine  harbor  near  the  mouth  of  the  Thames. 
It  is  irregularly  built,  principally  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  facing  the  east.  There 
are  many  pleasant  sites  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  town,  and  several  of  the 
buildings  are  handsome ;  but  the  general  appearance  of  the  place  is  not 
flourishing.  The  neighboring  region  is  rocky  and  sterile,  and  there  are  no 
great  channels  of  communication  with  the  interior.  The  recent  attention 
of  the  merchants  to  the  whale  fisheries  has  given  a  considerable  impulse 
to  the  place,  and  promises  to  restore  it  to  its  former  importance  as  a  com- 
mercial city.  Fort  Trumbull  *is  situated  at  the  south  of  the  town,  and  to 
the  east,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  are  the  remains  of  Fort  Gris- 
wold,  which,  during  the  revolution,  was  the  scene  of  a  well-remembered 
and  fearful  tragedy.  Population,  four  thousand  three  hundred  and  fifty- 
six. 

New  Madrid,  now  an  insignificant  village,  though  historically  interest- 
ing, is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  eighty-one  miles  be- 
low the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  This  town  was  founded  in  1787,  and  was 
intended  to  become  a  great  commercial  city,  and  the  emporium  of  the  vast 
tract  of  fertile  country  watered  by  the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  and 
their  branches.  It  was  indeed  happily  situated  for  the  purpose  ;  but 
the  river  has  swept  away  the  ground  on  which  it  was  originally  placed, 
and  the  earthquakes  of  1812  have  sunk  the  remainder  of  the  bluff  below 
high-water  mark.  It  is  impossible  to  visit  this  spot,  knowing  any  thing 
of  its  history,  and  not  be  struck  with  the  air  of  desolation  it  now  breathes. 
There  was  a  fine  lake  in  the  rear  of  the  town,  on  the  banks  of  which  pub- 
lic walks  and  plantations  of  trees  were  planned  for  the  accommodation  of 
its  inhabitants  ;  this  is  now  a  heap  of  sand.  As  the  earthquakes  are  occa- 
sionally recurring  in  this  neighborhood,  even  to  the  present  time,  people 
have  been  cautious  in  respect  to  settling  here ;  but  as  they  are  becoming 
more  assured,  New  Madrid  is  gradually  emerging  from  her  prostration. 

Neiv  Orleans,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Louisiana,  is  situated  directly 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  one  hundred  and  five  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  In  the  year  1717,  this  city  was  founded;  and  at  that 
period,  there  were  not,  perhaps,  five  hundred  white  inhabitants  in  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  In  the  beginning  of  1788,  the  town  con- 
tained one  thousand  one  hundred  houses,  built  of  wood ;  in  March  of  that 
year,  by  a  fire,  the  number  of  houses  was  reduced  in  five  hours  to  two  hun- 
dred. It  has  been  rebuilt  principally  of  brick,  which  is  of  so  soft  a  nature,  that 
the  buildings  are  plastered  on  the  outside  with  a  thick  coat  of  mortar,  and 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  305 

then  painted  or  whitewashed.  Several  warehouses  with  stone  fronts  have 
been  recently  erected.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  the  streets  are 
generally  forty  feet  wide,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  The  public 
buildings  are  generally  ele'gant,  commodious  and  expensive.  There  are 
few  churches.  The  Catholic  cathedral  is  a  noble  edifice,  ninety  feet  by 
one  hundred  and  twenty,  with  four  towers.  The  Place  des  armes  is  a 
beautiful  green,  which  serves  as  a  parade.  Most  of  the  houses  in  the 
suburbs  have  fine  gardens,  ornamented  with  orange  groves.  The  general 
style  of  living  is  luxurious,  and  the  private  dwellings  are  elegantly  fur- 
nished. The  markets  are  plentifully  supplied  with  the  necessaries  of  life, 
and  the  luxuries  of  every  country  ;  but  provisions  are  dear. 

New  Orleans  will  become  to  the  United  States  the  great  emporium  of 
commerce  and  wealth,  if,  by  the  draining  of  the  marshy  country  in  the 
neighborhood,  it  ever  becomes  a  healthy  city.  The  more  we  contemplate 
the  present  and  prospective  resourses  of  New  Orleans,  the  more  must  we  be 
convinced  of  its  future  greatness.  Being  built  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
the  curve  of  the  river  constitutes  a  safe  and  commodious  harbor.  Defend- 
ed on  one  side  by  the  river,  and  on  the  other  by  a  swamp  that  no  effort, 
can  penetrate,  the  city  can  only  be  approached  through  a  defile  three  quar- 
ters of  a  mile  wide. 

New  Orleans  is  gradually  becoming  more  purely  American  in  all  its 
characteristics  ;  but  many  of  its  inhabitants  are  of  French  and  Spanish 
descent,  and  the  French  language  is  more  commonly  spoken  than  the 
English.  The  charitable  institutions  of  the  city  are  highly  creditable. 
Education  is  not  so  much  attended  to  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country ;  but 
great  improvements  have  been  made  in  this  respect  within  a  few  years. 
The  police  is  efficient,  and  scenes  of  disorder  rarely  occur. 

This  city  is  the  grand  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 
The  tributaries  of  the  great  river  on  which  it  stands  afford  an  extent  of 
more  than  twenty  thousand  miles,  already  navigated  by  steamboats,  and 
passing  through  the  richest  soil  and  the  pleasantest  climates.  Steamboats 
are  departing  and  arriving  every  hour,  and  fifty  or  sixty  are  often  seen  in 
the  harbor  at  one  time ;  while  many  hundreds  of  flat  boats  are  seen  at  the 
levee,  laden  with  the  various  productions  of  the  great  valley.  Measures 
have  been  adopted  by  the  state  legislature  to  have  the  neighboring  country 
well  explored,  for  the  purpose  of  draining,  raising,  and  improving  it.* 
The  streets  of  the  city  have  been  paved,  and  gutters  are  washed  by  water 

*  Though  New  Orleans  is  rapidly  increasing  in  size  and  commercial  importance,  as 
the  emporium  of  the  rich  valley  of  the  Mississippi  must  necessarily  continue  to  do, 
yet  no  improvement  has  taken  place  in  the  climate  and  in  the  salubrity  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  even  acclimated  whites  are  afraid  to  remain  when  a  greenish  scum  of  vege- 
table matter  begins  to  appear  on  the  shallow  pools  in  August.  It  is  distressing  to 
record  the  fact,  that,  on  an  average,  six  hundred  Irish  perish  yearly  in  and  about  New 
Orleans,  who  come  in  search  of  employment,  and  high  wages,  (a  dollar  a  day),  from 
New  York  and  Charleston,  to  the  ungenial  clime  of  Louisiana.  They  are  commonly 
employed  trenching  in  the  country,  and  digging  the  foundation  of  houses  in  towns, 
inhale  deadly  vapors,  and  more  deadly  rum,  have  none  to  advise  or  guide  them,  and 
perish  miserably. 

It  may. not  be  intrusive  to  state,  in  this  place,  the  precautions  I  took  to  guard  against 
the  formidable  malady.  I  slept  in  an  upper  story,  performed  my  ablutions  as  regularly 
as  a  Hindoo,  ate  animal  food  only  once  a  day,  and  in  small  quantities,  (farinaceous 
substances  form  the  natural  food  of  men,)  drank  no  spirits,  but  two  or  three  glasses  of 
wine  per  day,  took  three  or  four  hours'  active  exercise,  kept  the  mind  employed,  took 
39  26* 


306  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

from  the  river.  If  by  these,  or  other  means,  it  be  rendered  healthy,  New 
Orleans  will  probably  become  the  largest  city  of  America. 

Newport,  a  seaport  and  semi-metropolis  of  Rhode  Island,  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  south-west  end  of  the  island  of  Rhode  Island,  thirty  miles 

once  or  twice  a  little  precautionary  quinine,  and  avoided  the  night  air,  which  crept 
insidiously  through  the  dull  streets  loaded  with  pestilential  effluvia  from  the  slimy  banks 
of  the  river,  and  from  the  creeks  of  cypress  swamps,  the  haunts  of  loathsome  alliga- 
tors and  snakes. 

On  the  first  of  September,  the  thermometer  at  eight,  P.  M.  was  about  eighty-four  de- 
grees, without  a  breath  of  air,  but  myriads  of  mammoth  musquetoes. 

New  Orleans  is  called  the  l  wet  grave,'  because,  in  digging  '  the  narrow  house,' 
water  rises  within  eighteen  inches  of  the  surface.  Coffins  are  therefore  sunk  three  or 
four  feet,  by  having  holes  bored  in  them,  and  two  black  men  stand  on  them  till  they 
fill  with  water,  and  reach  the  bottom  of  the  moist  tomb.  Some  people  are  particular, 
and  dislike  this  immersion  after  death  ;  and,  therefore,  those  who  can  afford  it  have  a 
sort  of  brick  oven  built  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  at  one  end  of  which  the  coffin  is 
introduced,  and  the  door  hermetically  closed ;  but  the  heat  of  the  southern  sun  on  this 
'  whited  sepulchre,'  must  bake  the  body  inside,  so  that  there  is  but  a  choice  of  disagree- 
ables after  all.  The  plan  on  which  penitentiaries  are  built,  has  suggested  to  the  Louisi- 
anians  a  new  plan  for  interment :  a  broad  brick  wall  is  built  with  rows  of  cells  on  each 
side,  and  in  these  the  dead  are  laid  to  wait  for  the  awful  blast  of  the  angel  Gabriel,  when 
the  dead  shall  burst  the  cerements  of  the  tomb,  and  come  forth  to  judgment. 

Though  it  was  the  season  of  disease  and  death,  yet  the  gamblers  still  continued  to 
reap  their  harvest  in  the  city.  Night  after  night  I  was  kept  awake  by  the  roulette  table 
in  the  neighboring  house  ;  and  it  is  said  that  a  revenue  of  thirty-five  thousand  dollars 
a  year  is  derived  by  the  city  from  licensed  gambling  houses,  which  sum  supports  an 
hospital.  Cock-fighting  is  a  favorite  amusement  with  both  whites  and  colored,  and 
vice  in  every  shape  seems  to  hold  high  carnival  in  this  city  of  the  great  valley.  How- 
ever, let  no  one  judge  of  America  from  New  Orleans,  for  it  is  altogether  sui  generis  ; 
and,  above  all,  let  no  future  traveller  visit  it  in  autumn,  unless  he  wishes  *  to  shake  off 
this  mortal  coil,'  and  save  the  coroner  some  trouble. 

The  population  of  New  Orleans  was — 

In  1802 10,000 

"  1810 17,242 

"  1820 27,176 

"  1831        50,000 

This  increase  is  quite  astonishing,  especially  when  we  consider  that  the  population 
of  the  whole  state  of  Louisiana  under  the  French,  in  1763,  was  only  eleven  thousand. 
The  whites  are  said  to  be  at  present  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  and  the  slaves 
about  one  hundred  and  nineteen  thousand  in  the  state. 

In  1822,  there  were  exported  from  the  port  of  New  Orleans,  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven  thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty-two  bales  of  cotton ;  and  in  this  year,  four 
hundred  and  seventeen  thousand  four  hundred  and  thirteen.  In  1822,  twenty-six  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  thirty-three  hogsheads  of  tobacco  ;  and  in  this  year,  thirty-one 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  thirty-three.  Sugar  and  molasses,  in  1829,  fifty-six  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  sixty-six  hogsheads,  and  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  eleven 
barrels  of  the  former,  and  twenty  thousand  nine  hundred  and  forty  hogsheads,  and 
eight  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty-five  barrels  of  the  latter.  This  season,  fifty-two 
thousand  one  hundred  and  forty-two  hogsheads,  and  two  thousand  six  hundred  and 
fifty  barrels  of  sugar  ;  and  twenty-two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-two  hogs- 
heads, and  fourteen  thousand  seven  hundred  and  ninety-four  barrels  of  molasses. 
Commerce  will  be  facilitated  by  another  canal  from  the  city  to  lake  Pontchartrain,  to 
be  commenced  next  year ;  and  I  travelled  from  the  city  to  the  lake,  four  miles  on  a 
rail-road,  on  which  there  are  now  locomotive  engines.  The  citizens  seem  determined 
to  avoid  the  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  of  river  navigation. 

At  New  Orleans,  in  the  gay  season,  they  have  very  pleasant,  though  expensive 
amusements,  called  '  Bals  de  Bouquet,'  given  by  the  bachelors,  but  at  the  house  of  a 
lady.  The  garcon  who  gives  the  dance,  is  distinguished  by  the  title  of  king  ;  and  his 
first  care,  when  invested  with  the  sovereignty,  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  is  to 
select  among  the  ladies  of  his  acquaintance  a  queen  to  share  his  power,  which  he  aelc 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


307 


eouth  of  Providence.  During  the  summer  months  it  is  a  place  of  fashion- 
able resort,  being  celebrated  for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate.  It  formerly 
possessed  considerable  commerce,  and  contained  more  than  nine  thousand 


Asylum  at  Newport. 

inhabitants ;  but  during  the  revolution,  it  was  a  long  time  occupied  by  the 
enemy,  and  suffered  severely.  The  principal  street  is  a  mile  in  length ; 
the  houses  have  an  antique  appearance.     The  harbor  is  very  safe,  suffi- 

gates  by  crowning  his  fair  partner  with  a  wreath  of  flowers.  At  her  house,  and  in  her 
name,  is  the  ball  then  given.  After  two  or  three  quadrilles,  the  first  queen  rises  from 
her  chair  of  state,  and  is  conducted  into  the  middle  of  the  room  by  the  king,  when 
gracefully  raising  a  wreath  of  flowers,  which  she  bears  in  her  hand,  she  places  it  on 
the  brow  of  a  future  king,  (another  bachelor  of  the  party)  ;  and  he,  after  a  low  obei- 
sance, having  fixed  upon  his  mate  in  like  manner,  adorns  her  with  the  regalia  of  the 
bal  de  bouquet.  The  new  queen  then  accepts  the  proffered  arm  of  the  king,  the  band 
plays  a  march,  and  followed  by  the  rest  of  the  company,  they  polonoise  round  and 
round  the  room.  Dancing  in  its  various  branches  succeeds  ;  quadrilles,  Anglaises 
et  Espagnoles  are  resumed,  with  the  greatest  spirit,  and  continued  until  after  day 
breaks,  when  the  first  king  and  queen  cease  to  reign. 

After  an  unusually  hot  and  sultry  day,  the  sun  assuming  at  the  same  time  a  green- 
ish hue,  and  the  streets  in  the  evening,  as  I  walked  home  to  my  empty  hotel,  sending 
forth  a  most  disgusting  effluvium ;  in  the  middle  of  the  night  I  was  awoke  by  the  noise 
of  the  doors  and  windows  violently  agitated  by  the  wind  ;  it  increased  to  the  hurricane 
roar,  lulled,  and  rose  again,  and  blew  with  appalling  force  from  the  opposite  point  of 
the  compass,  rain,  at  the  same  time,  deluging  the  city.  Thus  it  continued  all  next  day  : 
the  sea  rushed  into  lake  Pontchartrain  ;  behind  the  town  it  burst  its  banks,  and  the  city 
was  under  water,  the  levee  only  being  dry.  There  was  no  moving  out  of  the  house 
for  many  hours,  and  this  led  me  to  believe  that,  one  day  this  city,  rapidly  increasing 
as  it  is  in  wealth  and  consequence,  will  be  swept  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  if  the  Mis- 
sissippi happens  to  rise  unusually  high  at  the  annual  inundation,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  south-east  wind  raise  the  sea  at  its  mouth  and  in  the  lakes.  More  vessels  were 
driven  on  shore  in  this  hurricane  ;  the  unburied  dead  were  laid  in  their  coffins  in  the 
grave-yard,  and  floated  about  till  the  waters  subsided  to  allow  of  their  being  buried — 
the  stench  was  horrible.  Many  houses  were  unroofed,  and  almost  all  damaged  in  some 
way  or  other.  Many  lives  were  lost ;  some  boats  and  canoes  upset  in  crossing  the 
river  ;  and,  as  usual  (whether  it  proceed  from  the  alligators  or  under  current.)  none  who 
fall  into  the  Mississippi  at  New  Orleans,  are  ever  seen  again  ;  and,  lastly,  the  huts  of 
several  fishermen  were  swept  off  to  sea,  and  the  poor  people  miserably  perished.' — 
Alexanders  Transatlantic  Sketches. 


308  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ciently  spacious  for  a  whole  fleet,  and  defended  by  three  forts.  Newport 
was  first  settled  in  1638.  A  large  stone  mill  is  still  standing  here,  which 
was  erected  before  the  date  of  the  earliest  records.  Some  of  the  public 
edifices  are  old  and  interesting.     Population,  eight  thousand  and  ten. 

New  York,  the  largest  and  most  populous  city  in  the  United  States,  lies 
in  the  state  of  that  name,  at  the  head  of  New  York  bay,  about  sixteen 
miles  from  the  Atlantic   ocean.     Manhattan  island,  on  which   the  city 


New  York. 

stands,  and  which  is  formed  by  the  Hudson,  the  Hserlem,  and  East  rivers, 
with  the  bay  on  the  south,  is  fifteen  miles  in  length,  and  from  two  to 
three  in  breadth.  On  the  south-west  point  of  the  island,  overlooking  the 
bay,  is  a  fine  public  promenade,  of  from  five  to  six  hundred  yards  in 
length,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  in  breadth,  prettily  laid  out  in  walks, 
and  planted  with  trees.  In  the  evenings  it  is  generally  crowded  with  citi- 
zens, who  assemble  to  derive  the  benefit  from  a  pleasant  breeze  off  the 
water,  or  listen  to  a  band  that  frequently  plays  in  the  Castle  garden,  which 
is  connected  with  the  walk  by  a  wooden  bridge.  The  former  promenade 
is  called  the  Battery,  from  having,  in  the  olden  times  of  the  Dutch  settlers,  01 
during  the  revolutionary  war,  mounted  a  few  guns ;  and  the  Castle  garden, 
in  a  similar  manner,  possessed  no  garden,  nor  could  it  ever  have  possessed 
one,  being  a  modern  stone  fort,  with  twenty-eight  embrasures,  built  upon 
a  solid  rock,  which  appeared  but  a  short  distance  above  the  water.  This 
being  an  unprofitable  kind  of  investment  of  funds,  has  been  let  by  the  cor- 
poration to  a  publican,  who  has  converted  it  to  a  much  more  profitable  use. 
charging  sixpence  for  admission,  and  giving  a  ticket,  so  that  the  visitoi 
may  enjoy  a  stroll  upon  the  upper  platform  of  the  fort,  admire  the  view, 
and  then  call  for  a  glass  of  liquor  at  the  bar.  The  battery,  nevertheless, 
is  the  most  pleasant  promenade  in  New  York,  and  excels  any  thing  else 
of  the  kind  in  America.  Governor's  island,  about  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  distant  in  the  bay,  has  a  large  stone  circular  fort,  with  three  tiers  or 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  309 

embrasures,  and   is  calculated  for  more  than  one  hundred  guns  at  its 
western  extremity. 


Castle  Garden  and  Battery. 

Of  the  public  buildings  of  New  York,  the  City  Hall,  containing-  the 
supreme  court,  mayor's  court,  and  various  public  offices,  situated  in  the 
park,  a  fine  and  handsome  square,  is  the  most  remarkable ;  and  being 
fronted  with  white  marble,  has  a  beautiful  effect  when  seen  through  the 
trees  in  the  park.  The  building  is  upwards  of  two  hundred  feet  in  length, 
with  a  dome  and  tower  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  justice.  The  Mer- 
chants' Exchange,  in  Wall  street,  is  a  fine  edifice,  of  the  same  material 
as  the  front  of  the  City  Hall.  The  basement  story  is  occupied  by  the 
post-office,  and  above  it  the  Exchange,  eighty-five  feet  in  length,  fifty-five 
in  width,  and  forty-five  in  height  to  the  dome,  from  which  it  is  lighted. 
The  greater  proportion  of  the  other  buildings  in  the  street,  are  insurance 
offices,  banks,  and  exchange  offices. 

'The  churches  in  New  York,'  says  Lieutenant  Coke,  'are  handsomer 
edifices  than  those  in  the  southern  cities  I  visited,  and  contain  some  inte- 
resting monuments.  St.  Paul's,  in  the  park,  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
states.  In  the  interior,  there  is  a  tablet  in  the  chancel  to  Sir  Robert  Tem- 
ple, baronet,  the  first  consul  general  to  the  United  States  from  England, 
who  died  in  the  city ;  and  one  to  the  wife  of  the  British  governor  of  New 
Jersey,  who  died  during  the  revolution,  from  distress  of  mind ;  being  sepa- 
rated from  her  husband  by  the  events  of  the  time.  In  the  yard,  also,  there 
is  a  large  Egyptian  obelisk  of  a  single  block  of  white  marble,  thirty-two 
feet  in  height,  erected  to  Thomas  A.  Emmett,  an  eminent  counsellor  at  law, 


310 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  brother  of  the  Irish  orator  who  suffered  during  the  rebellion.  When 
I  visited  New  York  again,  some  months  afterwards,  one  front  of  it  was 
embellished  with  an  emblematical  representation  of  his  fortunes.     Though 


Merchants'  Exchange. 

it  was  in  an  unfinished  state,  and  the  canvass  had  not  been  removed  from 
before  the  scaffolding,  I  could  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  representation  of  a 
hand,  with  a  wreath  or  bracelet  of  shamrock  round  the  wrist,  clasping 
one  with  a  similar  ornament  of  stars,  and  the  eagle  of  America  sheltering 
the  unstrung  harp  of  Ireland.  Mr.  Emmett  had  emigrated  to  the  states, 
and  settled  in  New  York,  where  he  had  acquired  considerable  reputation 
many  years  previous  to  his  death.  There  is  also  another  monument  near 
it,  under  the  portico  of  the  church,  to  General  Montgomery,  who  fell  in 
the  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Quebec  in  1775.  This  monument  was 
erected  previously  to  the  declaration  of  independence  by  the  congress ; 
and  in  1818,  when  his  remains  were  removed  from  Quebec  to  New  York, 
and  interred  at  St.  Paul's,  another  tablet  was  added,  recording  the  event ; 
though  at  the  time,  great  doubts  were  entertained  whether  they  actually 
were  the  general's  remains  which  were  exhumed.  The  matter  was,  how- 
ever, subsequently  set  at  rest  beyond  a  doubt,  by  the  publication  of  a  cer- 
tificate drawn  up  by  the  person  who  had  actually  buried  the  general  in  the 
first  instance,  and  who  was  then  living  in  Quebec,  at  a  very  advanced  age, 
being  the  only  survivor  of  the  army  which  served  under  Wolfe. 

'There  is  a  very  handsome  monument,  near  the  centre  of  the  church- 
yard, erected  by  Kean,  of  Drury  Lane  theatre,  to  Cooke,  the  actor.     Trini- 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  311 

ty  church,  which  is  also  in  Broadway,  was  the  oldest  in  the  city,  having 
been  originally  built  in  1696,  but  destroyed  by  fire  eighty  years  after- 
wards, although  from  the  circumstance  of  a  monument  in  the  church-yard, 
of  1691,  it  appears  it  was  used  as  a  burial-ground  some  time  previously. 
Though  not  containing  much  above  an  acre  of  ground,  by  a  moderate  cal- 
culation, not  fewer  than  two  hundred  thousand  bodies  have  been  buried  in 
it.  Of  late  years  there  have  been  no  burials,  and  weeping  willows  with 
various  trees  have  been  planted,  which  in  time  will  make  it  ornamental 
to  the  city.  In  one  corner  are  the  ruins  of  a  monument,  erected  but  six- 
teen years  since  to  Captain  Lawrence,  of  the  American  navy,  who  fell  de- 
fending his  ship,  the  Chesapeak,  against  Sir  P.  Broke,  in  the  Shannon. 
His  body  was  taken  to  Halifax,  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  buried  there  with  all 
the  honors  of  war,  the  pall  being  the  American  ensign  supported  by  six  of 
the  senior  captains  in  the  royal  navy,  then  in  the  harbor.  But  the  Ameri- 
cans immediately  after  sent  a  vessel  with  a  flag  of  truce  to  apply  for  the 
removal  of  the  body,  which  being  granted,  it  was  re-buried  in  Trinity 
church-yard,  and  the  present  monument,  no  lasting  memorial  of  his  coun- 
try's grief,  erected  upon  the  spot.  It  is  a  most  shabby  economical  struc- 
ture, built  of  brick,  and  faced  with  white  marble.  The  column,  of  the 
Corinthian  order,  is  broken  short,  with  part  of  the  capital  lying  at  the  base 
of  the  pedestal,  emblematic  of  his  premature  death.  Owing  to  the  sum- 
mit being  exposed  to  the  weather,  the  rain  has  gained  admittance  into  the 
interior  of  the  brick  work,  and  has  given  the  column  a  considerable  incli- 
nation to  one  side.  Some  of  the  marble  front  also,  with  two  sides  of  that 
of  the  pedestal,  have  fallen  down  tmd  exposed  the  shabby  interior.  Sure- 
ly, such  a  man  deserved  a  monument  of  more  durable  materials.'^ 

*■  That  the  Americans,  however,  were  not  unmindful  of  the  respect  paid  to  his 
remains  by  the  British,  appears  from  the  following  part  of  the  inscription  upon  the 
monument : 

'  His  bravery  in  action 

"Was  only  equalled  by  his  modesty  in  triumph, 

And  his  magnanimity  to  the  vanquished. 

In  private  life 

He  was  a  gentleman  of  the  most  generous  and  endearing  qualities  ; 

And  so  acknowledged  was  his  public  worth, 

That  the  whole  nation  mourned  his  loss, 

And  the  enemy  contended  with  his  countrymen 

Who  most  should  honor  his  remains.' 

There  is  a  monument  near  it  to  the  memory  of  General  Hamilton,  who  had  served 
with  distinction  under  "Washington,  and  ranked  high  as  a  statesman.  He  was  killed 
in  a  duel  by  Colonel  Burr,  the  vice  president  of  the  United  States,  who  is  yet  living  in 
New  York.    The  inscription  is  as  follows  : 

To  the  memory  of  Alexander  Hamilton 
The  corporation  of  Trinity  church 

Have  erected  this  monument, 

In  testimony  of  their  respect  for 

The  patriot  of  incorruptible  integrity, 

The  soldier  of  approved  valor, 

The  statesman  of  consummate  wisdom  j 

Whose  talents  and  whose  virtues 

Will  be  admired  by  a  grateful  posterity 

Long  after  this  marble  shall  have  mouldered  into  dust. 

He  died  July  2d,  1804,  aged  forty-seven.— Subaltern's  Furlough, 


312 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Among  the  most  splendid  public  buildings  is  the  Masonic  hall,  a  Gothic 
edifice,  in  Broadway,  fifty  feet  wide,  and  seventy  feet  high  ;  it  is  composed 
of  the  eastern  gray  granite.     Of  collegiate  institutions,  Columbia  college 


Masonic  Hall. 

is  the  oldest  in  New  York.  It  is  finely  situated  on  a  square  ornamented 
with  majestic  trees ;  and  the  standard  of  classical  education  here  is  very 
high.  This  institution  possesses  an  estate  valued  at  four  hundred  thou 
eand  dollars.  In  1831,  the  University  of  New  York  was  chartered ;  it  is 
projected  on  the  broad  and  liberal  plan  of  the  continental  universities,  and 
promises  to  be  of  great  utility.  Schools  of  all  kinds  are  numerous ;  bible 
and  missionary .  societies  are  numerous  and  well  endowed.  Literary  and 
scientific  institutions  flourish.  The  most  ancient  of  these  is  the  Society 
Library,  founded  in  1754,  and  containing  upwards  of  twenty-three  thou- 
sand volumes.  The  Historical  society  was  incorporated  in  1809,  and  has 
collected  a  vast  number  of  important  documents  in  relation  to  the  country 
in  general,  and  particularly  to  New  York.  The  Lyceum  for  Natural 
History,  the  Clinton  Hall  association,  and  the  Mercantile  Library  associa- 
tion, are  flourishing  and  useful  institutions. 

The  Academy  of  Arts  was  chartered  in  1808.  It  has  two  exhibitions 
annually.  The  library  consists  of  books  of  views,  designs  and  drawings, 
relating  chiefly  to  antique  subjects.  Among  the  presidents  of  this  institu- 
tion have  been  Edward  Livingston,  De  Witt  Clinton,  and  John  Trumbull. 
The  National  Academy  was  founded  in  1826,  and,  with  a  few  exceptions, 


K)LITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  313 

is  altogether  composed  of  artists.  Of  the  dramatic  entertainments  of  the 
city,  we  can  say  but  little.  The  Park  theatre  is  the  place  of  most  fashion- 
able resort ;  it  is  a  spacious  edifice,  adjoining  the  park.  It  is  eighty  feet 
long,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet  deep.  The  Bowery  theatre  is 
well  attended.     An  opera  house  has  been  recently  built. 

The  number  of  insurance  offices  in  this  city  is  upwards  of  forty.  In 
1827,  the  total  of  banking  capital  amounted  to  about  sixteen  millions  of 
dollars.  Several  new  banks  have  been  since  chartered,  and  this  amount 
has  been  much  increased.  For  its  advantage  of  inland  and  external  com- 
merce, no  city  in  the  United  States  can  be  compared  with  New  York. 
The  number  of  vessels  that  arrived  here  from  foreign  parts  during  the» 
first  eight  months  of  the  year  1833,  was  thirteen  hundred  and  forty-five  , 
and  the  number  of  passengers  was  over  thirty-two  thousand.  In  1832, 
the  number  of  arrivals  from  foreign  parts  during  the  whole  year,  was  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  ten;  in  1829,  it  was  thirteen  hundred  and 
four,  being  forty-one  less  in  the  whole  year  than  during  the  first  eight 
months  of  1833. 

The  population  of  New  York  in  1697,  was  four  thousand  three  hundred 
and  two ;  in  1756,  thirteen  thousand  and  forty  ;  in  1790,  thirty-three  thou- 
sand and  thirty-one  ;  in  1800,  sixty  thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine  ;  in  1810,  ninety-six  thousand  three  hundred  and  seventy-three  ;  in 
1820,  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  thousand  seven  hundred  and  six;  in 
1825,  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand  and  eighty-six  ;  and  in  1830, 
two  hundred  and  seven  thousand  and  twenty-one.  It  is  now  estimated  at 
about  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand. 

Norfolk,  the  commercial  capital  of  Virginia,  is  situated  on  the  east  side 
of  Elizabeth  river,  immediately  below  the  junction  of  its  two  main  branch- 
es, and  eight  miles  above  Hampton  roads.  The  town  lies  low,  and  is 
in  some  places  marshy,  though  the  principal  streets  are  well  paved. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  a  theatre,  three  banks,  an  academy,  ma- 
rine hospital,  athenaeum,  and  six  churches.  The  harbor,  which  is  capacious 
and  safe,  is  defended  by  several  forts.  One  is  on  Craney  island,  near  the 
mouth  of  Elizabeth  river.  There  are  also  fortifications  at  Hampton  roads  ; 
the  principal  of  which,  Fort  Calhoun,  is  not  yet  completed.  Population, 
ten  thousand. 

Northampton  is  a  post  and  shire  town  of  Hampshire  county,  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  west  bank  of  Connecticut  river,  and  ninety-five  miles  from 
Boston.  Its  population  in  1830,  was  three  thousand  six  hundred  and 
thirteen.  It  is  built  chiefly  on  two  broad  streets,  in  which  are  situated  the 
churches  and  county  buildings.  This  town  is  very  beautiful,  consisting  of 
a  number  of  villas  of  various  sizes,  and  of  pleasing,  though  irregular  archi- 
tecture, seeming  to  vie  with  each  other  in  the  taste  and  elegance  of  their 
external  decorations.  There  is  primitive  white  limestone  in  the  vicinity, 
and  much  of  the  pavement  and  steps  are  of  white  marble.  The  trees  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  town  are  single  spreading  trees,  principally  elms, 
and  of  considerable  age ;  the  roads  are  wide,  and  the  footpaths  are  excel- 
lent everywhere.  Northampton  is  surrounded  by  rising  grounds  ;  but 
mount  Holyoke,  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Connecticut  river,  is 
the  hill  which  all  strangers  ascend,  for  the  sake  of  the  extensive  and  beau- 
tiful prospect  from  its  summit.  The  valley  that  lies  at  its  base,  contains 
the  most  extensive  and  beautiful  plain  in  New  England,  well  cultivated 
40  27 


814  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  populous.  The  spires  of  thirty  churches  are  seen  from  the  top  of 
mount  Holyoke,  and  in  a  clear  day  the  hills  of  New  Haven  are  distinctly 
visible.  Round  Hill  school,  in  this  town,  is  an  institution  of  some  note,  some- 
what on  the  plan  of  a  German  gymnasium.  There  are  two  banks  here, 
Woolen  manufactories,  an  insurance  office,  and  a  printing  office  ;  the 
public  houses  are  good,  and  the  town  is  somewhat  a  place  of  summer 
resort. 

Norwich,  a  city  of  New  London  county,  Connecticut,  situated  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  Thames  river,  contains  three  compact  settlements ; 
of  which  Chelsea  Landing,  situate  at  the  point  of  land  between  the  She- 
tucket  and  Yantic  rivers,  is  the  principal.  Its  location  is  peculiarly  roman- 
tic ;  and  it  is  a  place  of  much  enterprise  and  business.  What  is  called 
the  town  is  two  miles  north-west  of  Chelsea,  containing  the  court  house, 
and  some  other  public  buildings ;  and  the  third  settlement  is  Bean  Hill,  in 
the  western  part  of  Norwich.  The  city  contains  a  bank,  four  or  five 
churches,  and  several  manufacturing  establishments.  The  Yantic  falls, 
one  mile  from  Chelsea,  are  beautiful,  and  afford  facilities  for  mills  and 
manufactories.  From  a  rock  seventy  or  eighty  feet  in  height,  which  over- 
hangs the  stream,  tradition  says  a  number  of  Narragansetts  once  precipi- 
tated themselves  when  pursued  by  the  Mohegans. 

On  an  elevated  bank,  north  of  what  is  called  the  cove,  and  near  the 
Yantic  falls,  is  the  burying-ground  of  the  royal  family  of  the  Mohegans, 
commonly  called  'the  burying-ground  of  the  Uncasses.'  Many  of  their 
graves  are  still  designated  by  coarse  stones  ;  on  some  of  which  are  English 
inscriptions.  Uncas  was  buried  here,  and  many  of  his  descendants  ;  but 
his  family  is  now  nearly  extinct.  There  are  one  or  two  living  who  claim 
a  kindred,  but  who  have  very  little  of  the  magnanimity  or  valor  for  which 
he  was  so  conspicuous.  Population  of  Norwich,  about  five  thousand  two 
hundred. 

Pawtucket,  a  town  of  Bristol  county,  Massachusetts,  four  miles  north-east 
of  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  It  is  finely  situated  on  the  falls  of  Paw- 
tucket  river,  near  the  Blackstone  canal,  and  is  one  of  the  most  extensive 
manufacturing  places  in  the  union.  It  contains  numerous  cotton  factories, 
and  shops  for  machinery,  and  other  purposes.  Population,  one  thousand 
four  hundred  and  fifty-eight. 

Pensacola,  the  capital  of  West  Florida,  and  naval  station  of  the  United 
States,  is  situated  on  the  north-west  shore  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name. 
It  was  founded  by  a  Spanish  officer  in  1699,  and  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
parallelogram,  nearly  a  mile  in  length.  The  harbor  is  safe  and  commo- 
dious, and  the  anchorage  is  good,  though  toward  shore  the  water  is  gene- 
rally shallow.  It  is  regarded  as  a  comparatively  healthy  place.  Popula- 
tion, about  two  thousand. 

Petersburg,  a  borough  and  port  of  entry,  in  Dinwiddie  county,  Virginia, 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Appomatox.  The  river  is  navigable  to  this  point 
for  vessels  of  one  hundred  tons.  In  1815,  three  hundred  buildings  were 
destroyed  by  fire.  It  has  since  been  rebuilt  of  brick,  and  the  new  houses 
are  generally  three  stories  in  height ;  it  is  of  the  first  class  of  towns  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  presents  an  appearance  of  enterprise  and  wealth.  Population, 
eight  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty-two. 

Philadelphia,  the  second  city  in  size  and  population  in  the  United  States, 
is  situated  in  a  county  of  the  same  name,  five  miles  above  the  junction  of 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  315 

the  Schuylkill  and  Delaware  rivers,  and,  by  the  course  of  the  river,  about 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  distant  from  the  Atlantic  ocean.  It  was 
founded  by  William  Penn,  in  1682,  and  was  originally  laid  out  in  the 
shape  of  a  parallelogram,  two  miles  in  length  by  one  in  breadth.  The 
city  now  extends  from  the  lower  part  of  South wark  to  the  upper  part 
of  Kensington,  about  four  miles,  and  from  one  river  to  the  other.  For 
municipal  purposes,  the  legislature  has,  from  time  to  time,  established  cor- 
porate governments  in  different  parts  of  the  suburbs,  so  that  Philadelphia 
is  divided  into  Uie  following  districts :  the  corporations  of  the  city  of  Phi- 
ladelphia,  of  the  Northern  Liberties,  Kensington,  Spring  Garden,  South- 
wark,  and  Moyamensing.  The  municipal  government  of  the  city  proper  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  a  recorder,  fifteen  aldermen,  and  a  select  and  common 
council,  besides  subordinate  executive  officers. 

'  Philadelphia,  the  reverse  of  Lisbon,'  says  a  recent  English  traveller, 
1  at  first  presents  no  beauties  ;  no  domes  or  turrets  rise  in  the  air  to  break 
the  uniform  stiff  roof-line  of  the  private  dwellings ;  and,  if  I  remember 
right,  the  only  buildings  which  show  their  lofty  heads  above  the  rest,  are 
the  state  house,  Christ  church,  (both  built  prior  to  the  revolution,)  a  pres- 
byterian  meeting-house,  and  a  shot  tower.  The  city,  therefore,  when 
viewed  from  the  water,  and  at  a  distance,  presents  any  thing  but  a  pictu- 
resque appearance.  It  is  somewhat  singular,  too,  that  there  should  be  such. 
a  scarcity  of  spires,  and  conspicuous  buildings,  there  being  no  fewer  than 
ninety  places  of  worship,  besides  hospitals,  and  charitable  institutions  in 
great  numbers.  In  place,  too,  of  noble  piers  and  quays  of  solid  masonry, 
which  we  might  reasonably  expect  to  find  in  a  city  containing  near  one 
hundred  and  forty-thousand  inhabitants,  and  holding  the  second  rank  in 
commercial  importance  in  North  America,  there  are  but  some  shabby 
wharves  and  piers  of  rough  piles  of  timber,  jutting  out  in  unequal  lengths 
and  shapes,  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  river  front ;  and  these,  again, 
are  backed  by  large  piles  of  wooden  warehouses,  and  mean-looking  stores. 
On  the  narrow  space  between  them  and  the  water,  are  hundreds  of  negro 
porters,  working  at  vast  heaps  of  iron  bars,  barrels  of  flour,  cotton  bags, 
and  all  the  various,  merchandise  imported  or  exported,  singing,  in  their 
strange  broken  English  tone  of  voice,  some  absurd  chorus. 

'  Fifty  paces  hence,  the  stranger  enters  the  city,  which  possesses  an  inte- 
rior almost  unrivalled  in  the  world.  On  walking  through  the  fine  broad 
streets,  with  rows  of  locust  or  other  trees,  which,  planted  on  the  edge  of 
the  causeway,  form  a  most  delightful  shade,  and  take  away  the  glare  of 
the  brick  buildings,  he  is  struck  immediately  with  the  air  of  simplicity,  yet 
strength  and  durability  which  all  the  public  edifices  possess,  while  the  pri- 
vate dwellings,  with  their  neat  white  marble  steps  and  window  sills, 
bespeak  wealth  and  respectability.  The  neatness  too,  of  the  dress  of  every 
individual,  with  the  total  absence  of  those  lazy  and  dirty  vagabonds  who 
ever  infest  our  towns,  and  loiter  about  the  corners  of  all  the  public  streets, 
passing  insolent  remarks  upon  every  well-dressed  man,  or  even  unattended 
female,  impress  a  foreigner  with  a  most  pleasing  and  favorable  idea  of  an 
American  city. 

'  The  river  in  front  of  the  town  is  about  a  mile  wide,  but  the  channel  is 
considerably  contracted  by  an  island,  which  extends  nearly  the  full  length 
of  the  town,  and,  consequently  renders  the  navigation  more  intricate.  It 
is  prettily  planted  with  trees,  and  a  ship  has  been  run  ashore  at  one  end, 


316 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  converted  into  a  tavern,  a  house  being  raised  upon  the  upper  deck. 
It  was  quite  a  gala  day,  numerous  steam  vessels  and  rowing  boats  proceed- 
ing up  the  stream  to  Kensington  (part  of  the  suburbs,)  and  we  arrived  just 
in  time  to  see  a  large  ship,  of  six  hundred  tons  burthen,  glide  gracefully 
from  the  stocks. 

1 1  now  commenced  visiting  all  the  public  institutions.  Of  charitable 
societies  the  number  is  amazing ;  probably  no  city  in  the  world,  of  the 
same  population,  possesses  an  equal  number.  It  may  be  truly  said,  that  it 
deserves  its  name  of  "  Philadelphia  ;"  there  are  upwards  *>f  thirty  humane 
institutions  and  societies  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  orphans,  besides 
above  one  hundred  and  fifty  mutual  benefit  societies,  on  the  principle  of 
the  English  clubs;  being  associations  of  tradesmen  and  artisans  for  the  sup- 
port of  each  other  in  sickness,  each  member  contributing  monthly  or  week- 
ly a  small  sum  to  the  general  fund.  Of  the  public  institutions,  the  "  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital"  is  on  the  most  extensive  scale.  It  is  situated  in  a  cen- 
tral part  of  the  city,  near  Washington  square,  and  was  founded  eighty-two 
years  since,  Benjamin  Franklin  being  its  greatest  promoter.  It  contains 
an  excellent  library  of  about  seven  thousand  volumes  ;  and  it  is  calculated 
that  about  fourteen  hundred  patients  are  annually  admitted  into  it,  of  which 
number  three  fifths  are  paupers;  the  remainder  paying  for  the  advantages 
they  derive  from  the  institution.  The  building  occupies  an  immense 
extent  of  ground,  and  on  three  sides  of  it  an  open  space  is  left  for  a  free  cir- 
culation of  air;  the  west  end  of  the  building  is  a  ward  for  insane  patients, 
of  whom  there  are  generally  more  than  one  hundred.  The  necessary 
funds  for  the  support  of  the  hospital  are  derived  from  the  interest  of  its 
capital  stock,  and  from  the  exhibition  of  West's  splendid  painting  of  Christ 


Deaf  and  Dumb  Asylum. 

healing  the  sick,  which  produces  about  five  hundred  dollars  per  annum, 
and  is  exhibited  in  a  building  on  the  northern  side  of  the  hospital  square.' 
The  United  States  bank  is  a  splendid  edifice,  built  on  the  plan  of  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens.  Its  length  is  one  hundred  and  sixty-one,  and  its 
oreadth  eighty-seven  feet.     The  main  entrance  is  from  Chesnut  street,  by 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


317 


a  flight  of  six  marble  steps,  extending  along  the  whole  front  of  the  portico, 
which  is  supported  by  fluted  columns  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter.  In 
the  centre  of  the  building  is  the  banking  room,  which  is  eighty-one  feet 
long,  and  forty-eight  feet  wide.  The  whole  body  of  the  edifice  is  arched 
in  a  bomb-proof  manner,  from  the  cellar  to  'the  roof,  which  is  covered  with 
copper.  The  New  Bank  of  Pennsylvania  is  an  extensive  and  elegant  edi- 
fice of  marble  of  the  Ionic  order,  and  constructed  after  the  model  of  the 
ancient  temple  of  the  Muses,  on  the  Ilyssus.  There  are  at  present  six- 
teen banking  houses  within  the  city  and  the  incorporated  districts,  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  twenty  millions  of  dollars. 

The  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
edifices  in  the  city.  The  association  was  established  in  April,  1820,  and 
was  incorporated  in  the  following  year.  Philadelphia  now  contains  about 
one  hundred  churches,  few  of  which  are  distinguished  for  size,  extent,  or 
architectural  beauty. 

The  state  house,  in  which  the  continental  congress  sat,  and  from  whence 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  issued,  is  still  standing.  It  is  located  in 
Chesnut  street,  is  built  of  brick,  comprising  a  centre  and  two  wings,  and 
has  undergone  no  material  alteration  since  its  first  erection.  It  has  a  vene- 
rable appearance,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  cupola,  having  a  clock,  the  dial 
of  which  is  glass,  and  is  illuminated  at  night  until  ten  or  eleven  o'clock, 
showing  the  hour  and  minutes  until  that  time.  The  front  is  a  considera- 
ble distance  back  from  the  street,  the  walk  being  paved  to  the  curb-stone 
with  brick,  and  two  elegant  rows  of  trees  extending  its  whole  length. 
East  of  the  main  entrance,  in  the  front  room,  the  sessions  of  congress  were 
held,  and  the  question  of  independence  decided. 

The  arcade  contains  Peale's  museum,  one  of  the  best  in  the  United 
States,  comprising  the  most  complete  skeleton  of  the  mammoth  perhaps  in 
the  world.  It  is  perfect,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  bones,  which  have 
been  supplied  by  imitating  the  others.  This  skeleton  was  found  in  Ulster 
county,  New  York. 


Academy  of  Arts. 

The  Academy  of  Arts,  in  Chesnut  street,  contains  a  large  number  of 
paintings,  several  of  which  are  the  property  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.     Among 


27* 


318 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


these  is  one  executed  by  David,  representing  Napoleon  crossing  the  Alps, 
Another  is  a  full-length  portrait  of  Joseph  himself,  as  king  of  Spain. 

It  is  to  Franklin  that  the  city  is  indebted  for  its  great  library,  which 
now  numbers  about  thirty-five  thousand  volumes.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1742,  and  in  1790,  the  present  neat  edifice  was  erected  on  the  east  side  of 


Franklin  Institute. 

Fifth  street,  opposite  the  state  house  square.  The  Athenceum  is  a  valua- 
ble institution,  established  in  1814 ;  it  has  a  collection  of  about  five  thou- 
sand five  hundred  volumes,  and  more  than  seventy  newspapers  and  period- 
ical journals  are  regularly  received  in  its  reading  room.  The  Philosophi- 
cal society  has  a  collection  of  six  thousand,  and  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  a  collection  of  five  thousand  volumes.  The  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania is  distinguished  for  its  medical  school,  which  is  attended  by  a  class 
of  from  four  to  five  hundred.  The  United  States  Mint  was  established  in 
1791,  and  by  successive  acts  of  congress  has  been  continued  at  Philadel- 
phia. In  1829,  a  new  building  for  the  mint  was  commenced  in  Chesnut 
street ;  it  has  but  recently  been  completed.  It  is  of  the  Ionic  order,  and 
modelled  after  a  celebrated  Grecian  temple.* 


*  The  new  Mint  appears  to  be  a  favorite  place  of  resort  for  the  curious  among  oui 
fellow  citizens.  Visitors  pass  in  by  the  Chesnut  street  front  at  all  hours  of  the  morn 
ing,  and  are  at  once  ushered  into  a  beautiful  and  capacious  building,  well  adapted  for 
the  important  purposes  for  which  it  was  erected.  When  we  look  round  its  ample 
dimensions,  we  wonder  how  it  was  possible  to  accommodate  so  extensive  a  business  as 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


319 


Of  the  public  works  of  Philadelphia,  there  is  none  of  which  its  inhabi- 
tants are  most  justly  proud  than  those  at  Fair  Mount,  by  which  the  city  is 
supplied  with  water  of  the  best  quality,  in  the  greatest  plenty.  Fair 
Mount  is  in  the  rear  of  the  city  upon  the  bank  of  the  Schuylkill.  The  reser- 


Fair  Mount  Water-Works. 

voirs  are  situated  on  the  top  of  a  hill  rising  from  the  river,  a  part  of  it 
perpendicular  rock,  upwards  of  one  hundred  feet.  They  contain  upwards 
of  twelve  millions  of  gallons,  supplying  the  city  through  between  fifteen 
and  twenty  miles  of  pipes.  The  water  was  formerly  forced  to  the  reser- 
voirs by  steam,  which  is  no  longer  used  ;  it  is  now  raised  by  machinery 
propelled  by  the  Schuylkill.     The  machinery  is  simple,  and  is  turned  by 


was  done  in  the  miserably  confined  apartments  of  the  old  coining  house  in  Seventh 
street,  and  fail  not,  at  the  same  time,  to  admire  the  neat  and  simple  beauty  of  the  pre- 
sent building.  The  first  object  which  attracts  attention  on  entering,  is  a  huge  steam 
engine,  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  building,  the  noise  of  which,  added  to  the  incessant 
jarring  of  the  dies,  gives  token  of  the  laborious  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied.  This 
engine,  of  thirty  horse  power,  is  the  most  highly-finished  specimen  of  the  steam  engine 
we  have  ever  witnessed.  The  shafts,  upright  and  horizontal,  are  of  polished  metal, 
and  most  of  the  cogwheels  are  of  brass.  The  huge  fly-wheels  run  with  the  precision 
of  a  watch-wheel,  while  the  various  and  totally  different  purposes  to  which  its  power 
is  applied,  strike  the  beholder  with  admiration  of  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  machi- 
nist. Rush  and  Muhlenburg,  of  this  city,  constructed  this  engine ;  its  cost  was  about 
eight  thousand  dollars. . 

From  the  hot  rooms  in  which  the  bullion  is  converted  into  ingots,  we  entered  the 
rooms  where  the  ingots  ■  are  passed  through  a  succession  of  steel  rollers,  until  they 
assume  the  flatness  and  thinness  of  a  common  iron  hoop.  Thence  we  ascended  into  a 
room  where  these  thin  bars  are  passed  through  a  steel  guage,  to  give  them  a  uni- 
form thickness,  equal  to  that  of  the  half-dollar.  A  punch,  worked  by  the  same  engine, 
cuts  out  the  silver  of  a  proper  size  ;  the  scraps  of  silver  are  melted  over  again  into 
ingots.  From  this  room  the  prepared  bits  are  taken  down  into  the  die  room,  where 
they  are  passed  on  their  edges,  through  a  machine  which  giv^es  them  the,  impression 
they  bear  upon  the  edge.  They  are  thence  handed  over  to  the  coiners,  by  whom  they 
are  placed  in  a  tube;  in  a  pile  a  foot  high,  whence  they  drop  one  at  a  time,  on  a  slide 
which  conveys  them  directly  to  the  dies.  Here  they  receive  the  proper  impression  en 
each  side,  from  dies  forced  together  by  means  of  an  iron  bar  ten  or  twelve  feet  long, 
worked  horizontally  by  three  men.    The  instant  the  coin  receives  its  proper  impression, 


320 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


large  water  wheels,  whose  speed  may  be  graduated  to  any  required  num- 
ber of  revolutions  per  minute ;  if  all  are  in  motion,  they  will  raise  seven 
millions  of  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours.  To  turn  them,  the  Schuylkill 
has  been  dammed  its  whole  breadth,  by  which  the  water  is  thrown  back 
into  a  reservoir  lock,  whence  it  is  admitted  as  required  to  operate  upon  the 
wheels,  and  is  discharged  into  the  river  below  the  dam.  The  whole  ex- 
pense of  these  works,  including  estimated  cost  of  works  abandoned,  was 
one  million  seven  hundred  and  eighty-th*ee  thousand.  The  quantity  of 
water  which  they  disseminate  through  the  city,  is  not  only  sufficient  for 
every  family,  but  is  used  to  wash  the  streets.  It  is  of  immewse  service  in 
case  of  fire,  as  it  is  only  necessary  to  screw  the  hose  to  hydrants,  which 
are  placed  at  convenient  distances,  to  secure  a  constant  stream  of  sufficient 
force  to  reach  an  ordinary  height. 

There  are  three  prisons  in  Philadelphia,  one  in  Walnut  street,  a  second 
in,  Arch  street,  and  the  Eastern  Penitentiary.  The  latter  is  situated  on 
high  ground  near  the  city,  and  is  designed  to  carry  the  principle  of  solitary 


Eastern  Penitentiary. 

confinement  into  effect.  The  system  pursued  here  will  be  fully  explained 
in  a  different  portion  of  the  volume.  Ten  acres  are  occupied  by  the  estab- 
lishment, inclosed  by  massive  walls  of  granite,  thirty-five  feet  high,  with 
towers  and  battlements. 

There  are  two  bridges  across  the  Schuylkill,  both  of  which  are  substan- 
tial and  elegant  structures.     The  Fair  Mount  bridge  consists  of  a  single 

it  is  forced  off  the  die  into  a  box  ready  to  receive  it,  and  gives  place  to  another,  which 
immediately  occupies  the  same  position,  and  undergoes  the  same  operation. 

After  having  gone  through  the  whole  establishment,  the  impression  left  upon  the 
mind  is  that  of  astonishment  and  wonder,  that  an  end  of  such  immense  importance  as 
the  supply  of  coin  for  a  whole  nation,  can  be  attained  by  means,  apparently,  so  simple, 
and  of  sueh,ready  comprehension.  The  spectator,  going  through  alone,  needs  no  one 
to  explain  this  or  that  operation.  Everything  explains  itself  on  the  instant ;  for  every 
thing  is  free  from  mystery  or  concealment,  while  the  excellent  condition  of  the  estab- 
lishment, and  the  extreme  politeness  to  strangers,  manifested  by  every  person  about  it, 
materially  enhances  the  pleasure  of  a  visit  to  the  Mint  of  the  United  States. — Philadel- 
phia paper. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


321 


arch,  of  three  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  length.  The  whole  length  of  that 
on  Market  street,  is  one  thousand  three  hundred  feet,  including  abutments 
and  wing  walls. 


Upper  Ferry  Bridge. 

The  public  markets  form  a  very  striking  feature  of  the  city.  One  is 
nearly  two  thirds  of  a  mile  in  extent.  The  harbor  of  Philadelphia  pos- 
sesses many  natural  advantages,  though  it  is  more  liable  to  be  impeded  by 
ice  than  either  that  of  New  York  or  Baltimore.  The  Delaware  is  not 
navigable  for  the  first  class  of  ships  of  the  line.  For  the  amount  of  its 
commerce,  Philadelphia  is  the  fourth  city  in  the  United  States. 

By  the  will  of  the  late  Stephen  Girard,  Philadelphia  received  large  be- 
quests of  land  and  money,  to  be  appropriated  to  purposes  of  public  improve- 
ment. To  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  he  gave  thirty  thousand  dollars ;  to 
the  city,  for  city  improvements,  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  ;  for  a  col- 
lege for  poor  white  male  children,  and  its  endowments,  two  millions.  He 
made  further  donations  to  the  city  of  unimproved  lands  in  the  western  ter- 
ritories, and  stock  in  the  Schuylkill  navigation  company,  valued  at  the  sum 
of  six  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

By  the  census  of  1810,  the  population  of  Philadelphia  was  ninety-six 
thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty-four ;  in  1830,  it  was  one  hundred  and 
sixty-seven  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eleven. 

Pittsburg,  a  city  and  capital  of  Alleghany  county,  Pennsylvania,  two 
hundred  and  ninety-seven  miles  west  by  north  of  Philadelphia,  is  situated 
on  a  beautiful  plain  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela 
rivers.  It  is  built  on  the  old  site  of  the  famous  fort  Du  Quesne,  whose 
ruins  are  still  seen  in  the  neighborhood.  The  situation  of  Pittsburg 
is  as  advantageous  as  can  well  be  imagined;  it  is  the  key  to  the  west- 
ern country,  and,  excepting  New  Orleans  and  Cincinnati,  is  the  first  town 
of  the  whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  It  was  created  a  city  by  the  legis- 
lature of  Pennsylvania,  at  the  session  of  1816.  The  principal  cause 
which  has  contributed,  after  its  fine  position,  to  ensure  the  prosperity  of 
Pittsburg,  is  the  exhaustless  mass  of  mineral  coal  that  exists  in  its  neigh- 
41 


322  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

borhood.  The  beds  are  340  feet  above  low  water  level,  and  about  two 
hundred  and  ninety  above  the  level  of  the  town.  The  great  abundance  of 
this  valuable  material  has  converted  Pittsburg  into  a  vast  workshop,  and 
a  warehouse  for  the  immense  country  below,  upon  the  Ohio  and  the  other 
large  rivers  of  the  valley.  According  to  a  list  recently  published  in  one 
of  the  Pittsburg  papers,  there  are  in  operation  in  that  city,  and  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity,  eighty-nine  steam  engines,  on  which  there  are  two  thousand 
one  hundred  and  eleven  hands  employed,  and  coal  consumed  to  the 
amount  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  bush- 
els per  month.  The  great  use  of  this  coal  has  given  a  general  dinginess 
of  appearance  to  the  town,  arising  from  the  smoke.  The  inhabitants  of 
Pittsburg  present  specimens  of  almost  every  nation  ;  they  are  distinguished 
for  economy  and  industry.  The  Western  university  was  established  here 
in  1820.  Among  the  buildings  are  three  or  four  banks,  a  small  theatre,  a 
public  library,  and  houses  of  worship  for  various  sects.  Population,  twelve 
thousand  five  hundred  and  forty-two. 

Pittsfield,  a  town  of  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  situated  on  a  hill 
at  the  junction  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  Housatonic  river.  It  con- 
tains a  bank,  an  academy,  a  medical  institution,  and  several  extensive 
manufactories,  among  which  is  one  of  muskets,  where  arms  have  been 
frequently  made  for  the  United  States.  Population,  three  thousand  five 
hundred  and  seventy. 

Plattsburg,  capital  of  Clinton  county,  New  York,  situated  on  a  fine  bay 
on  the  west  side  of  lake  Champlain,  is  handsomely  laid  out  and  contains 
a  bank  and  several  manufactories.  It  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  the 
late  war  with  Great  Britain.     Population,  about  five  thousand. 

Plymouth,  a  port  of  entry  and  shire  town  of  Plymouth  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, is  the  oldest  town  in  New  England,  having  been  settled  by  the 
pilgrims  who  landed  from  the  Mayflower,  December  22d,  1620.  It  stands 
on  a  fine  harbor  of  the  same  name,  thirty-six  miles  south-east  of  Boston. 
Though  often  divided,  the  township  is  still  sixteen  miles  long,  and  five 
broad.  The  Indian  name  was  Accomack.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable 
commerce,  and  contains  some  manufacturing  establishments.  The  har- 
bor is  large,  but  shallow,  and  in  1832  an  appropriation  was  made  by  go- 
vernment to  repair  it.  One  of  the  principal  buildings  is  Pilgrim's  hall, 
which  was  erected  by  the  Pilgrim  society.  A  part  of  the  rock  on  which 
the  pilgrims  landed,  has  been  conveyed  to  the  centre  of  the  town.  Popu- 
lation, about  five  thousand. 

Portland,  a  port  of  entry,  and  commercial  metropolis  of  Maine,  in  Cum- 
berland county,  is  situated  on  an  elevated  peninsula  in  Casco  bay.  It  has 
an  excellent  and  spacious  harbor,  dotted  with  numerous  islands,  and  de- 
fended by  two  forts.  The  town  is  well  laid  out,  and  neatly  built.  Among 
the  public  buildings  are,  that  formerly  occupied  as  the  state  house,  a  court 
house,  town  hall,  a  theatre,  alms-house,  six  banks,  fifteen  churches,  a 
custom-house,  academy,  and  an  athenaeum,  in  which  is  a  library  of  about 
three  thousand  volumes.  Much  attention  is  here  paid  to  education,  and 
there  are  many  good  schools.  Portland  has  considerable  commerce,  the 
chief  articles  of  export  being  fish  and  lumber.  Its  shipping  amounts  to 
about  forty-five  thousand  tons.  In  1775,  this  town,  then  called  Falmouth, 
was  set  on  fire  by  the  British,  and  about  two   thirds  of  the  houses  were 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


323 


destroyed.     It  was  incorporated  under  its  present  name  in  1786. 
tion,  about  thirteen  thousand. 


Popula 


Mariners'  Church,  Portland. 

Portsmouth,  in  Rockingham  county,  New  Hampshire,  is  the  largest 
town  in  the  state,  and  the  only  seaport.  It  is  situated  on  a  beautiful  pe- 
ninsula on  the  south  side  of  Piscataqua  river,  three  miles  from  the  sea. 
Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  continent,  having  a  sufficient  depth  of 
water  for  vessels  of  any  burden.  It  is  well  protected  by  fort  Con- 
stitution and  fort  M'Clary ;  there  are  also,  three  other  forts,  built  for  the 
defence  of  the  harbor,  but  not  garrisoned.  There  is  a  light-house  on 
Great  island.  This  town  has  a  number  of  churches  and  other  public 
buildings,  but  none  of  any  great  pretensions.  It  has  suffered  severely 
from  fires  at  different  periods.  The  first  settlement  was  made  here  in 
1623,  and,  ten  years  afterwards,  the  town  was  incorporated  by  charter. 
The  first  ship  of  the  line  built  in  the  United  States,  was  built  here  during 
the  revolution  ;  it  was  called  the  North  America.  On  Navy  island,  on  the 
side  of  the  Piscataqua,  opposite  to  the  town,  is  a  navy  yard  of  the  United 
States.  The  amount  of  shipping  owned  in  New  Hampshire  in  1828, 
amounted  to  above  twenty-six  thousand  tons ;  and  of  this  nearly  all  must 
have  belonged  to  Portsmouth.  Population,  eight  thousand  and  eighty- 
two. 

Pougkkeepsie,  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  seventy-five  miles  south 
of  Albany,  is  situated  one  mile  on  the  Hudson  river,  and  was  incorporated 
in  1801.  The  village  is  handsomely  situated,  and  a  place  of  considerable 
trade.  It  is  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  the  two  principal  streets  cut- 
ting each  other  at  right  angles.  The  trade  at  the  landings  employs  a  num- 
ber of  packets.  This  town  contains  the  county  buildings,  five  churches, 
an  academy,  a  bank,  and  several  factories.  Population,  seven  thousand 
two  hundred  and  twenty-two. 

Providence,  city  and  seaport  in  the  county  of  the  same  name,  in  Rhode 
Island,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  tide  water  of  Narragansett  bay,  about 
thirty  miles  from  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  forty  miles  south-south-west  of 
Boston.     In  point  of  population  it  is   the  second  town  in  New  England. 


324 


BOOK  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  town  is  built  on  both  sides  of  what  is  commonly  called  Providence 
river;  and  vessels  of  nine  hundred  tons  burden  can  come  to  the  wharves. 
Many  of  the  private  residences  in  this  town  are  finely  situated,  and  of 
beautiful  appearance.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  state  house,  the 
arcade,  fourteen  houses  of  public  worship,  the  halls  of  Brown  university, 
an  asylum,  five  public  school-houses,  and  several  large  manufacturing 
establishments.  The  arcade  is  a  splendid  edifice  of  granite,  with  two 
fronts  presenting  colonnades  of  the  pure  Doric  order.     The  building  is  two 


Providence  Arcade. 

hundred  and  twenty-two  feet  in  length,  extending  from  street  to  street 
Brown  university  was  incorporated  in  1769,  and,  under  its  present  govern- 
ment, promises  to  take  a  high  stand  as  a  literary  institution.  The  college 
buildings  stand  on  a  lofty  elevation,  and  the  approach  to  them  is  through 
a  street  decorated  with  fine  mansions  and  elegant  gardens. 

Providence  became  early  distinguished  as  a  place  of  commercial  promise. 
During  the  first  six  months  of  the  year  1791,  the  duties  paid  on  imports 
and  tonnage  amounted  to  nearly  sixty  thousand  dollars ;  in  1831,  the 
whole  amount  collected  was  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand. 
There  are  four  insurance  companies.  The  aggregate  capital  of  the  banks, 
which  are  fifteen  in  number,  is  four  and  a  half  millions ;  to  this  we  may 
add  eight  hundred  thousand  dollars,  which  form  the  capital  of  the  Branch 
bank  of  the  United  States,  and  one  hundred  thousand  belonging  to  the 
Savings  bank.  The  Blackstone  canal,  which  extends  to  Worcester,  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, was  completed  in  1828 ;  its  whole  cost  was  seven  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars.  Providence  is  most  distinguished  for  its  manufactures,  which 
are  very  numerous,  and  embrace  many  varieties  of  articles.  Capitalists 
of  the  city  have  also  about  two  million  of  dollars  invested  in  manufactures 
of  other  towns.  The  settlement  of  this  place  was  commenced  as  early  as 
1636,  by  Roger  Williams,  a  puritan  clergyman  who  had  been  settled  at 
Salem,  but  who  had  been  banished  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachu- 
setts, on  account  of  his  contending  for  entire  and  unrestricted  freedom  in 
matters  of  religion.  The  population  of  Providence  is  about  twenty  thou- 
sand. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  325 

Quincy,  in  Norfolk  county,  Massachusetts,  was  settled  m  1625,  under 
the  name  of  Mount  Wollaston.  Extensive  quarries  of  fine  granite  are 
wrought  here ;  the  first  rail-road  constructed  in  America  was  built  for  the 
purpose  of  conveying  the  granite  from  the  quarry  to  the  landing.  This 
town  is  very  pleasant,  and  contains  many  handsome  country  seats;  among 
which  is  that  of  ex-president  Adams.  Population,  two  thousand  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety-two. 

Raleigh,  city  and  capital  of  North  Carolina,  in  Wake  county,  near  the 
west  bank  of  the  river  Neuse,  is  pleasantly  situated  in  an  elevated  tract 
of  country.  Besides  the  government  buildings,  it  contains  other  conve- 
nient and  elegant  public  edifices.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a  large 
square,  from  which  extend  four  wide  streets,  dividing  the  town  into  quar- 
ters. In  the  centre  of  this  square  stood  the  state  house,  with  the  splendid 
statue  of  Washington,  by  Canova ;  the  edifice  was  burnt  down  in  1831,  and 
the  statue  almost  destroyed.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  town  is  an  excel- 
lent quarry  of  granite.     Population,  one  thousand  seven  hundred. 

Reading,  the  capital  of  Berks  county,  Pennsylvania,  is  a  beautiful  town, 
situated  on  Schuylkill  river,  fifty-four  miles  north-west  of  Philadelphia, 
on  the  road  to  lake  Erie.  It  is  a  flourishing  place,  regularly  laid  out  and 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Germans  ;  it  contains  the  usual  county  buildings,  an 
elegant  church  for  German  Lutherans,  another  for  Calvinists,  one  for  Ro- 
man Catholics,  a  meeting-house  for  Friends,  and  other  public  edifices.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  this  town  are  a  number  of  fulling  mills,  and  several 
iron  works.     Population,  about  six  thousand. 

Richmond,  the  metropolis  of  Virginia,  and  seat  of  justice  for  Henrico 
county,  is  situated  at  the  falls  of  James  river,  on  the  north  side,  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles  above  its  mouth,  and  contains  twelve  thousand  inhabi- 
tants. The  site  is  very  uneven,  and  the  situation  is  healthy,  beautiful  and 
picturesque.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  Manchester,  connected 
with  Richmond  by  two  bridges.  The  falls  and  rapids  extend  nearly  six 
miles,  in  which  distance  the  river  descends  eighty  feet.  A  canal  with 
three  locks  is  cut  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  terminating  at  the  town  in  a 
basin  of  about  two  acres.  Few  cities  situated  so  far  from  the  sea,  possess 
better  commercial  advantages  than  Richmond,  being  at  the  head  of  tide 
water,  on  a  river  navigable  for  batteaux,  two  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
above  the  city.  The  back  country  is  fertile,  and  abundant  in  the  produc- 
tion of  tobacco,  wheat,  corn,  hemp,  and  coal.  Some  of  the  principal 
buildings  are  the  capitol,  penitentiary,  armory,  court  house,  and  eight 
houses  of  public  worship.  The  capitol  stands  on  a  commanding  situation, 
and  is  a  conspicuous  object  to  the  surrounding  country.  In  1811,  the 
theatre  at  Richmond  took  fire  during  an  exhibition,  and  in  the  conflagra- 
tion, seventy-two  persons  lost  their  lives,  among  whom  was  the  governor 
ol  the  state.  An  elegant  Episcopal  church  of  brick,  styled  the  Monument- 
al Church,  has  been  erected  on  the  spot,  with  a  monument  in  front,  com- 
memorative of  the  melancholy  event.     Population,  sixteen  thousand. 

Rodiester,  in  Monroe  county,  in  the  western  part  of  New  York,  is  the 
most  populous  and  important  village  in  the  state.  Its  growth  has  been 
wonderfully  rapid.  Twenty  years  ago  there  was  a  wild  uninhabited  tract, 
where  now  is  a  flourishing  population  of  more  than  twelve  thousand 
peopie.  This  growth  has  been  owing  to  the  passage  of  the  Erie  canal 
thrvwgi*  the  town,  thus  furnishing  a  conveyance  to  the  numerous  manufac- 

28 


326  BCfoK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

tures  which,  the  great  water  power  of  the  Gennessee  enabled  them  to  carry 
on.  The  canal  crosses  the  river  three  hundred  yards  above  the  falls.  For 
the  distance  of  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  the  village,  the  river  is  walled 
with  hammer-dressed  stone,  to  the  height  of  from  ten  to  twenty  feet.  The 
power  which  is  furnished  by  this  river,  in  the  course  of  two  miles  at  this 
place,  at  low  water,  is  equal  to  that  of  six  hundred  and  forty  steam  engines 
of  twenty  horse-power  each.  The  manufactories  are  very  numerous; 
they  consist  of  sixteen  flour  mills,  four  woolen  factories,  tw*  of  cotton, 
three  marble,  and  others  of  almost  ever}?-  description.  There  are  twelve 
religious  and  seventeen  benevolent  societies ;  the  literary  institutions  are 
numerous,  and  there  are  many  well-conducted  schools.  The  receipts  of  the 
canal  toll  office  of  this  town  are  larger  than  those  of  any  town  in  the  state, 
except  Albany.  Population  in  1815,  three  hundred  and  thirty-one ;  in 
1832,  thirteen  thousand.^ 

Rutland,  seat  of  justice  of  Rutland  county,  Vermont,  is  a  village  of 
irregular  form,  and  was  first  settled  in  1770.  During  the  revolution,  two 
picket  forts  were  built  here.  There  are  quarries  of  blue  and  white  marble, 
in  a  range  extending  from  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts.  Population, 
two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty-three. 

Saco,  port  of  entry  in  York  county,  Maine,  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
tide  water  on  Saco  river.  The  falls  at  this  place  afford  a  great  water 
power,  and  carry  many  saw  mills ;  numerous  factories  might  be  erected  on 

*  We  reached  Rochester  under  the  influence  of  a  burning  sun.  The  hotel  was  ex- 
cellent, and  the  luxury  of  cold  baths,  and  the  civility  of  the  landlord,  induced  me  to 
delay  progress  to  the  following  day.  In  the  cool  of  the  evening,  I  strolled  out  to  see 
the  falls  of  the  Gennessee.  The  height  of  the  uppermost  is  considerable,  being  about 
ninety  feet,  and  the  water  rushes  over  it  gracefully  enough  ;  but  the  vicinity  of  sundry 
saw  and  corn  mills  has  destroyed  the  romantic  interest  which  invested  it  in  the  days 
when  l  the  cataract  blew  his  trumpet  from  the  steep,'  amid  the  stillness  of  the  sur- 
rounding forest. 

The  old  proverb  de  gustibus,  &c.  receives  illustration  in  every  country.  An  eccentric 
man,  called  Sam  Patch,  having  an  aversion  to  honest  industry,  made  it  his  profession 
to  jump  over  all  the  water-falls  in  the  country.  Niagara  was  too  much  for  him,  but  he 
sprang  from  a  lofty  rock,  some  distance  below  the  Horse-shoe  foil,  with  impunity.  His 
last  jump  was  at  the  fall  I  have  just  described,  of  the  Gennessee,  in  the  autumn  of  1829. 
From  a  scaffold,  elevated  twenty-five  feet  above  the  table  rock,  making  a  descent  alto- 
gether of  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet,  he  fearlessly  plunged  into  the  boiling  caldron 
beneath.  From  the  moment  of  his  immersion,  he  was  seen  no  more.  His  body  was 
not  discovered  for  many  months,  and  was  at  length  found  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
six  miles  below. 

Rochester  is  a  place  worth  seeing.  Twenty  years  ago  there  was  not  a  house  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  now  there  is  a  town,  containing  thirteen  thousand  good  Americans 
and  true,  with  churches,  banks,  theatres,  and  all  other  oppidan  appurtenances  to  match. 
Such  growth  is  more  like  forcing  in  a  hot-bed,  than  the  natural  progress  of  human 
Vegetation.  For  a  great  deal  of  its  prosperity,  Rochester  is  indebted  to  the  Erie  canal, 
Which  brought  its  advantageous  proximity  to  lake  Ontario  into  full  play.  The  canal 
runs  through  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  crosses  the  Gennessee  by  an  aqueduct,  which, 
according  to  the  Northern  Tourist,  '  cost  rising  of  eighty  thousand  dollars/  whatever 
sum  that  may  amount  to.  There  are  several  streets  in  Rochester  which  might  be 
backed  at  reasonable  odds  against  any  in  Hull  or  Newcastle,  to  say  nothing  of  Cork, 
Falmouth,  or  Berwick-upon-Tweed.  The  appearance  of  the  shops  indicates  the  preva- 
lence of  respectable  opulence.  Those  of  the  jewellers  display  a  stock  of  Paris  trinkets 
and  silver  snuff'boxes.  There  are  silks  and  Leghorn  bonnets  for  the  seduction  of  the 
ladies,  and  the  windows  of  the  tailors  are  adorned  by  colored  prints  of  gentlemen  in 
tight-fitting  swallow-tails,  with  the  epigraph,  c  New  York  fashions  for  May.' — Men  and 
^fanners  in  America. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  327 

the  shore.  The  lumber  trade  of  this  town  is  extensive  and  profitable. 
Population,  three  thousand  two  hundred  and  nineteen. 

St.  Augustine,  city  of  Florida,  situated  on  the  Atlantic  shore  of  that 
territory,  is  the  oldest  settlement  in  North  America,  having  been  founded 
by  the  Spaniards  forty  years  before  the  landing  of  the  English  at  Jameston, 
in  Virginia.  The  breakers  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  have  formed  two 
channels,  whose  bars  have  eight  feet  of  water  each.  A  fort,  mounting 
thirty-six  guns,  defends  the  town.  When  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States,  in  1821,  the  number  of  inhabitants  was  about  two  thousand  five 
hundred,  and  it  has  not  increased. 

St.  Genevieve,  a  town  of  Missouri  in  the  county  of  the  same  name,  is 
situated  on  the  second  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  about  one  mile  from  the 
river,  and  twenty-one  miles  below  Herculaneum.  It  was  commenced 
about  the  year  1774,  and  is  a  depot  for  most  of  the  mines  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  the  store-house  from  whence  are  drawn  the  supplies  of  the 
miners.  Its  site  is  a  handsome  plain  ;  the  little  river  Gabourie,  whose  two 
branches  form  a  junction  between  the  town  and  the  river,  waters  it  on  its 
upper  and  lower  margins.  The  common  field,  inclosed  and  cultivated  by 
the  citizens,  contains  about  six  thousand  acres.  A  road  runs  from  this 
town  to  the  lead  mines,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  have  an 
interest  in,  or  are  employed  in  some  way  in,  the  lead  trade.  Population 
about  one  thousand  five  hundred. 

St.  Louis,  city  and  seat  of  justice  of  St.  Louis  county,  Missouri,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  twenty  miles  below  its 
junction  with  the  Missouri.  It  was  founded  in  1774,  but  remained  a  mere 
village  while  under  the  French  and  Spanish  colonial  governments.  Its 
situation  is  similar  to  that  of  Cincinnati.  The  principal  street  is  more 
than  a  mile  in  length.  ■  In  1814,'  says  Mr.  Flint,  'there  were  but  few 
American  houses  in  the  place.  There  were  a  few  stone  houses  covered 
with  plaster.  The  circular  stone  forts  beyond  the  town,  white  with 
plaster,  and  the  hoariness  of  age,  together  with  the  whiteness  of  the  houses 
in  general,  from  the  French  fashion  of  annual  white-washing,  gave  the 
town  a  romantic  and  imposing  appearance,  when  seen  from  a  distance. 
With  the  exception  of  two  or  three  aristocratic  establishments,  when  con- 
templated near  at  hand,  the  houses  were  mean,  frail,  and  uncomfortable 
establishments.  The  streets  were  narrow  and  dirty,  and  it  was  in  fact  a 
disagreeable  town.  A  new  impulse  was  given  by  American  Jaws,  enter- 
prise, and  occupancy.  Most  of  the  houses,  that  have  been  added  within 
the  last  ten  years,  have  been  of  brick  or  stone.  Some  of  the  public  build- 
ings are  handsome.  The  French  have  communicated  to  the  people  a 
taste  for  gardening,  and  there  are  a  number  of  very  handsome  gardens  in 
and  about  the  town.  Very  few  towns  in  the  United  States,  or  the  world, 
have  a  more  mixed  population.  Among  the  original  inhabitants,  there  is 
no  inconsiderable  sprinkling  of  Indian  blood.  The  American  population 
predominates  over  the  French,  and  is  made  up  of  emigrants  from  all  the 
states.  It  is  a  central  point  in  the  Mississippi  valley  for  emigrants  and 
adventurers  of  every  character.  Making  due  allowance  for  this  circum- 
stance, the  people  are  generally  quiet  and  decent  in  their  manners.'  Popu- 
lation, about  seven  thousand. 

Salem,  a  seaport,  and  capital  of  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  in  propor- 
tion to  its  size,  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  towns  in  the  United  States.     The 


328  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

population  is  about  fourteen  thousand.  It  is  chiefly  built  on  a  tongue  of 
land  formed  by  two  inlets  from  the  sea,  called  North  and  South  rivers ; 
over  the  former  of  which  is  a  bridge  one  thousand  five  hundred  feet  long, 
connecting  Salem  with  Beverly,  and  the  latter  forms  the  harbor.  The  situ- 
ation is  low,  but  pleasant  and  healthy.  The  appearance  of  the  town  is 
irregular,  the  streets  having  been  laid  out  with  little  regard  to  symmetry  or 
beauty.  The  public  buildings,  among  which  are  fifteen  houses  of  public 
worship,  are  neat,  but  not  splendid.  The  private  houses  have  generally 
the  appearance  of  neatness,  comfort,  and  convenience,  and  many  of  them 
indicate  taste  and  opulence.  The  town  was  formerly  built  almost  wholly 
of  wood,  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  houses,  erected  within  the  last  twen- 
ty years,  are  of  brick. 

The  Marine  museum  is  a  valuable  collection  of  rare  curiosities,  collected 
from  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  presented  by  the  members  of  the  East 
India  society.  The  number  of  banks  in  this  town  is  eight ;  there  are  six 
insurance  companies.  Three  semi-weekly  and  two  weekly  papers  are 
published.  There  are  sixteen  tanneries,  eleven  rope  and  twine  factories, 
two  white  lead  factories,  and  a  chemical  laboratory.  Much  attention  is 
here  paid  to  education,  the  schools  being  very  numerous  and  well  support- 
ed. With  the  exception  of  Plymouth,  Salem  is  the  oldest  settlement  in 
New  England.  It  was  founded  in  1628.  Its  Indian  name  was  Naum- 
keag,  and  this  name  it  long  retained. 

Salina,  a  post  township,  and  seat  of  justice  of  Onondaga  county,  New 
York,  includes  Onondaga  lake,  and  the  principal  salt  springs  in  the  state. 
Very  extensive  works  have  been  established  for  several  years ;  the  number 
of  manufactories  of  salt  by  artificial  heat  is  one  hundred  and  thirty-five. 
In  1831,  the  amount  of  salt  manufactured  was  nearly  a  million  and  a  half 
of  bushels.  These  waters  are  owned  by  the  state  of  New  York,  and  a 
duty  of  twelve  and  a  half  cents  per  bushel  is  exacted  on  all  the  salt  manu- 
factured from  them.  From  sixteen  to  twenty-five  ounces  of  salt  are  obtain- 
ed from  a  gallon  of  water.  Most  of  the  salt  hitherto  made  has  been  very 
fine.  The  price  is  about  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel.  This  township  in- 
cludes four  considerable  villages,  which  contain  more  than  seven  thousand 
inhabitants. 

Saratoga,  in  a  county  of  the  same  name  in  New  York,  is  a  pleasant 
town,  and  presents  a  surface  agreeably  diversified  with  ranges  of  hills.  It 
is  memorable  for  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  to  General  Gates,  on  the 
seventeenth  of  October,  1777.  Population,  two  thousand  four  hundred  and 
sixty-one. 

Saratoga  Springs,  an  incorporated  village  in  Saratoga  county,  New 
York,  and  the  great  fashionable  resort  during  summer,  on  account  of  its 
mineral  waters.  The  springs  are  numerous,  and  the  accommodations  for 
visitors  extensive  ;  but  the  surrounding  country  has  few  attractions.  The 
village  is  built  on  a  low  sandy  plain.  Population,  two  thousand  two  hun- 
dred and  four. 

Saugerties,  a  town  of  Ulster  county,  New  York,  crossed  by  Esopus 
creek.  One  mile  west  of  it  is  the  village,  and  at  its  mouth  are  extensive 
manufacturing  establishments,  supplied  with  water  by  a  canal  cut  deep 
through  a  rock  round  the  head  of  the  falls,  and  leading  into  an  artificial 
basin.     The  creek  is  navigable  for  sloops  to  these  mills.     The  inhabitants 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


329 


are  generally  of  Dutch  descent.     Population,  three  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred. 


I^W-^vfiUflKi 

HUH 

i. 

K  .• 

-«"-— 

K 

m 

I 

°  •  ■ 

\X 

BjTl   ■    1    JL 

Ha 

^tS^-.-r 

g^^^.y^ 

Barclay 's  Iron  Works,  Saug erties. 

Savannah,  in  Chatham  county,  a  port  of  entry,  and  the  principal  empo- 
rium of  Georgia,  is  situated  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  seventeen 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  built  on  a  sandy  cliff,  elevated  forty  feet  above 
low  tide.  Vessels  drawing  fourteen  feet  of  water  come  up  to  the  city ; 
larger  vessels  stop  three  miles  below.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out,  and 
contains  ten  squares,  that,  with  the  public  walks,  are  planted  with  the  Pride 
of  China  trees,  which  contribute  much  to  the  salubrity,  comfort  and  ornament 
of  the  place.  The  streets  are  unpaved,  and  very  sandy.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  a  court  house,  exchange,  academy,  and  ten  houses  of 


Interior  of  Presbyterian  Church. 

public  worship.     The  exchange  is  a  brick  building  of  five  stories.     The 
new  Presbyterian  church  is  a  very  elegant  and  spacious  edifice  of  stone. 
42  OS* 


330  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  city,  a"  few  years  ago,  was  built  almost  wholly  of  wood,  with  very 
few  elegant  houses ;  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  houses  recently  erected 
are  handsomely  built  of  brick.  Population,  seven  thousand  three  hundred 
and  three. 

Saybrook,  in  Middlesex  county,  Connecticut,  and  the  spot  of  the  first 
settlement  in  the  state,  was  founded  in  1635.  The  ground  was  early  laid 
out  for  a  city,  and  it  was  supposed  that  it  would  become  a  place  of  com- 
mercial importance.  Granite  quarries  near  to  navigable  waters  are  found 
in  the  vicinity.     Population,  five  thousand  and  eighteen. 

Schenectady,  a  city  in  Schenectady  county,  New  York,  about  sixteen 
miles  north-west  of  Albany,  is  regularly  built,  and  a  pleasant  and  flourish- 
ing place.  The  Erie  canal  passes  through  it,  and  communication  with  the 
Hudson  is  facilitated  by  the  rail-road  to  Albany ;  the  rail-road  to  Saratoga 
is  much  travelled  during  the  warm  season.  Many  lines  of  stage  coaches 
pass  through  this  city.  Union  college  was  incorporated  in  1794,  and  is  a 
highly  respectable  institution.  This  town  was  one  of  the  earliest  settle- 
ments in  New  York;  it  was  built  on  the  site  of  a  Mohawk  village.  Popu- 
lation, four  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixfy-eight. 

Springfield,  seat  of  justice  in  Hampden  county,  Massachusetts,  is  a 
flourishing  town,  standing  at  the  foot  of  a  high  hill,  the  side  of  which  is 
ornamented  with  fine  buildings,  the  residences  of  some  of  the  wealthier 
inhabitants,  and  the  top  occupied  by  the  United  States  armory.  This 
establishment  occupies  a  large  space  of  ground,  and  commands  a  fine 
view.  The  buildings  containing  the  work-shops  for  manufacturing  small 
arms,  the  arsenal,  barracks,  &c.  are  surrounded  by  a  high  wall ;  and  the 
habitations  of  the  workmen,  seen  in  several  neighboring  streets,  are  gene- 
rally neat  houses,  with  small  gardens.  The  town  is  ornamented  with 
many  fine  elms.  It  was  originally  considered  within  the  limits  of  Con- 
necticut colony,  but  at  length  incorporated  with  Massachusetts.  In  1786, 
during  the  rebellion  of  Shays,  he  attacked  the  armory,  at  the  head  of  a 
strong  party  of  undisciplined  men.  General  Shepard,  who  had  command 
at  the  place,  attempted  to  dissuade  them  from  their  attempt,  and  finally 
drove  them  off  by  firing  twice.  The  first  shot,  over  their  heads,  dispersed 
the  raw  troops,  and  the  second  drove  off  the  remainder,  who,  being  about 
two  hundred  revolutionary  soldiers,  did  not  desist  until  they  had  lost  a 
few  of  their  men.  This  was  the  first  check  the  insurrection  received, 
which  was  put  down  without  much  subsequent  trouble. 

Besides  the  usual  county  buildings,  Springfield  contains  four  churches, 
and  two  insurance  offices.  It  is  a  thriving  seat  of  manufactures,  and  in 
the  division  of  the  town  called  Chickapee  village,  there  are  four  large 
cotton  factories,  and  a  bleaching  establishment.  Three  of  the  factories 
give  employment  to  six  hundred  persons.  In  this  village  there  are  also 
iron  works.  Population  of  Springfield,  six  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
eighty-four. 

Steubenville,  seat  of  justice  of  Jefferson  county,  Ohio,  situated  on  the 
first  and  second  banks  of  the  Ohio  river,  was  regularly  laid  out  in  1798. 
It  is  a  flourishing  and  pleasant  place.     Population,  about  three  thousand. 

Tallahassee,  seat  of  government  of  Florida  territory,  is  situated  in  Mid- 
dle Florida,  about  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Apalachee  bay.  It  was  incor- 
porated as  a  city  in  1825.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  fertile  neighbor- 
hood, and  on  a  site  considerably  elevated.  Population,  about  one  thousand 
two  hundred. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  331 

Taunton,  shire  town  of  Bristol  county,  Massachusetts,  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  Taunton  river,  which  is  navigable  to  this  place  for  sloops.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  here  in  1637 ;  the  Indian  name  was  Cohannet. 
It  is  a  handsome  and  nourishing  town,  with  excellent  water  power  and 
numerous  manufactories ;  the  nail  factories  make  from  eight  to  ten  tons 
daily.  The  first  important  iron  works  in  America  were  erected  here. 
Population,  six  thousand  and  forty-two. 

Ticonderoga,  a  town  of  Essex  county,  New  York,  ninety-six  miles  north 
of  Albany.  There  is  a  valuable  iron  mine  in  this  township.  Ticondero- 
ga fort,  famous  in  the  American  wars,  stands  on  an  elevation  on  the  wes 
side  of  lake  Champlain,  north  of  the  entrance  of  the  outlet  from  lake 
George.  Considerable  vestiges  of  the  fortress  still  remain,  of  which  a  de- 
scription is  given  in  another  part  of  the  volume.  About  a  mile  south  of 
the  fort,  stands  mount  Defiance,  and  mount  Independence  is  half  a  mile 
distant  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake.     Population,  two  thousand. 

Trenton,  city  of  Hunterdon  county,  New  Jersey,  and  capital  of  the 
state,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Delaware,  opposite  the  falls, 
thirty-one  miles  from  Philadelphia,  and  sixty  from  New  York.  It  is  a 
handsome  town,  standing  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  state,  from  north  to 
south,  and  at  the  head  of  sloop  navigation ;  the  river  not  being  navigable 
above  the  falls,  except  for  boats  carrying  from  five  to  seven  hundred  bush- 
els of  wheat.  The  streets  are  very  commodious,  and  the  houses  neatly 
built.  The  public  buildings  are,  the  state  house,  two  banks,  and  six 
churches.  In  the  neighborhood  are  a  number  of  gentlemen's  seats,  finely 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  ornamented  with  taste  and  elegance. 
Trenton  bridge,  over  the  Delaware,  is  a  beautiful  structure.  It  consists  of  five 
arches  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-four  feet  span  each  ;  the  whole  length  is 
nine  hundred  and  seventy  feet,  the  breadth  thirty-six.  The  Delaware  and 
Raritan  canal,  extending  from  Trenton  to  New  Brunswick,  crosses  the  city, 
and  is  joined  by  the  feeder,  which  enters  the  river  above  the  falls.  There 
are  several  mills  and  manufactories  in  the  neighborhood.  Trenton  is  con- 
nected with  memorable  events  in  our  revolutionary  history.  Population, 
four  thousand. 

Troy,  a  city  and  capital  of  Rensselaer  county,  New  York,  stands  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Hudson,  six  miles  north  of  Albany.  It  is  built  on  a  hand- 
some elevation,  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  contains  some  beautiful  private 
residences.  Many  of  the  streets  are  shaded  by  fine  trees,  and  the  general 
aspect  of  the  city  is  attractive  and  elegant.  The  taxable  property  in  1831 
amounted  to  nearly  four  millions  of  dollars.  The  situation  of  the  town 
for  trade  and  manufactures  is  very  commanding.  It  enjoys  excellent  com- 
munication with  the  interior ;  large  sloops  and  steamboats  ascend  the  river 
to  this  place;  and  a  dam  across  the  Hudson,  with  a  branch  canal,  locks, 
and  a  basin,  opens  a  communication  with  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals. 
Hourly  stages  run  to  Albany.  The  water  power  of  the  streams  which 
rise  in  the  neighboring  eminences  is  well  employed,  and  by  means  of  it 
several  manufactories  are  carried  on.  About  twenty-five  thousand  barrels 
of  beer,  ninety-five  thousand  rolls  of  paper,  seven  hundred  thousand  pounds 
of  tallow  and  soap,  one  hundred  thousand  pair  of  boots  and  shoes,  two 
thousand  tons  of  nails  and  spikes,  and  twenty-five  thousand  bells,  are 
made  here  annually.  Large  quantities  of  lumber,  flour,  grain,  beef,  pork, 
wool,  and  other  articles,  besides  manufactured  goods,  are  shipped  to  the 


332  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

river  towns,  and  to  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Boston.  There  are  nine 
churches  in  this  town,  three  banks,  two  insurance  companies,  a  court  house 
of  Sing- Sing  marble,  a  female  seminary  of  considerable  reputation,  and  a 
literary  institution  for  the  practical  education  of  young  men.  Population, 
eleven  thousand  four  hundred  and  five. 

Troy,  in  Bristol  county,  Massachusetts,  lies  on  the  west  side  of  Taunton 
river,  and  includes  Fall  River  village,  an  extensive  manufacturing  place. 
In  this  place  are  thirteen  cotton  factories,  a  satinet  factory,  a  print  factory, 
large  iron  works,  and  machine  shops.  This  place  has  been  of  recent  and 
rapid  growth.     Population,  about  five  thousand. 

Tuscaloosa,  seat  of  justice  of  Tuscaloosa  county,  and  capital  of  the 
state  of  Alabama,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  Black  Warrior  river,  three 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  above  Mobile.  The  name  of  this  town  is  the 
Choctaw  word  for  Black  Warrior.  The  first  settlement  was  made  in 
1816-17,  and,  by  the  last  census,  it  contained  one  thousand  six  hundred 
inhabitants.     A  few  log  huts  of  the  original  settlers  still  remain. 

Utica,  city  of  Oneida  county,  New  York,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
south  side  of  the  river  Mohawk,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  import- 
ant of  the  western  towns  of  this  state.  The  river,  the  great  road,  and  the 
Erie  canal,  all  meet,  and  roads  from  a  variety  of  directions  concentrate  at 
this  point.  The  canal  level  is  four  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  above  the 
tide  water  at  Albany.  The  streets  are  broad,  straight,  and  commodious ; 
the  principal  ones  are  well  built,  with  rows  of  brick  stores,  or  elegant 
dwelling-houses.  The  chartered  institutions  are  fifteen,  including  three 
banks,  two  insurance  companies,  an  aqueduct  company,  and  associations 
for  literary  and  benevolent  purposes.  There  are  also  thirty-three  charita- 
ble societies  not  chartered,  and  thirty-six  private  schools.  Numerous  ma- 
nufactories are  in  operation  in  the  neighborhood.  The  situation  of  Utica 
gives  it  superior  advantages  for  trade,  and  has  led  to  a  flourishing  business 
and  considerable  wealth.  The  canal  commerce  in  1831,  yielded  tolls  to 
the  amount  of  nine  hundred  and  thirty-eight  thousand  dollars.  In  1794, 
Utica  contained  nineteen  families ;  its  present  population  is  estimated  at 
ten  thousand  persons.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1830  ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  mention  that  its  charter  expressly  prohibits  the  licensing  of  shops 
for  the  retail  of  ardent  spirits. 

Vandalia,  in  Fayette  county,  Illinois,  and  the  seat  of  government,  is 
situated  on  a  high  bank  of  the  river  Kaskaskia,  eighty  miles  north-east  by 
east,  from  St.  Louis.  Though  founded  but  a  few  years  since,  it  is  a  place 
of  respectable  appearance,  and  will  soon  command  an  extensive  business. 
Population,  about  five  hundred. 

Vergennes,  a  city  of  Addison  county,  Vermont,  is  situated  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  Otter  creek.  It  was  incorporated  in  1788.  In  1814, 
Commodore  M'Donough's  flotilla  was  equipped  here  ;  and  the  large  lake 
steamboats  have  laid  up  here  for  the  winter.  Some  ship-building  is  car- 
ried on,  and  the  trade  of  the  place  is  considerable.    Population,  one  thousand. 

Vevay,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Switzerland  county,  Indiana,  is  situated  on 
the  Ohio  river,  about  forty-five  miles  below  Cincinnati.  The  settlement 
was  commenced  by  a  few  emigrants  from  Switzerland,  in  the  spring  of 
1805.  There  has  been  a  gradual  accession  of  numbers  to  this  interesting 
colony.  As  early  as  1810,  they  had  eight  acres  of  vineyard,  from  which 
they  made  two  thousand  four  hundred  gallons  of  wine.     A  part  of  this 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  333 

wine  was  made  out  of  the  Madeira  grape.  They  have  now  greatly  aug- 
mented the  number  of  their  vineyards,  which,  when  bearing,  present  to 
the  eye  of  the  observer,  the  most  interesting  agricultural  prospect,  perhaps 
ever  witnessed  in  the  United  States.  They  also  cultivate  Indian  corn,  wheat, 
potatoes,  hemp,  flax,  and  other  articles  necessary  to  farmers,  but  in  quanti- 
ties barely  sufficient  for  domestic  use.  Some  of  their  women  manufacture 
straw  hats,  made  quite  differently  from  the  common  straw  bonnets,  by 
tying  the  straws  together,  instead  of  plaiting  and  sewing  the  plaits.  They 
are  sold  in  great  numbers  in  the  neighboring  settlements,  and  in  the  states 
of  Mississippi  and  Indiana.     Population,  about  fifteen  hundred. 

Vincennes,  the  seat  of  justice  for  Knox  county,  Indiana,  stands  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Wabash,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  its  junction 
with  the  Ohio.  The  plan  of  the  town  is  handsomely  designed  ;  the 
streets  are  wide,  and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  Almost  every 
house  has  a  garden  in  its  rear,  with  high  substantial  picket  fences.  The 
common  field  near  the  town  contains  nearly  five  thousand  acres,  of  excel- 
lent prairie  soil,  which  has  been  cultivated  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
and  yet  retains  its  pristine  fertility.  Population,  about  eighteen  hundred. 
This  town  was  settled  in  1735,  by  French  emigrants  from  Canada,  and, 
next  to  Kaskaskia,  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  western  world.  Of  late  years, 
it  has  rapidly  improved,  and  now  contains  three  hundred  houses,  besides 
churches,  and  the  usual  county  buildings. 

Waltham,  in  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  on  the  north  side  of 
Charles  river,  is  a  pleasant  town,  and  contains  three  cotton  factories,  among 
the  most  extensive  and  best  conducted  in  the  country.  These  establish- 
ments were  commenced  in  1814.  The  proprietors  of  the  factories  support 
two  schools  at  this  place,  where  gratuitous  instruction  is  regularly  provided. 
Population,  about  one  thousand  nine  hundred. 

Warwick,  seat  of  justice  of  Kent  county,  Rhode  Island,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  manufacturing  towns  in  the  country.  The  fisheries  are  also 
extensive.  The  branches  of  the  Pawtucket  river  unite  here,  and  furnish 
valuable  water  power.  Population,  five  thousand,  five  hundred  and 
twenty-nine. 

Washington,  capital  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  seat  of  the  general 
government  of  the  United  States,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Poto- 
mac, near  the  head  of  tide  water,  and  by  the  river  and  bay  two  hundred  and 
ninety  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  It  is  divided  into  three  distinct  divisions, 
which  are  built  about  the  navy  yard,  the  capitol,  and  the  Pennsylvania 
avenue.  The  principal  streets  meet  from  all  points  of  the  compass,  at  the 
capitol,  and  bear  the  names  of  the  older  states  of  the  union.  Some  of  the 
minor  streets  are  distinguished  by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  tracts  of 
ground  have  been  reserved  for  public  squares.  Except  during  the  sessions  of 
congress,  when  the  city  is  thronged  with  strangers  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, there  is  little  to  interest  one  but  the  public  buildings  and  the  navy  yard. 

The  president's  house  is  a  large  edifice  of  white  marble,  with  Grecian 
fronts,  situated  about  a  mile  west  of  the  capitol,  and  near  the  public  offices. 
It  is  two  stories  high,  with  a  lofty  basement,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty 
feet  long,  by  eighty-five  in  width ;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  wall.  The  en- 
trance hall  leads  into  the  drawing  room,  where  the  company  are  received 
at  the  levees.  The  capitol  is  placed  in  an  area  of  above  twenty  acres  of 
ground,  inclosed  by  an  iron  railing,  and  commands,  by  the  sudden  declivi- 


334 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ty  of  the  ground  on  one  side,  a  very  charming  view  of  the  city  and  adjoin- 
ing country,  and  of  the  river  Potomac.     The  building  is  three  hundred 


President's  House. 


and  fifty-two  feet  in  front,  and  the  greatest  height  to  the  top  is  one  hundred 
and  forty-five  feet.     The  chamber  of  representatives  is  semi-circular,  in 


CapitoL 

the  form  of  the  ancient  Grecian  theatre.  It  is  surrounded  by  twenty-four 
columns  of  variegated  native  marble,  from  the  hanks  of  the  Potomac, 
which  stand  on  a  base  of  free-stone,  and  support  the  magnificent  dome. 
The  seats  for  the  members  are  conveniently  disposed ;  each  member  has 
his  fixed  place,  a  chair,  and  a  small  desk.  An  engraved  plan  of  the 
house,  a  copy  of  which  is  easily  procured  at  the  door,  points  out  the  name 
and  place  of  each  member,  so  that  by  referring  to  the  plan,  every  member 
is  at  once  known.  The  hall  of  the  senate  is  a  good  deal  smaller  than 
that  of  the  representatives,  and  is  very  elegantly  fitted  up.  It  is  also  semi- 
circular, and  the  president's  chair  is  in  the  centre.  In  another  part  of  the 
building  is  the  library  of  congress ;  the  great  hall  contains  four  national 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


335 


pictures,  painted  by  Colonel  Trumbull,  and  four  relievos  in  marble,  repre- 
senting scenes  connected  with  various  portions  of  our  history. 


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The  treasury,  navy,  war,  and  land  offices  are  all  in  the  vicinity  of  the 

President's  house ;  as,  also,  are  the  residences  of  the  foreign  ministers, 
'he  patent  office  is  in  the  same  building  with  the  general  post  office,  and 


Department  of  State. 

contains  numerous  models  of  inventions,  in  all  branches  of  art.  There 
are  more  than  three  thousand  dwellings  in  Washington,  and  the  population 
is  estimated  at  about  nineteen  thousand  five  hundred.* 

♦  A  recent  traveller,  who  entertains  no  great  partiality  for  the  institutions  of  our 
country,  but  whose  volume  is  well  written,  and  entertaining,  makes  the  following  obser- 
vations on  the  society  of  our  metropolis  : 

Washington  is,  undoubtedly,  the  gayest  place  in  the  union ;  and  must,  I  should 
sraagine,  be  the  very  paradise  of  hackney  coachmen.    If  these  gentlemen  do  not  get 


335  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Waterville,  a  town  of  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
river  Kennebec,  eighteen  miles  north  by  east  of  Augusta.  The  principal 
village  stands  at  the  head  of  boat  navigation,  and  its  trade  is  flourishing. 
The  Wesley  an  seminary  is  established  here ;  in  this  institution,  the  stu- 
dents contribute  to  their  support  by  manual  labor.  Population,  two  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  sixteen. 

XVatervliet,  a  town  of  Albany  county,  New  York,  six  miles  north  of 
Albany,  belonging  principally,  to  the  manor  of  Rensselaerwick.  At  this 
place  the  Erie  crosses  the  Mohawk  canal,  and  descends  by  double  locks  to 
the  Champlain  canal.  In  the  west  part  is  Niskayuna,  a  settlement  of  the 
Shakers.  At  Gibbonsville,  another  village  of  the  township,  is  an  arsenal 
of  the  United  States.  Population,  four  thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty- 
two, 

Wethersfield,  in  Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  is  a  very  pleasant  town, 
having  broad  streets  shaded  with  elms,  *lt  was  founded  in  1634,  and  is 
the  oldest  settlement  on  Connecticut  river.  Rich  and  extensive  meadows 
border  the  river,  and  a  broad  and  high  level  tract,  at  about  a  mile  distant, 
affords  a  fine  soil  for  onions,  which  are  raised  here  in  large  quantities. 
The  state  prison  at  this  place  has  been  erected  within  a  few  years,  and  the 
discipline  pursued  here  is  similar  to   that  of  Auburn.     For  details  on  the 

rich,  it  must  be  owing  to  some  culpable  extravagance,  for  their  vehicles  are  in  continual 
demand  from  the  hour  of  dinner  till  five  in  the  morning,  and  long  distances  and  heavy 
charges  are  all  in  their  favor.  Washington,  too,  is  the  only  place  in  the  union  where 
people  consider  it  necessary  to  be  agreeable  ;  where  pleasing,  as  in  the  old  world,  be- 
comes a  sort  of  business,  and  the  enjoyments  of  social  intercourse  enter  into  the  habi- 
tual calculations  of  every  one. 

The  reason  of  this  is  obvious  enough.  The  duties  of  legislation  bring  together  a 
large  body  of  gentlemen  from  all  quarters  of  the  union,  whose  time  in  the  morning  is 
generally  passed  in  the  capitol ;  but  who,  without  the  delasseme?its  of  dinner  parties  and 
balls,  would  find  their  evening  hours  a  burden  somewhat  difficult  to  dispose  of.  Idle 
men  are  always  pleasant ;  they  feel  the  necessity  of  being  so,  and  make  it  their  occu- 
pation, when  they  have  no  other.  Your  lawyer,  or  your  merchant,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  so  engrossed  by  weightier  matters,  that  he  has  no  "time  to  cultivate  the  graces  of  life, 
or  those  thousand  arts  of  courtesy  which  contribute  so  materially  to  enhance  the  enjoy- 
ments of  society.  The  experience  of  the  world  is  in  favor  of  the  assertion,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  excel  both  in  pleasure  and  business.  A  man  of  talent  may  select  the 
sphere  of  his  ambition,  the  bar,  the  pulpit,  the  exchange,  the  senate,  or  the  drawing- 
room  ;  but  to  attempt  the  honors  of  a  double  triumph  is,  in  general,  to  secure  but  dupli- 
city of  failure. 

In  Washington,  all  are  idle  enough  to  be  as  agreeable  as  they  can.  The  business  of 
congress  is  no  great  burden  on  the  shoulders  of  any  of  its  members ;  and  a  trip  to 
Washington  is  generally  regarded  as  a  sort  of  annual  lark,  which  enables  a  man  to  pass 
the  winter  months  more  pleasantly  than  in  the  country.  A  considerable  number  of  the 
members  bring  their  families,  with  a  view  of  obtaining  introduction  to  better  society 
than  they  can  hope  to  meet  elsewhere ;  but  the  majority  leave  such  incumbrances  at 
home  ;  some,  it  may  be  presumed,  fromiaste,  and  others  from  economy. 

There  are  few  families  that  make  Washington  their  permanent  residence,  and  the 
city,  therefore,  has  rather  the  aspect  of  a  watering  place,  than  the  metropolis  of  a  great 
nation.  The  members  of  congress  generally  live  together  in  small  boarding-houses, 
which,  from  all  I  saw  of  them,  are  shabby  and  uncomfortable.  Gentlemen  with  fami- 
lies take  lodgings,  or  occupy  apartments  in  a  hotel ;  and  it  is  really  marvellous,  at  the 
Washington  parties,  to  see  how  many  people  are  contrived  to  be  stowed  away  in  a 
drawing-room,  somewhat  smaller  than  an  ordinary-sized  pigeon-house.  On  such  occa- 
sions, one  does  not  suffer  so  much  from  heat  as  from  suffocation ;  for  not  only  does  the 
whole  atmosphere  become  tainted  in  quality,  but  there  seems  an  absolute  deficiency  in 
quantity  for  the  pulmonary  demands  of  the  company. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  337 

subject,  refer  to  the  chapter  on  Prison  Discipline.  Population,  about  four 
thousand. 

Wheeling,  seat  of  justice  for  Ohio  county,  Virginia,  is  situated  on  a  high 
bank  of  the  river  Ohio,  ninety-five  miles  below  Pittsburgh.  It  is  surround- 
ed by  bold  and  steep  hills  abounding  in  coal.  The  great  national  road 
from  Baltimore  strikes  the  river  at  this  place.  Its  position  possesses  many 
advantages,  and  its  growth  of  late  years  has  been  very  rapid.  Wheeling 
fort,  built  at  an  early  period  of  the  revolution,  was  the  origin  of  the  settle- 
ment. It  is  a  constant  resort  for  travellers,  and  promises  to  be  a  place  of 
much  importance.     Population,  five  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty. 

Williamsburg,  the  seat  of  justice  of  James  City  county,  Virginia,  situ- 
ated between  York  and  James  rivers,  sixty  miles  south-east  by  east  of 
Richmond,  was  formerly  the  metropolis  of  the  state,  but  has  greatly  de- 
clined. The  college  of  William  and  Mary  was  founded  here  in  1693,  but 
is  now  in  decay,  though  attempts  are  making  to  revive  its  former  prosper- 
ous condition. 

Williamstown,  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  is  situated  in  the 
north-west  corner  of  the  state,  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  miles  north  by 
west  from  Boston.  It  has  two  congregational  churches,  and  a  college. 
Williams  college  was  incorporated  in  1793.  Population,  two  thousand 
one  hundred  and  thirty-four. 

Wilmington,  city,  and  port  of  entry,  of  New  Castle  county,  Delaware, 
between  the  Brandywine  and  Christiana  creeks,  one  mile  above  their 
junction,  twenty-eight  miles  south-west  of  Philadelphia,  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  moderately  elevated  ground.  It  is  mostly  built  of  brick,  and  the 
streets  are  regularly  laid  out.  The  wateT  power  in  the  vicinity  is  great, 
and  is  employed  in  ^  aw  mills,  powder  and  paper  mills,  and  a  variety  of 
manufactories  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  The  finest  collection  of  flour 
mills  in  the  United  States  is  at  this  place.  Population,  six  thousand  sk 
hundred  and  twenty-eight. 

Wilmington,  port  of  entry,  and  seat  of  justice  of  New  Hanover  county, 
North  Carolina,  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  Cape  Fear  river,  and  has 
an  extensive  trade.  Most  of  the  exports  from  the  state  are  from  this 
town.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  rendered  difficult  by  a  shoal,  but  it 
admits  vessels  of  three  hundred  tons.  Opposite  the  town  are  three  islands, 
which  afford  excellent  rice-fields.     Population,  three  thousand. 

Windsor,  seat  of  justice  of  Windsor  county,  Vermont,  pleasantly  situat- 
ed on  the  west  bank  of  the  Connecticut,  is  surrounded  by  romantic  and 
picturesque  scenery.  It  contains  a  state  prison,  and  several  handsome 
houses,  and  its  manufactures  are  considerable.  Population,  three  thousand 
one  hundred  and  thirty-four. 

Worcester,  seat  of  justice  of  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  forty 
miles  west  by  south  of  Boston,  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in 
New  England,  and  is  a  great  thoroughfare  for  travellers.  It  lies  principal- 
ly on  one  long  and  broad  street,  nearly  level,  and  shaded  with  fine  trees. 
It  contains  the  usual  county  buildings,  four  churches,  and  the  Massachu- 
setts Lunatic  hospital,  a  spacious  structure  of  brick,  admirably  arranged, 
and  calculated  for  the  accommodation  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  patients. 
The  American  Antiquarian  society  was  founded  and  endowed  by  the 
late  Isaiah  Thomas;  it  has  a  handsome  building,  containing  a  hall,  a 
valuable  cabinet,  and  a  library  of  eight  thousand  volumes,  including  many 
43  29 


338  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ancient  and  rare  works  on  American  history.  There  are  three  printing 
offices,  which  issue  four  weekly  newspapers.  The  Blackstone  canal  termi- 
nates in  this  town,  and  furnishes  boat  navigation  to  Providence.  A  rail- 
road from  Boston  to  Worcester  has  been  commenced,  and  is  in  a  state  of 
rapid  progress.  This  town  was  first  settled  in  1674,  and  at  an  early 
period  suffered  much  from  the  attacks  of  the  Indians.  It  was  called 
Quinsigamond  by  the  natives.  Population,  four  thousand  two  hundred 
and  seventy-one. 

York,  port  of  entry,  and  semi-metropolis  of  York  county,  Maine,  was 
laid  out  originally  for  a  large  city,  and  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade. 
York  river  runs  through  it,  and  empties  into  the  ocean,  affording  a  good 
harbor  for  vessels  of  two  hundred  tons.  Population,  three  thousand  five 
hundred. 

Yorktown,  port  of  entry,  and  seat  of  justice,  York  county,  Virginia,  is 
situated  on  the  south  side  of  York  river.  The  river  at  this  place  affords 
the  best  harbor  in  the  state  ;  but  the  town  has  not  become  populous,  nor  the 
trade  extensive.  Yorktown  will  always  be  famous  for  the  surrender  of 
the  British  army  under  Cornwallis,  at  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war. 
The  number  of  prisoners  was  seven  thousand  one  hundred  and  seven,  and 
the  American  contest  for  independence  was  thus  happily  concluded. 

Zanesvitle,  a  flourishing  town,  and  seat  of  justice  for  Muskingum  coun- 
ty, Ohio,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  Muskingum  river,  seventy-four 
miles  west  from  Wheeling  in  Virginia.  The  river  has  falls  here,  which 
afford  water  power  for  a  number  of  factories.  The  great  Cumberland  road 
passes  through  the  town.     Population,  three  thousand  and  fifty-six. 


339 


CHAPTER  III.— AGRICULTURE. 

Our  sketch  of  the  agriculture  of  the  United  States  must  be  brief  and 
general ;  as  the  numerous  subjects  to  be  treated  in  the  present  volume  do 
not  allow  space  for  very  minute  details.  The  vast  extent  of  the  country, 
and  its  various  soil  and  climate,  afford  growth  to  a  great  variety  of  pro- 
ductions. As  a  science,  agriculture  was  formerly  much  neglected,  and  it 
is  only  of  late  years  that  it  has  received  any  thing  of  the  attention  it  de- 
serves. { It  is  indeed  a  lamentable  truth,'  says  Mr.  Watson,  '  that,  for  the 
most  part,  our  knowledge  and  practice  of  agriculture,  at  the  close  of  the 
revolutionary  war,  were  in  a  state  of  demi-barbarism,  with  some  solitary 
exceptions.  The  labors,  I  may  say,  of  only  three  agricultural  societies  in 
America,  at  that  epoch,  conducted  by  ardent  patriots,  by  philosophers,  and 
gentlemen,  in  New  York  state,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston,  kept  alive  a 
spirit  of  inquiry,  often  resulting  in  useful  and  practical  operations  ;  and  yet 
these  measures  did  not  reach  the  doors  of  practical  farmers,  to  any  visible 
extent.  Nor  was  their  plan  of  organization  calculated  to  infuse  a  spirit  of 
emulation,  which  county,  or  state,  should  excel  in  the  honorable  strife  of 
competition  in  discoveries  and  improvements,  in  drawing  from  the  soil  the 
greatest  quantum  of  net  profits  within  a  given  space ;  at  the  same  time, 
keeping  the  land  in  an  improving  condition,  in  reference  to  its  native  vigor. 
These  results,  and  the  renovation  of  lands  exhausted  by  means  of  a  barbi> 
rous  course  of  husbandry,  for  nearly  two  centuries,  are  the  cardinal  points 
now  in  progression  in  our  old  settled  countries,  stimulated  by  the  influence 
of  agricultural  societies.  Nor  did  their  measures  produce  any  essential  or 
extensive  effects  in  the  improvement  of  the  breeds  of  domestic  animals ; 
much  less  in  exciting  to  rival  efforts  the  female  portion  of  the  community, 
in  calling  forth  the  active  energies  of  our  native  resources  in  relation  to 
household  manufactures.  The  scene  is  now  happily  reversed  in  all  direc- 
tions. Perhaps  there  is  no  instance,  in  any  age  or  country,  where  a  whole 
nation  has  emerged,  in  so  short  a  period,  from  such  general  depression, 
into  such  a  rapid  change  in  the  several  branches  to  which  I  have  already 
alluded;  in  some  instances,  it  has  been  like  the  work  of  magic' 

The  early  neglect  of  agriculture  may  be  traced  to  very  obvious  causes. 
The  first  settlements  in  the  country  were  made  along  the  shores  of  the  sea, 
or  on  the  banks  of  navigable  rivers.  Population  was  thin  and  scattered, 
and  the  ocean  with  its  tributary  waters  offered  by  far  the  easiest  means  of 
subsistence.  The  fisheries  and  navigation  naturally  attracted  their  active 
attention,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  earth  was  limited  to  the  supply  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  and  a  scanty  surplus  to  answer  the  humble  demands  of 
colonial  commerce.  The  circumstances  of  the  country,  down  to  the  very 
era  of  the  revolutionary  struggle,  were  such  as  tended  unavoidably  to  re- 
duce agriculture  below  its  just  consequence  in  the  scale  of  useful  employ- 
ments,  and  to  elevate  all  the  arts  connected  with  navigation  above  their 
proper  estimation.     Capital  was  drawn  off  from  the  pursuits  of  agriculture, 


340  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  devoted  to  the  more  lucrative  pursuits  of  commerce.  When  to  this  is 
added  the  unceasing  drain  upon  the  agricultural  population,  by  the  pros- 
pects which  the  extent  of  the  interior,  and  the  cheapness  of  lands,  open- 
ed to  their  enterprise,  and  the  consequent  effect  upon  the  demand  for  labor, 
there  is  more  cause  of  surprise  that  the  actual  state  of  cultivation  is  so 
good,  than  of  reproach  that  it  did  not  receive  higher  improvement.  The 
increase  of  population  in  the  United  States,  and  the  long-continued  peace 
in  Europe,  by  limiting  the  sphere  and  diminishing  the  profits  of  commercial 
speculation,  have  operated  to  withdraw  capital  from  the  sea,  and  invest  it 
in  agriculture  and  manufactures. 

The  farms  of  the  eastern,  northern,  and  middle  states  consist,  generally, 
of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  acres,  seldom  rising  to  more  than  three  hun- 
dred, and  generally  falling  short  of  two  hundred  acres.  These  farms  are 
inclosed,  and  divided  either  by  stone  walls,  or  rail  fences  made  of  timber, 
hedges  not  being  common.  The  building  first  erected  on  a  new  lot,  or  on 
a  tract  of  land  not  yet  cleared  from  its  native  growth  of  timber,  is  what  is 
called  a  log-house.  This  is  a  hut  or  cabin,  made  of  round,  straight  logs, 
about  a  foot  in  diameter,  lying  on  each  other,  and  notched  in  at  the  cor- 
ners. The  intervals  between  the  logs  are  filled  with  slips  of  wood,  and 
the  crevices  generally  stopped  with  mortar  made  of  clay.  The  fire-place 
commonly  consists  of  rough  stones,  so  placed  as  to  form  a  hearth,  on  which 
wood  may  be  burned.  Sometimes  these  stones  are  made  to  assume  the 
form  of  a  chimney,  and  are  carried  up  through  the  roof;  and  sometimes  a 
hole  in  the  roof  is  the  only  substitute  for  a  chimney.  The  roof  is  made 
of  rafters,  forming  an  acute  angle  at  the  summit  of  the  erection,  and  is 
covered  with  shingles,  commonly  split  from  pine  trees,  or  with  bark,  peeled 
from  the  hemlock. 

,  When  the  occupant  or  first  settler  of  *&;g  new  lanu  fed?  himself  in  cCm- 
fortaoie  circumstances,  he  builds  what  is  styled  a  frame  house,  composed 
of  timber,  held  together  by  tenons,  mortises  and  pins,  and  boarded,  shingled 
and  clapboarded  on  the  outside,  and  often  painted  white,  sometimes  red. 
Houses  of  this  kind  generally  contain  a  dining-room  and  kitchen,  and  three 
or  four  bed-rooms  on  the  same  floor.  They  are  rarely  destitute  of  good 
cellars,  which  the  nature  of  the  climate  renders  almost  indispensable.  The 
farm-buildings  consist  of  a  barn,  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  farm,  with 
stalls  for  horses  and  cows  on  each  side,  and  a  threshing-floor  in  the  middle  ; 
and  the  more  wealthy  farmers  add  a  cellar  under  the  barn,  a  part  of  which 
receives  the  manure  from  the  stalls,  and  another  part  serves  as  a  store- 
room for  roots,  &c.  for  feeding  stock.  What  is  called  a  corn-bam  is  like- 
wise very  common,  which  is  built  exclusively  for  storing  the  ears  of  Indian 
corn.  The  sleepers  of  this  building  are  generally  set  up  four  or  five  feet 
from  the  ground,  on  smooth  stone  posts  or  pillars,  which  rats,  mice,  or 
other  vermin  cannot  ascend. 

With  regard  to  the  best  manner  of  clearing  forest  land  from  its  natural 
growth  of  timber,  the  following  observations  may  be  of  use  to  a  first  settler. 
In  those  parts  of  the  country  where  wood  is  of  but  little  value,  the  trees  are 
felled  in  one  of  the  summer  months,  the  earlier  in  the  season  the  better,  as 
the  stumps  will  be  less  apt  to  sprout,  and  the  trees  will  have  a  longer  time 
to  dry.  The  trees  lie  till  the  following  spring,  when  such  limbs  as  are  not. 
very  near  the  ground  should  be  cut  off,  that  they  may  burn  the  better. 
Fire  must  be  put  to  them  in  the  driest  part  of  the  month  of  May,  or,  if  the 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  341 

whole  of  that  month  prove  wet,  it  may  be  applied  in  the  beginning  of  June. 
Only  the  bodies  of  the  trees  will  remain  after  burning,  and  some  of  them 
will  be  burned  into  pieces.  Those  which  require  to  be  made  shorter,  are 
cut  in  pieces  nearly  of  a  length,  drawn  together  by  oxen,  piled  in  close 
heaps,  and  burned,  such  trees  and  logs  being  reserved  as  may  be  needed 
for  fencing  the  lot.  The  heating  of  the  soil  so  destroys  the  green  roots, 
and  the  ashes  made  by  the  burning  are  so  beneficial  as  manure  to  the  land, 
that  it  will  produce  a  good  crop  of  wheat  or  Indian  corn,  without  plough- 
ing, hoeing,  or  manuring.  If  new  land  lie  in  such  a  situation  that  its 
natural  growth  may  turn  to  better  account,  whether  for  timber  or  fire-wood, 
it  will  be  an  unpardonable  waste  to  burn  the  wood  on  the  ground.  But  if 
the  trees  be  taken  off,  the  land  must  be  ploughed  after  clearing,  or  it  will 
not  produce  a  crop  of  any  kind. 

The  following  remarks  on  this  subject  are  extracted  from  some  observa- 
tions by  Samuel  Preston,  of  Stockport,  Pennsylvania,  a  very  observing 
cultivator.  They  were  first  published  in  the  New  England  Farmer, 
issued  at  Boston,  and  may  prove  serviceable  to  settlers  on  uncleared 
lands.  Previous  to  undertaking  to  clear  land,  Mr.  Preston  advises, — (  1st. 
Take  a  view  of  all  large  trees,  and  see  which  way  they  may  be  felled  for 
the  greatest  number  of  small  trees  to  be  felled  along-side  or  on  them.  After 
felling  the  large  trees,  only  lop  down  their  limbs ;  but  all  such  as  are  fell- 
ed near  them  should  be  cut  in  suitable  lengths  for  two  men  to  roll  and  pile 
about  the  large  trees,  by  which  means  they  may  be  nearly  all  burned  up, 
without  cutting  into  lengths,  or  the  expense  of  a  strong  team,  to  draw  them 
together.  2d.  Fell  all  the  other  trees  parallel,  and  cut  them  into  suitable 
lengths,  that  they  may  be  readily  rolled  together  without  a  team,  always  cut- 
ting the  largest  trees  first,  that  the  smallest  may  be  loose  on  the  top,  to  feed  the 
fires.  3d.  On  hill-sides,  fell  the  timber  in  a  level  direction  ;  then  the  logs 
will  roll  together  ;  but  if  the  trees  are  felled  down  hill,  all  the  logs  must  be 
turned  round  before  they  can  be  rolled,  and  there  will  be  stumps  in  the 
way.  4th.  By  following  these  directions,  two  men  may  readily  heap  and 
burn  most  of  the  timber,  without  requiring  any  team ;  and  perhaps  the 
brands  and  the  remains  of  the  log  heaps  may  all  be  wanted  to  burn  up  the 
old,  fallen  trees.  After  proceeding  as  directed,  the  ground  will  be  clear 
for  a  team  and  sled  to  draw  the  remains  of  the  heaps  where  they  may  be 
wanted  round  the  old  logs.  Never  attempt  either  to  chop  or  draw  a  large 
log,  until  the  size  and  weight  are  reduced  by  fire.  The  more  fire-heaps 
there  are  made  on  the  clearing,  the  better,  particularly  about  the  old  logs, 
where  there  is  rotten  wood. 

'  The  best  time  of  the  year  to  fell  the  timber,  in  a  great  measure,  depends 
on  the  season's  being  wet  or  dry.  Most  people  prefer  having  it  felled  in 
the  month  of  June,  when  the  leaves  are  of  full  size.  Then,  by  spreading 
the  leaves  and  brush  over  the  ground,  (for  they  should  not  be  heaped,)  if 
there  should  be  a  very  dry  time  the  next  May,  fire  may  be  turned  through 
it,  and  will  burn  the  leaves,  limbs,  and  top  of  the  ground,  so  that  a  very 
good  crop  of  Indian  corn  and  pumpkins  may  be  raised  among  the  logs  by 
hoeing.  After  these  crops  come  ofT,  the  land  may  be  cleared  and  sowed 
late  with  rye  and  timothy  grass,  or  with  oats  and  timothy  in  the  spring. 
If  what  is  called  a  good  burn  cannot  be  had  in  May,  keep  the  fire  out  un- 
til some  very  dry  time  in  July  or  August ;  then  clear  off  the  land,  and 
sow  wheat  or  rye  and  timothy,  harrowing  several  times,  both  before  and 

29* 


342  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

after  sowing ;  for,  after  the  fire  has  been  over  the  ground,  the  sod  of  time* 
thy  should  be  introduced  as  soon  as  the  other  crops  will  admit,  to  prevent 
briers,  alders,  fire-cherries,  &c.  from  springing  up  from  such  seeds  as  were 
not  consumed  by  the  fire. 

'  The  timothy  should  stand  four  or  five  years,  either  for  mowing  or  pas- 
ture, until  the  small  roots  of  the  forest  trees  are  rotten  ;  then  it  may  be 
ploughed ;  and  the  best  mode  which  I  have  observed,  is  to  plough  it  very 
shallow  in  the  autumn ;  in  the  spring,  cross-plough  it  deeper,  harrow  it 
well,  and  it  will  produce  a  first  rate  crop  of  Indian  corn  and  potatoes,  and, 
the  next  season,  the  largest  and  best  crop  of  flax  that  I  have  ever  seen,  and 
be  in  order  to  cultivate  with  any  kinds  of  grain,  or  to  lay  down  again  with 
grass.  These  directions  are  to  be  understood  as  applying  to  what  are 
generally  called  beech  lands,  and  the  chopping  may  be  done  any  time  in 
the  winter,  when  the  snow  is  not  too  .deep  to  cut  low  stumps,  as  the  leaves 
are  then  on  the  ground.  By  leaving  the  brush  spread  abroad,  I  have 
known  such  winter  choppings  to  burn  as  well  in  a  dry  time  in  August,  as 
that  which  had  been  cut  the  yummer  before.'^ 

'  The  various  crops,'  says  Mr.  Stuart,  '  raised  in  that  part  of  the  state  of 
New  York  which  I  have  seen,  are  very  much  the  same  as  in  Britain,  with 
the  addition  of  maize,  for  which  the  climate  of  Britain  is  not  well  adapted. 
Wheat,  however,  is  the  most  valuable  crop.  A  considerable  quantity  of 
buckwheat  and  rye  is  grown.  The  greater  degree  of  heat  is  not  favorable 
for  oats  and  barley.  Potatoes,  turnips,  and  other  green  crops,  are  not  at  all 
generally  cultivated  in  large  fields.  Rotation  of  crops  is  far  too  little  at- 
tended to.  I  observe  in  the  magazines  and  almanacs,  that  in  the  rotations, 
a  crop  of  turnips,  ruta-baga,  or  other  green  plants,  is  generally  put  down 
as  one  part  of  the  course  ;  but  I  have  nowhere  seen  more  than  the  margins 
or  edges  of  the  maize,  or  other  grain,  devoted  to  the  green  crop,  properly 
so  called.  The  attention  of  the  farmers  seems  chiefly  directed  to  the 
raising  enough  of  maize  for  home  consumption,  and  of  wheat  for  sale  ;  and 
when  you  talk  to  them  of  the  necessity  of  manuring,  with  a  view  to  pre- 
serve the  fertility  of  the  soil,  they  almost  uniformly  tell  you  that  the  ex- 
pense of  labor,  about  a  dollar  a  day,  for  laborers  during  the  summer,  ren- 
ders it  far  more  expedient  for  them,  as  soon  as  their  repeated  cropping  very 
much  diminishes  the  quantity  of  the  grain,  to  lay  down  their  land  in  grass, 
and  make  a  purchase  of  new  land  in  the  neighborhood,  or  even  to  sell  their 
cleared  land,  and  proceed  in  quest  of  a  new  settlement,  than  to  adopt  a 
system  of  rotation  of  crops,  assisted  by  manure.  There  is  great  inconve- 
nience, according  to  the  notions  of  the  British,  in  removing  from  one  farm 
to  another;  but  they  make  very  light  work  of  it  here,  and  consider  it  to  be 
merely  a  question  of  finance,  whether  they  shall  remain  on  their  improved 
land,  after  they  have  considerably  exhausted  its  fertilizing  power,  or  ac- 
quire and  remove  to  land  of  virgin  soil.  In  a  great  part  of  the  northern 
district  of  the  state  of  New  York,  there  is  still  a  great  deal  of  land  to  be 
cleared  ;  and  a  farmer  may,  in  many  cases,  acquire  additions  to  his  farm, 
so  near  his  residence  that  his  houses  may  suit  the  purpose  of  his  new  ac- 
quisition ;  but  he  is  more  frequently  tempted  to  sell  at  a  price  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  dollars  an  acre,  supposing  the  land  not  to  be  contiguous  to  any 
village.     If  he  obtains  land  near  his  first  farm,  after  he  has  worn  it  out, 

*  Encyclopedia  Americana. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  343 

he  lays  down  the  first  farm  in  grass,  allows  it  to  be  pastured  for  some 
years,  and  breaks  it  up  again  with  oats. 

1  Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  which,  par  excellence,  is  alone  in  this  country 
called  corn,  is  a  most  important  addition  to  the  crops  which  we  are  able  to 
raise  in  Britain.  It  is  used  as  food  for  man  in  a  great  variety  of  ways,  as 
bread,  as  porridge,  in  which  case  it  is  called  mush,  and  in  puddings. 
When  unripe,  and  in  the  green  pod,  it  is  not  unlike  green  peas,  and  is  in 
that  state  sold  as  a  vegetable.  One  species,  in  particular,  called  green 
corn,  is  preferable  for  this  purpose.  Broom  corn  is  another  species,  of  the 
stalks  of  which  a  most  excellent  kind  of  clothes  brush,  in  universal  use  at 
New  York,  is  made,  as  well  as  brooms  for  sweeping  house  floors.  Horses, 
cattle,  and  poultry,  are  all  fond  of  this  grain,  and  thrive  well  on  it.  The 
straw  is  very  nutritive,  and  considerable  in  quantity.  The  usual  period 
of  sowing  is  from  the  fifteenth  of  May  to  the  first  of  June,  in  drills  from 
three  and  a  half  to  four  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  the  seed  from  four  to  six 
inches  apart.  It  is  harvested  in  October,  sometimes  later.  The  hoe  weed- 
ing and  cleaning  of  this  crop  is  expensive,  the  whole  work  being  performed 
by  males, — females,  as  already  noticed,  never  being  allowed  to  work  out 
of  doors.  Pumpkins  are  very  generally  sown  between  the  rows  of  corn, 
and  give  the  field  quite  a  golden  appearance,  after  the  corn  itself  is  har- 
vested. 

'  Thirty-five  or  forty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  is  considered  a  good 
average  crop,  on  land  suited  to  it,  well  prepared,  and  well  managed ;  but 
one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  have  been  raised  on  an  acre.  Arthur 
Young  remarks,  "  that  a  country  whose  soil  and  climate  admit  the  course 
of  maize,  and  then  wheat,  is  under  a  cultivation  that  perhaps  yields  the 
most  food  for  man  and  beast  that  is  possible  to  be  drawn  from  the  land  !" 
That  course  is  frequently  adopted  here,  and  with  success,  where  the  soil, 
lately  cleared,  is  of  the  best  description,  and  might,  without  question,  be 
continued  for  many  years,  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  manure  was  allowed  ; 
but  where  such  a  course  is  persisted  in  without  manure,  after  the  land  has 
been  severely  cropped,  the  crops  which  follow  are  inferior  in  quantity  to 
crops  of  the  same  description  on  similar  soils  in  Britain.  As  a  cleaning 
crop,  maize  is  most  valuable,  but,  being  a  culmiferous  plant,  it  is,  of  course, 
far  more  exhausting  than  the  green  crops,  which,  in  Britain,  in  most  cases 
precede  wheat. 

'  Wheat  is  sown  in  the  end  of  September,  and  some  part  of  it  in  spring, 
— if  after  maize,  it  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  possible  after  that  crop  is 
harvested.  It  is  reaped  in  July.  It  is  excellent  in  quality ;  if  the  flour 
which  we  have  seen  in  every  place  where  we  have  been,  and  the  bread  we 
eat,  are  tests  by  which  to  judge  of  it.  Thirty-five  and  forty  bushels  of 
wheat  is  considered  a  very  abundant  crop, — the  average  produce  in  that 
part  of  the  United  States  in  which  wheat  is  grown,  is  said  not  to  exceed 
thirteen  bushels,  while  in  England  it  is  reckoned  at  twenty-five  bushels. 

1  Barley  or  oats  very  frequently  succeed  wheat  before  the  land  is  laid 
down  in  grass,  or  again  bears  a  crop  of  maize  ;  but  it  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood that  barley,  and  even  oats,  do  not  in  many  cases  follow  the  crop  of 
maize  immediately,  and  precede  the  wheat  crop. 

'  Oats  are  sowed  in  the  end  of  April  and  beginning  of  May,  and  are 
reaped  in  August  or  the  beginning  of  September.  We  saw  several  fields 
not  cut,  but  no  very  great  crop,  in  the  northern  part  of  this  state  in  the 


344  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

beginning  of  September.  The  average  crop  is  said  to  be  twenty  bushels 
per  acre  ;  but  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels  are  often  obtained  by  good  manage- 
ment. The  grain  is  not  so  plump  as  in  Britain.  In  1827,  the  premium 
of  one  of  the  agricultural  societies  was  given  for  fifty-seven  bushels  on  an 
acre.  Barley  is  sown  at  about  the  same  time  as  oats,  and  reaped  two  or 
three  weeks  earlier ;  the  produce  about  one  fifth  less  than  oats. 

1  Potatoes,  turnips,  ruta-baga,  peas,  lucern,  &c.  are  all  to  be  seen  here  in 
small  quantities,  but  not  so  well  managed  as  in  well-cultivated  districts  of 
Britain.  The  high  price  of  labor  is  the  great  obstacle  to  the  management 
which  those  crops  require.  It  is  not  because  the  farmer  does  not  under- 
stand his  business,  that  such  crops  are  apparently  not  sufficiently  attended 
to,  but  because  he  in  all  cases  calculates  whether  it  will  not  be  more  pro- 
fitable for  him  to  remove  his  establishment  to  a  new  and  hitherto  unim- 
poverished  soil,  than  to  commence  and  carry  on  an  extensive  system  of 
cultivation,  by  manuring  and  fallow,  or  green  crops.  Such  a  system  may 
be  adopted  in  the  neighborhood  of  great  towns,  where  many  green  crops 
are  easily  disposed  of,  and  where  manure  can  be  had  in  large  quantity, 
and  at  a  cheap  rate  ;  but  it  is  in  vain  to  look  for  its  adoption  at  all  gene- 
rally, or  to  expect  to  see  agricultural  operations  in  their  best  style,  until 
the  land,  even  in  the  most  distant  states  and  territories,  be  occupied,  so 
that  the  farmer  may  no  longer  find  it  more  for  his  interest  to  begin  his 
operations  anew,  on  land  previously  uncultivated,  than  to  manage  his  farm 
according  to  the  method  which  will  render  it  most  productive. 

1  Prices  of  grain  vary  much.  Wheat  is,  of  course,  the  grain  which  the 
farmer  chiefly  raises  for  market,  and  he  considers  himself  remunerated,  if 
the  price  is  not  below  a  dollar  for  a  bushel.  Flour,  when  wheat  is  at  a 
c'ollar  per  bushel,  is  expected  to  bring  somewhat  more  than  five  dollars  per 
barrel  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  pounds.  Indian  corn,  two  shillings 
to  two  shillings  and  six  pence  per  bushel ;  oats,  one  shilling  and  two  pence 
to  one  shilling  and  four  pence ;  barley,  one  shilling  and  six  pence  to  one 
shilling  and  eight  pence. 

1  It  is  difficult  to  give  any  precise  information  as  to  the  wages  of  labor. 
A  hired  servant  gets  from  ten  to  twelve  dollars  a  month,  besides  his  board, 
which  he  very  frequently  has  at  table  with  his  master,  consisting  of  animal 
food  three  times  a  day.  Laborers  hired  by  the  day  for  those  sorts  of  farm 
work  in  which  women  are  employed  in  Britain,  such  as  hoeing,  assisting 
in  cleaning  grain,  and  even  milking  of  cows,  get  about  three  quarters  of  a 
dollar  per  day, — in  time  of  hay-making  or  harvest  work,  frequently  a  dol- 
lar besides  their  board.  The  workmen  work,  or  are  said  to  work,  from 
daylight  to  sunset :  but  I  doubt,  from  any  thing  I  have  seen,  whether  the 
ordinary  plan  of  keeping  workmen  employed  for  ten  hours  a  day  be  not  as 
profitable  to  the  employer  as  to  the  workman.  The  days  are  never  so 
long  in  summer,  nor  so  short  in  winter,  as  in  Britain.  The  sun  rises  on 
the  twenty-first  of  June  about  half  past  four,  and  sets  at  half  past  seven  ; 
on  the  twenty-first  of  December,  it  rises  at  half  past  seven,  and  sets  at  half 
past  four. 

1  Manures  are  far  too  little  attended  to,  as  has  been  already  noticed  ;  but 
there  are  instances  of  individuals  keeping  their  land  in  good  heart  with 
manure,  especially  where,  as  in  many  parts  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
gypsum  and  lime  are  in  the  neighborhood.  Gypsum  is  more  used  than 
any  other  manure,  and  with  great  effect,  generally  in  about  the  quantity 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHT.  345 

of  a  ton  to  ten  or  fifteen  acres.  Manure  for  the  villages  is  often  sold  at 
and  under  a  shilling  per  ton.  The  question  which  the  American  settler  al- 
ways puts  to  himself  is,  whether  it  will  be  more  expedient  for  him,  in  point 
of  expense,  to  remove  to  a  new  soil  covered  with  vegetable  mould,  or  to 
remain  on  his  cleared  land,  and  to  support  its  fertility  by  regularly  manur- 
ing, and  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops. 

'  The  horses  and  cattle  are  of  mixed  breeds,  and  are  always,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  abundance  of  food  in  this  country,  and  the  easy  circum- 
stances of  the  people,  in  good  order.  A  starved-looking  animal  of  any  kind 
is  never  seen  on  the  one  hand,  nor  very  fat  pampered  cattle,  nor  very  fine 
coated,  over-groomed  horses,  on  the  other.  Both  horses  and  cattle  are 
generally  of  middling  size ;  the  horses  of  that  description  that  answer  for 
all  sorts  of  work,  the  saddle,  the  wagon,  or  the  plough.  The  heaviest  are 
selected  for  the  stages.  All  carriages  are  driven  at  a  trot.  Horses  are 
broken  with  great  gentleness,  and  are,  I  think,  better  and  more  thoroughly 
broken  than  in  England.  An  American  driver  of  a  stage,  awkward  look- 
ing as  he  appears,  manages  his  team,  as  he  calls  his  horses,  with  the  most 
perfect  precision.  The  law  of  the  road  is  to  keep  to  the  right  side  of  the 
road,  not  to  the  left  as  in  Britain.  Great  exertions  are,  I  observe  from  the 
newspapers  here,  making  to  improve  the  breeds  of  cattle  and  horses,  by 
importations  of  the  Teeswater  cattle,  and  of  stud-horses  from  England. 
The  British  admiral,  Sir  Isaac  Coffin,  has  displayed  great  public  spirit  in 
sending  over  fine  cattle  and  superior  horses,  from  Britain  to  New  England. 
The  price  of  beef  varies  from  two  pence  to  five  pence  per  pound,  according 
to  the  prices  and  quality,  from  which  the  value  of  the  animal  may  be  com- 
puted. I  have  nowhere  seen  any  beef  equal  to  the  best  beef  of  an  Eng- 
lish market,  or  to  the  kyloe  of  the  West  Highlands  of  Scotland  well  fed ; 
but  beef  of  bad  quality  is  never  brought  to  market,  and  a  great  deal  of  it 
is  gocd.  I  have  looked  into  the  markets  wherever  we  have  been.  Oxen 
are  much  used  in  ploughing,  and  are  so  well  trained,  that  they  are  very 
useful  in  many  operations  of  carting  on  farms.  The  price  of  ordinary 
horses  is  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  pounds. 

1 1  observe  at  the  agricultural  shows  of  last  year,  premiums  awarded  for 
milch  cows  yielding  ten  or  eleven  pounds  of  butter  per  week,  one  of  them 
yielding  thirteen,  and  twenty-three  to  twenty-four  quarts  of  milk  per  day. 
One  of  the  breeds  of  cows  is  called  very  appropriately  the  "  fill-pail."  A 
premium  was  also  awarded  for  a  cow  that  calved  on  the  7th  of  January, 
—calf  sold  in  March,  —  another  calf  put  to  her,  and  sold  in  June, — and  a 
third  at  her  side ;  the  price  of  the  three  calves  forty  dollars, 

1  Sheep  are  not  so  much  attended  to  as  they  should  be  in  this  country, 
where  the  dryness  of  the  weather  preserves  them  from  diseases  to  which 
they  are  subject  in  Britain.  The  merinos,  and  crosses  with  the  merino, 
are  those  generally  seen ;  but  little  care  is  paid  to  their  being  well  fed 
before  being  killed  and  brought  to  market.  The  mutton  is  of  course  inferi- 
or in  quality,  and  the  people  led  to  entertain  prejudices  against  it.  Even 
the  slaves  in  the  south  are  said  to  object  to  being  fed  on  sheep's  meat.  I 
have  again  and  again  seen  good  mutton,  but  far  more  rarely  than  good 
beef  and  pork.  Hogs  are  universal  in  this  country,  and  are  well  fed,  fre- 
quently, first  of  all  in  the  woods  on  chesnuts,  hickory  nuts,  sometimes  on 
fallen  peaches  and  apples,  but  almost  always,  before  being  killed,  they  get 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  meal,  either  from  Indian  corn  or  barley.     Steamed 

V4 


346  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

food  is  also  supplied  in  some  cases.  The  steam-boiler  for  food  for  cattle  is 
well  known  here.  General  La  Fayette  saw  one  so  well  constructed  some- 
where in  this  country,  that  he  had  one  of  the  same  pattern  made  for  him- 
self and  carried  to  France. 

1  Poultry  are  excellent,  well  fed  everywhere,  and  in  great  numbers  about 
the  farm-yards.  Turkeys  and  guinea-fowls  abound  more  than  in  Britain, 
which  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  as  their  relatively  cheap  price  places  them 
within  the  reach  of  all.  The  price  of  geese  and  turkeys,  even  at  New 
York,  is  frequently  not  much  above  half  a  dollar ;  ducks  and  fowls,  about 
one  shilling.  Eggs,  a  dollar  for  a  hundred ;  cheese  very  good  at  four  pence 
and  five  pence  per  pound. 

'  Implements  of  husbandry  are,  on  the  whole,  well  suited  to  the  country. 
The  two-horse  plough,  driven  by  one  man,  is  universally  used,  unless  in 
bringing  in  rough  stony  land,  when  four  oxen  or  horses  are  necessary. 
The  cradle-scythe  is  in  pretty  universal  use.  A  good  workman  can  cut 
down  an  acre  of  wheat  per  day.  The  harvest  work  being  altogether  per- 
formed by  males,  and  the  crops  ripening,  and  of  course  reaped,  at  seasons 
differing  from  each  other  much  more  than  in  England,  the  cheerful  ap- 
pearance of  the  harvest-field  all  over  Britain,  filled  with  male  and  female 
reapers  and  gleaners,  is  nowhere  seen  in  this  country.  The  prices  of  im- 
plements are  not  higher  than  in  England.  The  lower  price  of  wood 
makes  up  for  the  higher  price  of  labor,  especially  as  carpenters  are  very 
expert.  Ploughing  is  well  executed,  and  premiums  given  by  agricultural 
societies  at  their  yearly  meetings.  I  observed,  at  a  late  meeting  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, sixteen  ploughs,  drawn  by  oxen,  started  for  the  competition, — 
that  the  ploughs  were  of  the  improved  kind,  with  cast-iron  mould-boards, 
the  ploughing  five  inches  deep,  and  the  furrows  not  more  than  ten 
inches  in  width.  Premiums  were  at  this  meeting  awarded  for  various  agri- 
cultural implements.  Threshing-machines  are  not  yet  so  general  as  in 
Britain.'* 

*  Mr.  Stuart,  during  his  residence  in  the  United  States,  appears  to  have  made  particu- 
lar inquiries  in  respect  to  its  agriculture  and  horticulture.  The  following  paragraph, 
in  which  a  comparison  is  drawn  between  the  productions  of  our  gardens  and  those  of 
Great  Britain,  is  interesting : — 

The  farms  in  the  neighborhood  of  New- York  are  all  cultivated  j  but  having  been  long 
accustomed  to  the  plough,  and  the  soil  very  different  from  that  of  Illinois,  the  applica- 
tion of  manure  is  indispensably  necessary.  The  contiguity  to  New- York  insures  tole- 
rable prices  for  green  crops,  and  a  great  part  of  the  land  is  devoted  to  them.  Even  the 
Lima  bean  is  cultivated  in  the  field.  The  varieties  of  the  bean  in  an  American  garden 
last  during  great  part  of  the  summer ;  *but  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  too  great  for  green 
peas  after  the  first  or  second  crop.  Neither  do  artichokes  thrive  well,  nor  cauliflowers, 
nor  broccoli ;  but  the  tomato  is  excellent  and  abundant,  and  pumpkins  and  vegetable 
marrow  are  plentiful.  Asparagus,  too,  is  often  cultivated  on  the  field  in  Long  Island, 
and  is  nowhere  of  better  quality.  It  is  sometimes  sold  in  the  New  York  market  at  two 
pence  sterling  per  hundred.  Upon  the  whole,  I  think  the  vegetables  for  the  table  in 
Great  Britain  are  fully  equal  in  variety  and  quality  to  those  in  the  United  States  ;  but 
they  are  much  higher  in  price.  A  great  distinction  is  to  be  drawn  between  the  two 
countries  respecting  the  article  fruit.  The  Americans  have  peaches,  melons,  apples, 
strawberries,  and  cherries,  all  of  excellent  quality,  and  in  such  abundance,  that  there  is 
not  a  single  individual  in  the  whole  country,  even  the  very  shoe-black,  whose  funds  do 
not  enable  him  to  have  as  much  of  these  fruits  as  he  likes  at  the  proper  season.  There 
are  also  abundance  of  walnuts,  and  of  various  sorts  of  nuts  for  every  body.  In  many 
places,  but  not  universally,  there  are  plums,  pears,  and  grapes.  The  plums,  so  far  as 
I  have  seen  them,  are  not  equal  to  the  English, — the  pears,  especially  the  sickle  pear 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  347 

The  principal  products  of  the  southern  states  are  tobacco,  cotton,  rice, 
and  sugar.  The  first  of  these  is  grown  largely  in  Virginia  and  other  of 
the  middle  and  southern  states,  and  together  with  the  other"  staples  of 
that  portion  of  the  country,  is  chiefly  the  product  of  slave  labor.  There 
are  at  present  but  two  sorts  of  tobaccco  raised  in  the  western  states :  the 
one  with  a  long  and  sharp-pointed  leaf,  —  and  the  other  with  a  round  and 
hairy  leaf,  which  is  evidently  the  best  tobacco.  The  seed  is  sown  in  beds 
well  prepared  for  the  purpose,  so  that  in  May  it  is  fit  to  be  transplanted. 
The  plants  are  then  put  into  another  piece  of  ground,  at  intervals  of  from 
three  to  four  feet ;  they  are  carefully  freed  from  weeds,  and  the  earth  is 
drawn  up  to  their  stems.  When  they  have  obtained  a  certain  growth,  the 
tops  are  taken  off,  that  the  remaining  leaves  may  acquire  a  proper  size ; 
worms  are  carefully  removed,  and  no  sucker  is  allowed  to  remain.  In 
August,  the  plants  become  spotted,  and  appear  of  a  brownish  color ;  by 
these  tokens  they  are  discerned  to  be  ripe,  and  are  therefore  immediately 
pulled.  They  lie  one  night  to  sweat ;  next  day,  they  are  hung  up  to  dry  ; 
when  the  tobacco  has  become  sufficiently  dry  to  ensure  its  preservation,  it 
is  stripped  from  the  stalks,  and  barrelled  up  for  exportation ;  or  manufac- 
tured into  various  shapes,  for  those  whom  a  species  of  luxury  has  taught 
to  look  upon  it  as  almost  one  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  Along  with  six 
thousand  plants,  yielding  generally  one  thousand  pounds  of  tobacco,  one 
person  may  manage  four  acres  of  Indian  com. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  tobacco  reared  in  Virginia,  namely,  the  sweet- 
scented,  which  is  the  best ;  the  big  and  little,  which  follow  next ;  then  the 
Frederick ;  and  lastly,  the  one  and  all,  the  largest  of  all,  and  producing 
most  in  point  of  quantity.  The  Virginian  tobacco  is  reckoned  superior  to 
any  raised  in  the  southern  states  ;  and  great  care  is  taken  by  the  regula- 
tions of  the  state,  that  no  frauds  be  practised  upon  the  merchants,  and  that 
no  inferior  tobacco  be  palmed  upon  the  purchaser.  For  this  purpose,  houses 
of  inspection  are  established  in  every  district  where  tobacco  is  cultivat- 
ed, whose  regulations  are  rigorously  enforced ;  this  contributes,  as  much 
as  the  real  superiority  of  the  article  itself,  to  keep  up  its  price  in  the  mar- 
ket. Every  person  who  intends  his  tobacco  for  exportation,  packs  it  up  in 
hogsheads,  and  thus  sends  it  to  one  of  the  inspecting  houses.  Here  the  to- 
bacco is  taken  from  the  cask,  which  is  opened  for  the  purpose ;  it  is  exa- 
mined in  every  direction,  and  in  every  part,  in  order  to  ascertain  its 
quality  and  its  purity;  if  any  defect  is  perceived,  it  is  rejected  and 
declared  to  be  unfit  for  exportation.  If  no  defect  appear,  it  is  pro- 
nounced to  be  exportable.  It  is  then  repacked  in  the  hogshead,  which  is 
branded  with  a  hot  iron,  marking  the  place  of  inspection,  and  the  quality  of 

of  Pennsylvania,  Excellent, — the  grapes  quite  inferior  to  those  in  the  open  air  in  France, 
or  in  the  south  of  England ;  but  the  great  difference  between  the  countries  exists  in  the 
abundance  of  the  first-mentioned  fruits  for  the  whole  mass  of  the  people.  Peaches  are 
raised  on  standard  trees  only,  and,  though  universally  good,  are  not  Superior  in  flavor 
to  those  raised  on  garden  walls,  or  in  hot-houses  in  England.  They  are  reckoned  bet- 
ter at  Philadelphia  than  anywhere  else.  Melons  are  considered  best-flavored  in  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas ;  but  they  are  so  plentiful  in  New  York,  that  there  is  hardly  a  la- 
Dorer  who  does  not  partake  of  a  watermelon  every  day  during  the  hot  season.  Apples 
are  as  good  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  as  anywhere.  Apricots,  and  nectarines, 
and  figs,  are  hardly  ever  seen.  It  is  therefore  clear,  that  a  man  of  wealth  may  obtain 
greater  variety  of  fine  fruit  in  England  than  in  the  United  States,  the  melon  and  ap- 
ple alone  being  inferior  to  the  melons  and  apples  in  America  j  but  all  in  this  country 
have  plenty  of  excellent  fruit. 


348  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  contents ;  and  then  lodged  in  the  inspecting  storehouses,  there  to 
await  the  disposal  of  the  planter,  who  receives  a  certificate  of  the  particu- 
lars, serving  at  the  same  time  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the  deposit.  It 
is  by  selling  this  tobacco  note  to  the  merchant  that  the  planter  sells  his  to- 
bacco. The  purchaser,  on  viewing  this  note,  is  as  well  acquainted  with  the 
article,  as  if  he  had  inspected  it  himself ;  and  he  has  only  to  send  the  note 
and  transfer  to  the  store  where  the  tobacco  lies,  and  it  is  immediately  de- 
livered out,  agreeably  to  his  orders.  This  measure  has  insured  a  prefer- 
ence in  the  foreign  market  to  the  Virginian  tobacco,  and  prevents  the  de- 
terioration of  the  article. 

The  soil  most  proper  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton  is  found  in  the  islands 
lying  on  the  coast.  Those  belonging  to  the  state  of  Georgia  produce  the 
best,  known  in  France  by  the  name  of  Georgia  cotton^  and  in  Great  Bri- 
tain by  the  name  of  Sea  Island  cotton.  This  variety  of  cotton  has  a  deep 
black  seed,  and  very  fine,  long  wool,  which  is  easily  separated  from  the 
seed  by  the  roller  gins,  which  do  not  injure  the  staple.  In  the  middle  and 
upper  country,  the  green  seed  or  inferior  cotton  is  produced ;  this  kind  is 
less  silky,  and  adheres  so  tenaciously  to  the  seed,  that  it  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated without  the  action  of  a  saw-gin.  Though  the  wool  of  the  green  seed, 
or  bowed  Georgia  cotton,  be  cheaper  than  the  other,  yet  its  produce  is  more 
luxuriant.  An  acre,  which  will  produce  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of 
black  seed  cotton,  will  generally  yield  two  hundred  pounds  of  the  green 
seed  kind.  The  packing  of  the  cotton  is  done  in  large  canvass  bags,  which 
must  be  wetted  as  the  cotton  is  put  in,  that  it  may  not  hang  to  the  cloth, 
and  may  slide  better  down.  The  bag  is  suspended  between  two  trees, 
posts,  or  beams ;  and  a  negro,  with  his  feet,  stamps  it  down.  These  bags 
are  generally  made  to  contain  from  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  to  four 
hundred  pounds  each. 

1 1  have  been  lately  favored,'  says  Mr.  Everett,  in  his  valuable  address 
before  the  New  York  Institute,  in  October,  1831,  '  with  a  minute  statement 
of  the  average  product  of  five  or  six  cotton  plantations  in  two  of  the  south- 
western states,  ascertained  by  putting  together  the  income  of  a  good  and 
bad  year.  The  result  of  this  statement  is,  that  the  capital  invested  in 
these  plantations  yields  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  clear ;  and  the  net 
profit  accruing  to  the  proprietor,  for  the  labor  of  each  efficient  hand,  is  two 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  annum;  being  a  clear 
gain  of  four  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  week.  It  further  appears  that  on 
one  of  these  plantations,  (and  the  same,  though  not  stated,  is  believed  to 
hold  of  the  others  in  due  proportion,)  worth  altogether,  for  land,  labor,  and 
stock,  ninety-two  thousand  dollars,  the  entire  amount  of  articles  paying 
duty  annually  consumed,  is  two  thousand  three  hundred  dollars.  The 
average  crop  of  this  plantation,  taking  a  good  and  bad  year,  is  fourteen 
thousand  five  hundred  dollars.  Suppose  the  duties  to  be  thirty-three  and 
one  third  per  cent,  and  the  whole  amount  of  the  duty  to  be  actually  as- 
sessed, in  the  shape  of  an  enhanced  price  of  the  article,  (the  contrary  of 
which  is  known  to  be  true,  for  in  several  articles  the  entire  price  is  little 
more  than  the  duty,)  it  would  amount  to  less  than  seven  hundred  and  thirty 
dollars  per  annum  on  a  clear  profit  of  fourteen  thousand  five  hundred  dollars.' 

Rice  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  southern  states.  The  grains  of  this 
plant  grow  on  little  fruit  stalks  springing  from  the  main  stalk.  It  is  sown 
in  rows,  in  the  bottom  of  trenches,  made  entirely  by  slave  labor.     These 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  349 

tidges  lie  about  seventeen  inches  apart,  from  centre  to  centre.  The  rice 
is  put  in  by  the  hand,  generally  by  women,  and  is  cast  so  as  to  fall  in  a 
line.  This  is  done  about  the  seventeenth  of  March.  By  means  of  flood- 
gates, the  water  is  then  permitted  to  flow  over  the  fields,  and  to  remain  on 
the  ground  five  days,  at  the  depth  of  several  inches.  The  object  of  this  is 
to  sprout  the  seeds,  as  it  is  technically  called.  The  water  is  next  drawn 
off,  and  the  ground  allowed  to  dry,  till  the  rice  is  between  three  and  four 
inches  in  height.  This  requires  about  a  month.  The  fields  are  then 
again  overflowed,  and  are  allowed  to  remain  in  that  state  about  a  fortnight, 
to  destroy  the  weeds.  It  is  now  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  for  two 
months  afterwards  the  ground  is  permitted  to  continue  dry  ;  during  this 
interval  it  is  repeatedly  hoed,  and  the  soil  is  kept  loose  and  free.  The 
fields  are  then  once  more  submerged,  in  order  that  the  crops  may  be  ripen- 
ed, and  they  actually  do  ripen  while  standing  in  the  water.  The  harvest 
commences  in  August,  and  extends  into  October.  The  plants  are  then 
cut  by  the  male  slaves,  and  tied  into  bundles  by  the  females.  The  grains 
are  threshed  out  by  means  of  hand  flails.  The  outer  husk  is  detached  by 
passing  the  rice  between  a  pair  of  mill-stones.  The  film  which  still  en- 
velopes the  grain  is  removed  by  trituration  under  heavy  pestles,  consisting 
of  upright  bars,  shod,  with  iron,  which  are  raised  several  feet  by  machinery, 
and  then  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  rice,  the  particles  of  which  are  thus 
rubbed  against  each  other,  till  the  film  is  removed.  When  thus  thorough- 
ly winnowed,  it  is  packed  in  casks  holding  about  six  hundred  pounds  each, 
and  is  ready  for  exportation. 

The  sugar  cane  is  cultivated  to  a  great  extent  in  Louisiana,  Georgia, 
and  West  Florida.  In  the  first  of  these  states,  five  kinds  of  the  cane  have 
been  raised.  The  first  is  the  Creole  cane,  which  is  supposed  to  have  come 
originally  from  Africa.  The  second  is  the  Bourbon  cane,  from  Otaheite. 
Besides  these,  are  the  riband  cane,  green  and  red  ;  the  riband  cane,  green 
and  yellow ;  and  the  violet  cane  of  Brazil.  The  latter  species  was  aban- 
doned soon  after  its  introduction,  as  it  proved  less  productive  in  our  cli- 
mate than  any  of  the  others.  The  other  species  are  the  best  suited  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  They  are  all  more  or  less  affected  by  the  variations  of 
the  atmosphere,  are  very  sensible  to  cold,  and  are  killed  in  part  by  the 
frost  every  year.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  cane  may  be  cul- 
tivated in  a  latitude  much  colder  than  was  generally  supposed ;  for  fine 
crops  are  now  made  in  Louisiana,  in  places  where  a  few  years  ago  the 
cane  froze  before  it  was  ripe  enough  to  make  sugar. 

In  the  process  of  cultivation,  the  ground  is  ploughed  as  deep  as  possible, 
and  harrowed ;  after  it  has  been  thus  broken  up,  parallel  drills  or  furrows 
are  ploughed  at  the  distance  of  two  feet  and  a  half  to  four  feet  from  one 
another  ;  in  these  the  cane  is  laid  lengthwise,  and  covered  about  an  inch 
with  a  hoe.  Small  canals  to  drain  off  the  water  are  commonly  dug,  more 
or  less  distant  from  each  other,  and  these  are  crossed  by  smaller  drains, 
so  as  to  form  squares  like  a  chess  board.  These  ditches  are  necessary  to 
drain  off  the  water  from  rains,  as  well  as  that  which  filters  from  the  rivers, 
which  would  otherwise  remain  upon  the  plantations.  The  average  quan- 
tity of  sugar  that  may  be  produced  upon  an  acre  of  land  of  the  proper 
quality,  well  cultivated,  is  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds, 
provided  that  the  cane  has  not  been  damaged,  either  by  storms  of  wind, 
inundations,  or  frost.     The  strong  soil  is  easiest  of  cultivation,  and  most 

30 


350  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

productive,  in  rainy  seasons.  The  light  soils  require  less  labor,  and  yield 
more  revenue,  in  dry  seasons.  To  these  variations,  others  are  to  be  add- 
ed, resulting  from  the  different  exposure  of  the  lands,  the  greater  or  less 
facility  of  draining,  and  also  from  the  greater  or  less  quantity  of  a  weed 
known  by  the  name  of  coco  or  grass  nut.  Sixty  working  hands  are  ne- 
cessary to  cultivate  two  hundred  and  forty  acres  of  cane,  planted  in  well- 
prepared  land,  and  to  do  all  the  work  necessary  until  the  sugar  is  made 
and  delivered.  The  sugar,  up  to  the  moment  it  is  delivered  to  the  mer- 
chant, costs  the  sugar  planter  about  three  and  a  half  cents  per  pound,  for 
expense  incurred,  without  reckoning  the  interest  on  his  capital. 

The  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  the  raising  of  silk-worms, 
have  occupied  considerable  attention  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Before  the  revolution,  the  production  of  silk  was  attempted  in  Georgia, 
but  without  ultimate  success.  In  Connecticut,  and  in  some  other  places, 
for  the  last  seventy  years,  an  inferior  kind  of  sewing  silk  has  been  manu- 
factured ;  but  its  use  has  been  chiefly  confined  to  the  neighborhood  in 
which  it  has  been  produced.  Of  late  years,  however,  efforts  have  been 
made  to  introduce  the  important  branch  of  agriculture  that  affords  the 
necessary  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  silk.  Societies  have  been 
formed  in  different  states  for  its  promotion,  and  the  national  government 
have  thought  the  subject  worthy  their  particular  attention. 

During  the  year  1S29,  a  series  of  essays  were  written  by  M.  D'Homer- 
gue,  the  son  of  an  eminent  silk  manufacturer,  at  Nismes,  who  had  arrived 
in  Philadelphia  at  the  instance  of  an  association  for  the  promotion  of  the 
culture  of  silk ;  they  have  since  been  published  in  a  separate  form,  and 
will  repay  the  perusal  of  those  who  may  feel  peculiarly  interested  in  the 
subject.  The  report  of  the  committee  of  agriculture,  who  were  instructed 
to  inquire  into  the  expediency  of  adopting  measures  to  extend  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  to  promote  the  cultivation  of  silk,  by  intro- 
ducing the  necessary  machinery,  made  to  the  house  of  representatives, 
March  12,  1830,  represents  these  essays  and  the  facts  contained  in  them 
as  entitled  to  high  confidence. 

1  It  appears  from  them,'  states  the  report,  '  that  American  silk  is  superior 
in  quality  to  that  produced  in  any  other  country  ;— in  France  and  Italy, 
twelve  pounds  of  cocoons  are  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  raw  silk, 
whilst  eight  pounds  of  American  cocoons  will  produce  one  pound  of  raw 
silk : — that  cocoons  cannot  be  exported  to  a  foreign  market,  from  several 
causes, — their  bulk,  their  liability  to  spoil  by  moulding  on  ship  board,  and 
because  they  cannot  be  compressed  without  rendering  them  incapable  of 
being  afterwards  reeled.  It  is  further  demonstrated  in  these  essays,  and 
in  a  memorial  lately  presented  by  the  manufacturers  of  silk  stuffs  of  Lyons, 
in  France,  to  the  minister  of  commerce  and  manufactures,  that  the  art  of 
filature  can  only  be  acquired  by  practical  instruction,  by  some  one  intimate- 
ly acquainted  with,  and  accustomed  to,  that  process  :  that  no  human  skill 
or  ingenuity,  unaided  by  practical  instruction,  is  capable  of  acquiring  that 
art  to  any  profitable  extent.  It  is  made  manifest  that,  although  the  culture 
of  silk  has  been  carried  on  for  many  years  in  some  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  more  particularly  in  Connecticut,  it  has  been  conducted  very 
Unprofitably,  compared  with  what  the  results  might  have  been,  if  the  art 
x>f  filature  had  been  understood.  The  sewing  silk  made  in  Connecticut  is 
from  the  best  of  the  silk,  and  is,  after  all,  quite  inferior  to  that  of  France 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  351 

and  Italy :  in  these  latter  countries,  sewing  silk  is  manufactured  from  im- 
perfect  cocoons,  or  from  refuse  silk. 

'  It  appears  also,  that  unless  the  silk  is  properly  reeled  from  the  cocoons, 
it  is  never  afterwards  susceptible  of  use  in  the  finer  fabrics.  It  is  a  grati- 
fying consideration  that  the  benefits  from  the  culture  of  silk  and  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  art  of  reeling  the  same,  will  be  common  to  every  part  of  the 
United  States.  The  climate  of  every  state  in  the  union  is  adapted  to  the 
culture  of  silk :  hatching  the  eggs  of  the  silk-worms  may  be  accelerated  or 
retarded,  to  suit  the  putting  forth  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry.  That  tree  is 
easily  propagated  from  the  seed  of  the  fruit,  and  is  adapted  to  almost  any 
soil.  The  committee  regard  the  general  culture  of  silk  as  a  vast  national 
advantage  in  many  points  of  view.  If  seriously  undertaken  and  prosecuted, 
it  will,  in  a  few  years,  furnish  an  article  of  export  of  great  value  :  and  thus 
the  millions  paid  by  the  people  of  the  United  States  for  silk  stuffs  will  be 
compensated  for  by  the  sale  of  our  raw  silk.  The  importation  of  silk, 
during  the  year  which  ended  on  the  30th  of  September,  1828,  amounted 
to  eight  million,  four  hundred  and  sixty-three  thousand,  five  hundred  and 
sixty-three  dollars,  of  which,  one  million,  two  hundred  and  seventy-four 
thousand,  four  hundred  and  sixty-one  were  exported  :  but  in  the  same  year, 
the  exportation  of  bread  stuffs  from  this  country  amounted  only  to  five  million, 
four  hundred  and  eleven  thousand,  six  hundred  and  sixty-five  dollars,  leav- 
ing the  balance  against  us  of  nearly  two  millions.  The  committee  antici- 
pate that  at  a  period  not  remote,  when  we  shall  be  in  possession  of  the  fi- 
nest material  produced  in  any  country,  the  manufacture  of  silk  stuffs  will 
necessarily  be  introduced  into  the  United  States.  The  culture  of  silk  pro- 
mises highly  moral  benefits,  in  the  employment  of  poor  women  and  children 
in  a  profitable  business,  while  it  will  detract  nothing  from  agricultural  or 
manufacturing  labor.  The  culture  of  silk  will  greatly  benefit  those  states 
which  have  abandoned  slave  labor,  the  value  of  whose  principal  produc- 
tions, particularly  in  the  article  of  cotton,  has  been  depressed  by  overpro- 
duction.' 

The  vine  grows  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  yields  a  plenti- 
ful return  for  the  labor  of  cultivation.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the 
vineyards  in  the  vicinity  of  Vevay.  A  large  grant  of  land,  in  the  territory 
of  Alabama,  was  made  by  the  general  government  to  a  French  association 
under  M.  Villar,  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  and  the  olive.  About  two  hundred  and  seventy  acres  had  been  occu- 
pied with  vines  in  1827,  and  nearly  four  hundred  olive  trees  had  been 
planted.  The  latter,  however,  do  not  thrive,  and  it  is  apprehended  that  they 
will  not  attain  an  available  degree  of  perfection  in  that  climate. 

Horticulture  has  not  been  entirely  overlooked  in  the  United  States,  though 
it  has  not  yet  received  the  attention  that  is  paid  to  it  in  other  countries. 
Some  idea  of  the  varieties  of  fruits  and  of  flowers  which  the  climate  will 
admit  of,  may  be  formed  from  the  following  statement  of  the  contents  of  a 
garden  in  the  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia,  which  may  be  relied  on  as  au- 
thentic, being  extracted  from  the  report  of  the  committee,  appointed  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Horticultural  society  for  visiting  the  nurseries  and  gardens 
in  the  vicinity  of  that  city :  ■  Here  are  to  be  found,'  say  the  committee, 
•  one  hundred  and  thirteen  varieties  of  apples,  seventy-two  of  pears,  twen- 
ty-two of  cherries,  seventeen  of  apricots,  forty-five  of  plums,  thirty-nine  of 
peaches,  five  of  nectarines,  three  of  almonds,  six  of  quinces,  five  of  mul- 


352  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

berries,  six  of  raspberries,  six  of  currants,  five  of  filberts,  eight  of  walnuts, 
six  of  strawberries,  and  two  of  medlars.  The  stock,  considered  according 
to  its  growth,  has  in  the  first  class  of  ornamental  trees  esteemed  for  their 
foliage,  flowers,  or  fruit,  seventy-six  sorts ;  of  the  second  class,  fifty-six 
sorts ;  of  the  third  class,  one  hundred  and  twenty  sorts ;  of  ornamental 
evergreens,  fifty-two  sorts ;  of  vines  and  creepers  for  covering  walls  and 
arbors,  thirty-five  sorts;  of  honey-suckle,  thirty-sorts;  an'l  of  roses,  eighty 
varieties.' 


353 


CHAPTER    IV.— MANUFACTURES.* 

Necessity  forced  upon  the  .%st  settlers  of  this  country,  at  a  very  early 
period,  some  attention  to  manufactures.  The  colony  of  Massachusetts 
was  founded  in  1630.  Between  that  year  and  1640,  there  was  a  great 
and  steady  influx  of  settlers ;  and  the  first  and  most  profitable  object  of 
pursuit  was  the  raising  of  provisions.  We  can  scarcely  conceive  of  the 
state  of  industry  in  a  community,  to  which  there  is  every  year  added,  by 
emigration,  a  number  of  individuals  equal  to  the  existing  population. 
Such,  however,  for  a  few  years,  was  the  case  in  New  England.  So  great 
was  the  demand,  that  cattle  sold  as  high  as  twenty-five  pounds  sterling  a 
head.  In  1640,  the  republicans  got  possession  of  the  government  in  Eng- 
land; persecution  for  religious  non-conformity  ceased,  and  with  it  the 
influx  of  emigrants  to  this  country.  Cattle  fell  immediately  to  about  five 
pounds  a  head.  The  effect  was  distressing,  but  it  put  the  sagacious 
colonists  upon  new  resources.  The  account  of  this,  contained  in  the 
early  historian  of  the  colony,  is  strongly  characterized  by  the  simplicity  of 
elder  times.  After  describing  the  check  put  to  emigration,  he  goes  on  as 
follows: — 'Now  the  country  of  New  England  was  to  seek,  of  away  to 
provide  themselves  with  clothing,  which  they  could  not  obtain  by  selling 
cattle,  as  before ;  which  now  were  fallen  from  that  huge  price  foremen- 
tioned,  first  to  fourteen  pounds  sterling  and  ten  pounds  sterling  a  head, 
and  presently  after,  at  best  within  the  year,  to  five  pounds  a-piece; 
nor  was  there  at  that  rate,  a  ready  vent  for  them  neither.  Thus  the  flood 
which  brought  in  much  wealth  to  many  persons,  the  contrary  ebb  carried 
all  away  out  of  their  reach.  To  help  them  in  this  their  exigent,  besides 
the  industry  that  the  present  necessity  put  particular  persons  upon,  for  the 
necessary  supply  of  themselves  and  their  families,  the  general  court  made 
order  for  the  manufacture  of  woolen  and  linen  cloth,  wrhich,  with  God's 
blessing  upon  man's  endeavor,  in  a  little  time  stopped  this  gap  in  part,  and 
soon  after  another  door  was  opened  by  special  Providence.  For  when  one 
hand  was  shut  by  way  of  supply  from  England,  another  was  opened  by 
way  of  traffic,  first  to  the  West  Indies  and  Wine  islands,  whereby  among 
other  goods,  much  cotton  wool  was  brought  into  the  country  from  the 
Indies,  which  the  inhabitants  learning  to  spin,  and  breeding  of  sheep  and 
sowing  of  hemp  and  flax,  they  soon  found  out  a  way  to  supply  themselves 
of  [cotton]  linen,  and  woolen  cloth.' 

In  1645,  an  iron  foundery  was  established  at  Lynn,  in  the  state  of  Massa- 
chusetts ;  but  the  same  historian  tells  us  that  '  instead  of  drawing  out  bars 
of  iron  for  the  country's  use,  there  was  hammered  out  nothing  but  conten- 
tions and  lawsuits.'  In  the  same  year,  the  general  court  of  the  colony 
granted  to  a  company,  of  which  governor  Winthrop's  son  was  the  head, 

*  For  this  chapter  we  have  been  altogether  indebted  to  the  excellent  Address  before 
the  American  Institute  of  New  York,  by  the  Honorable  Edward  Everett.  For  a  variety 
of  interesting  statistical  matter  on  Manufactures,  see  the  tables  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

45  no* 


354  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

as  an  encouragement  to  undertake  the  iron  manufacture,  three  thousand 
acres  of  land,  a  monopoly  for  twenty-one  years,  the  liberty  to  use  any 

f)lace  containing  ore,  in  the  public  domain  not  already  granted,  a  tract  of 
and  three  miles  square  in  the  neighborhood  of  each  establishment,  and 
freedom  from  taxation.  These  liberal  acts  of  encouragement  show  the 
necessity  which  was  felt  in  the  very  infancy  of  the  country,  of  giving  a 
legislative  protection  to  manufactures. 

But  to  understand  the  history  of  the  industry  of  the  country,  we  must 
bear  in  mind,  that  America  was  a  colonial  possession,  and  that  the  growth 
and  welfare  of  the  mother  country  was  the  avowed  object  of  colonial  policy. 
Great  Britain,  if  she  wished  America  to  prosper,  wished  it  to  be  on  the 
principles,  not  of  national,  but  of  colonial  prosperity  ;  to  furnish  her  such 
agricultural  products  as  she  did  not  raise  herself,  to  employ  her  shipping, 
and  to  consume  her  manufactures.  As  it  soon  appeared  that  the  Dutch, 
at  that  time  the  most  expert  navigators  in  Europe,  were  getting  possession 
of  no  small  part  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world,  and  pursuing  a  profit- 
able commerce  with  a  part  of  the  colonial  possessions  of  Great  Britain, 
the  navigation  law  of  1650  was  passed,  under  the  auspices  of  Cromwell. 
It  was  among  the  few  laws  of  the  commonwealth,  which  were  re-enacted 
at  the  restoration.  The  object  of  this  law, — in  the  opinion  of  Sir  William 
Blackstone,  'the  most  beneficial  for  the  trade  and  commerce  of  these  king- 
doms,'—  was,  in  the  words  of  the  same  accomplished  jurist,  'to  mortify 
our  sugar  islands,  which  were  disaffected  to  the  parliament,  and  still  held 
out  for  Charles  II.,  by  stopping  the  gainful  trade,  which  they  then  carried 
on  with  the  Dutch,  and  at  the  same  time  to  clip  the  wings  of  these  our 
opulent  and  aspiring  neighbors.'  Although  aimed  particularly  at  the 
West  Indies,  this  law,  of  course,  extended  its  provisions  to  all  the  other 
British  colonies,  and  among  them  to  those  established  on  the  American 
coast.  By  them,  however,  it  was  generally  resisted  as  an  encroachment  on 
their  rights.  Ineffectual  attempts  were  made  for  a  century,  to  enforce  it ; 
and  in  this  struggle  were  sowed  the  seeds  of  the  revolution. 

Nor  did  the  humble  attempts  of  the  colonies  in  manufactures  fail  to 
awaken  the  jealousy  of  the  mother  country.  Sir  Josiah  Child,  although 
a  more  liberal  politician  than  many  of  his  countrymen,  in  his  discourse  on 
trade,  published  in  1670,  pronounces  New  England  'the  most  prejudicial 
plantation  of  Great  Britain ; '  and  gives  for  this  opinion  the  singular  rea- 
son, that  they  are  a  people  'whose  frugality,  industry,  and  temperance,  and 
the  happiness  of  whose  laws  and  institutions  promise  to  them  long  life, 
and  a  wonderful  increase  of  people,  riches,  and  power.' 

After  many  fruitless  attempts,  on  the  part  of  the  executive  authority  of 
Great  Britain,  to  keep  down  the  enterprise  and  industry  of  the  country,  in 
those  departments  of  industry  which  were  disallowed  by  the  laws  of  trade, 
recourse  was  had  to  parliament.  The  house  of  commons  took  up  the 
subject  in  1731,  and  called  upon  the  board  of  trade  and  plantations  to 
make  a  report  ■  with  respect  to  any  laws  made,  manufactures  set  up,  or 
trade  carried  on  in  the  colonies,  detrimental  to  the  trade,  navigation  and 
manufactures  of  Great  Britain.'  In  the  result  of  this  inquiry  it  appeared, 
that  among  other  branches  of  manufacture  for  domestic  supply,  hats  were 
made  in  the  colonies  in  considerable  quantities,  and  had  even  been  ex- 
ported  to  foreign  countries.  In  consequence  of  this  alarming  discovery,  the 
law  of  5  George  II.  c.  22.  was  passed,  forbidding  hats  or  felts  to  be  export- 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  355 

ed  from  the  colonies,  or  even  'to  be  loaded  on  a  horse,  cart,  or  other 
carriage  for  transportation,  from  one  plantation  to  another.'  Nor  was  this 
all;  in  1750,  a  law  was  passed  by  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain,  which 
must  be  considered  a  disgrace  to  the  legislation  of  a  civilized  country.  It 
prohibited  'the  erection  or  continuance  of  any  mill  or  other  engine  for 
slitting  or  rolling  iron,  or  any  plaiting  forge,  to  work  with  a  tilt  hammer, 
or  any  furnace  for  making  steel,  in  the  colonies,  under  penalty  of  two  hun- 
dred pounds. '  Every  such  mill,  engine,  forge,  or  furnace  was  declared 
a  common  nuisance,  which  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  on  information, 
were  bound  to  abate,  under  penalty  of  five  hundred  pounds,  within  thirty 
days ! 

It  has  been,  within  a  few  years,  stated  by  Mr.  Huskisson,  and  with  truth, 
that  the  real  causes  of  the  revolution  are  to  be  found,  not  in  the  iritating 
measures  that  followed  Mr.  Grenville's  plan  of  taxation,  but  in  the  long- 
cherished  discontent  of  the  colonies,  at  this  system  of  legislative  oppres- 
sion. Accordingly,  the  first  measures  of  the  patriots  aimed  to  establish 
their  independence,  on  the  basis  of  the  productive  industry  and  the  labo- 
rious arts  of  the  country.  They  began  with  a  non-importation  agreement, 
nearly  two  years  before  the  declaration  of  independence.  This  agreement, 
with  the  exception  of  the  addresses  to  the  people  of  America  and  Great 
Britain,  was  the  only  positive  act  of  the  first  Congress,  that  met  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1774,  and  it  is  signed  by  every  member  of  that  body.  The 
details,  to  which  it  descends,  are  full  of  instruction.  The  seventh  article 
provides  that  'we  will  use  our  utmost  endeavors  to  improve  the  breed  of 
sheep,  and  increase  their  numbers  to  the  greatest  extent ;'  and  the  eighth, 
'that  we  will,  in  our  several  stations,  encourage  frugality,  economy,  and 
industry,  and  promote  agriculture,  arts,  and  the  manufactures  of  this 
country,  especially  those  of  wool.' 

-  The  policy  indicated  by  these  resolutions  was,  of  course,  favored  by  a 
state  of  war.  All  regular  commercial  intercourse  with  Great  Britain  was 
interrupted,  and  the  supply  of  prize  goods,  which  took  its  place,  was  casual 
and  uncertain.  We  had  as  yet  formed  no  connections  in  trade,  with 
other  countries ;  nor  if  we  had,  could  their  manufactures  have  found  their 
way  across  the  ocean,  amidst  the  cruisers  of  the  enemy,  at  any  other  than 
high  prices.  Fresh  impulse  was  accordingly  given  to  what  few  manufac- 
tures existed  before  the  revolution,  and  new  ones  of  various  kinds  were 
attempted  with  success.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  was  the  manufacture 
of  nails,  upon  which  lord  Chatham  had  placed  his  memorable  prohibition. 
It  is  within  the  memory  of  man,  that  the  first  attempt  to  manufacture  cut 
nails,  in  New  England,  was  made  in  the  southern  part  of  Massachusetts 
in  the  revolutionary  war,  with  old  iron  hoops  for  the  material,  and  a  pair 
of  shears  for  the  machine.  Since  that  period,  besides  supplying  the  con- 
sumption of  the  United  States, — estimated  at  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
million  pounds,  and  at  a  price  not  much  exceeding  the  duty, — machines  of 
American  invention  for  the  manufacture  of  nails  have  been  introduced  into 
England ;  and  large  quantities  of  nails  are  exported  from  the  United 
States  to  foreign  countries. 

On  the  return  of  peace  in  1783,  the  influx  of  foreign  goods,  in  many 
respects  prejudicial  to  the  country,  proved  in  the  highest  degree  disastrous 
to  its  mechanical  and  manufacturing  industry.  The  want  of  one  national 
government,  and  the  division  of  the  powers  of  government  among  thirteen 


356  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

sovereignties,  made  it  impossible,  by  a  uniform  revenue  system,  to  remedy 
the  evil.  The  states  generally  attempted,  by  their  separate  navigation 
laws,  to  secure  their  trade  to  their  own  vessels ;  but  the  rivalry  and  selfish 
policy  of  some  states  counteracted  the  efforts  of  others,  and  eventually 
threw  almost  the  whole  navigation  of  the  country  into  foreign  hands.  So 
low  had  it  sunk  in  Boston,  that  in  1788,  it  was  thought  expedient,  on 
grounds  of  patriotism,  to  get  up  a  subscription  to  build  three  ships ;  and 
this  incident,  proving  nothing  but  the  poverty  and  depression  of  the  town, 
was  hailed  as  one  which  would  give  renewed  activity  to  the  industry  of 
the  trades'  people  and  mechanics  of  Boston  !  The  same  class  of  citizens 
and  the  manufacturers  in  general,  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  petitioned 
the  government  of  that  state,  by  bounties,  imposts,  and  prohibitions,  to 
protect  their  industry.  This  prayer  was  granted,  and  a  tariff  of  duties  laid, 
which  in  some  points,  —  that  of  coarse  cottons  for  instance, — was  higher 
than  any  duty  laid  by  Congress,  before  the  war  of  1812. 

But  the  state  of  the  country  rendered  these  laws  of  little  avail.  Bind- 
ing in  Boston,  they  were  of  no  validity  in  Rhode  Island  ;  and  what  was 
subject  to  duty  in  New  York,  might  be  imported  free  in  Connecticut  and 
New  Jersey.  The  state  of  the  industry  of  the  country  was  depressed  to 
a  point  of  distress,  unknown  in  the  midnight  of  the  revolution.  The  ship- 
ping had  dwindled  to  nothing.  The  manufacturing  establishments  were 
kept  up  by  bounties  and  by  patriotic  associations  and  subscripiions,  and 
even  the  common  trades  were  threatened  with  ruin.  It  was  plain,  for  in- 
stance, that,  in  the  comparative  condition  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  not  a  hatter,  a  boot  or  shoe  maker,  a  saddler,  or  a  brass  founder 
could  carry  on  his  business,  except  in  the  coarsest  and  most  ordinary  pro- 
ductions of  their  various  trades,  under  the  pressure  of  foreign  competition. 
Thus  was  presented  the  extraordinary  and  calamitous  spectacjg  of  a  suc- 
cessful revolution,  wholly  failing  of  its  ultimate  object^The  people  of 
America  had  gone  to  war,  not  for  names,  but  for  things.  It  was  not  mere- 
ly to  change  a  government  administered  by  kings,  princes,  and  ministers, 
for  a  government  administered  by  presidents,  and  secretaries,  and  mem- 
bers of  congress.  It  was  to  redress  their  own  grievances,  to  improve  their 
own  condition,  to  throw  off  the  burden  which  the  colonial  system  laid  on 
their  industry.  To  attain  these  objects,  they  endured  incredible  hardships, 
and  bore  and  suffered  almost  beyond  the  measure  of  humanity.  And  when 
their  independence  was  attained,  they  found  it  was  a  piece  of  parchment. 
The  arm  which  had  struck  for  it  in  the  field,  was  palsied  in  the  workshop ; 
the  industry  which  had  been  burdened  in  the  colonies,  was  crushed  in  the 
free  states  ;  and,  at  the  close  of  the  revolution,  the  mechanics  and  manu- 
facturers of  the  country  found  themselves,  in  the  bitterness  of  their  hearts, 
independent — and  ruined. 

They  looked  round  them  in  despair.  They  cast  about  for  means  of  re- 
lief, and  found  none,  but  in  a  plan  of  a  voluntary  association  throughout  the 
continent,  and  an  appeal  to  the  patriotism  of  their  fellow-citizens.  Such  an 
association  was  formed  in  Boston  in  1787  or  1788,  and  a  circular  letter  was 
addressed  by  them  to  their  brethren  throughout  the  union.  The  proposal 
was  favorably  received,  and  in  some  of  the  cities  zealously  acted  upon ; 
but,  unsupported  by  a  general  legislation,  its  effects  must  at  best  have  been 
partial  and  inadequate. 

But  before  our  citizens  had  discovered  this,  by  sad  experience,  a  new 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  357 

and  unhoped-for  remedy  for  their  sufferings  had  been  devised.  The  day- 
star  of  the  constitution  arose ;  and  of  all  the  classes  of  the  people  of 
America,  to  whose  hearts  it  came  as  the  harbinger  of  blessings  long  hoped 
for  and  long  despaired  of,  most  unquestionably  the  tradesmen,  mechanics, 
and  manufacturers  hailed  it  with  the  warmest  welcome.  It  had  in  fact 
grown  out  of  the  all-pervading  inefficiency  and  wretchedness  of  the  reve- 
nue system,  which  had  been  felt  in  ruin  by  them,  more  than  by  any  other 
class.  The  feelings,  with  which  it  was  regarded  by  the  '  tradesmen  and 
manufacturers  of  New  York,'  will  appear  from  their  letter,  in  reply  to 
the  circular  of  the  association  in  Boston.  This  expression  of  the  senti- 
ments which  were  entertained  in  New  York,  while  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  by  that  state  was  an  event  of  a  few  months'  standing,  may 
afford  instruction  and  bear  repetition  at  the  present  day. 

A   Letter  from  the   Tradesmen  and  Manufacturers  of  New  York  to  the 
Tradesmen  and  Manufacturers  of  Boston. 

1  New  York,  17th  Nov.  1788. 

i  Gentlemen  : — The  mechanics  and  manufacturers  of  the  city  of  New 
York  have  long  contemplated  and  lamented  the  evils,  which  a  pernicious 
system  of  commerce  has  introduced  into  our  country,  and  the  obstacles  with 
which  it  has  opposed  the  extension  and  improvement  of  American  manu- 
factures ;  and  having  taken  into  consideration  your  circular  letter,  wherein 
those  evils  and  their  remedies  are  pointed  out,  in  a  just  and  striking  man- 
ner, have  authorized  us  to  communicate  to  you,  in  answer  to  your  address, 
their  sentiments  on  the  interesting  subject. 

1  It  is  with  the  highest  pleasure  that  we  embrace  this  opportunity,  to 
express  to  you  their  approbation  of  the  liberal  and  patriotic  attempt  of  the 
tradesmen  and  manufacturers  of  your  respectable  town. 

'  Every  zealous  and  enlightened  friend  to  the  prosperity  of  this  country 
must  view,  with  peculiar  regret,  the  impediments  with  which  foreign  im- 
portations have  embarrassed  the  infant  arts  in  America.  We  are  sensible 
that  they  are  not  only  highly  unfavorable  to  every  mechanical  improvement, 
but  that  they  nourish  a  spirit  of  dependence,  which  tends  in  some  degree 
to  defeat  the  purposes  of  our  late  revolution,  and  tarnish  the  lustre  of  our 
character.  We  are  sensible  that  long  habit  has  fixed,  in  the  minds  of  the 
people,  an  unjust  predilection  for  foreign  productions,  and  has  rendered 
them  too  regardless  of  the  arguments  and  complaints,  with  which  the  pa- 
triotic and  discerning  have  addressed  them  from  every  quarter.  These 
prejudices  have  become  confirmed  and  radical ;  and  we  are  convinced  that 
a  strong  and  united  effort  is  necessary  to  expel  them.  We  are  happy  that 
the  tradesmen  of  Boston  have  led  the  way  to  a  general  and  efficient  ex- 
ertion in  this  important  cause. 

''  The  impression  we  feel  of  the  utility  and  expediency  of  encouraging 
our  domestic  manufactures  are  in  perfect  correspondence  with  your  own ; 
and  we  shall  most  cheerfully  unite  our  endeavours  with  those  of  our 
brethren  throughout  the  union,  and  shall  be  ready  to  adopt  every  mea- 
sure, which  will  have  a  tendency  to  facilitate  the  great  design. 

'  The  legislature  of  our  state,  convinced  of  the  propriety  of  cherishing 
our  manufactures  in  their  early  growth,  have  made  some  provisions  for  that 
purpose.  We  have  no  doubt  that  more  comprehensive  and  decisive  mea- 
sures will  in  time  be  taken  by  them.     But  on  the  confederated  exertions  of 


358  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

our  brethren,  and  especially  on  the  patronage  and  protection  of  the  general 
government,  we  rest  our  most  flattering  hopes  of  success. 

'  In  order  to  support  and  improve  the  union  and  harmony  of  the  American 
manufacturers,  and  to  render  as  systematic  and  uniform  as  possible  their 
designs  for  the  common  benefit,  we  perfectly  concur  with  you  on  the  pro- 
priety of  establishing  a  reciprocal  and  unreserved  communication.  When 
our  views,  like  our  interests,  are  combined  and  concentered,  our  petitions  to 
the  federal  legislature  ivill  assume  the  tone  and  complexion  of  the  public 
wishes,  and  will  have  a  proportionable  weight  and  influence. 

1  We  request  you  to  favor  us  with  the  continuation  of  your  correspondence, 
and  to  transmit  to  us,  from  time  to  time,  such  resolutions  and  proposals  of 
your  association  as  may  be  calculated  for  the  promotion  of  our  mutual 
interests. 

'We  are,  with  the  highest  respect,  &c.' 

Such  were  the  feelings  and  hopes,  with  which  the  laboring  classes  o<f 
the  country  in  general,  particularly  the  manufacturers  and  mechanics, 
looked  forward  to  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution.  In  the  state 
of  Massachusetts,  it  is  admitted,  that  the  question  of  adoption  was  decided, 
under  the  influence  of  the  association  of  tradesmen  and  manufacturers  al- 
ready mentioned.  In  the  convention  of  that  state,  the  encouragement  of 
manufactures,  by  protecting  laws,  was  declared  in  debate  to  be  a  leading 
and  avowed  object  of  the  constitution.  As  it  was  successively  adopted  in 
each  state,  triumphant  processions  of  the  tradesmen,  mechanics,  and  manu- 
facturers, with  the  banners  of  their  industry,  and  mottos  expressive  of  their 
reliance  on  the  new  constitution  for  protection,  evinced,  in  the  most  impos- 
ing form,  and  in  the  presence  of  uncounted  multitudes,  the  principles,  the 
expectations,  and  the  hopes  of  the  industrious  classes  of  the  community* 
Processions  of  this  kind  were  organized  in  Portsmouth,  in  Boston,  in  New 
York,  in  Philadelphia,  in  Baltimore,  and  in  Charleston ;  and  the  senti- 
ment which  animated  and  inspired  them  all,  was  that  which  was  expressed 
in  the  motto  inscribed  upon  the  tenners  of  the  manufacturers  in  Philadel- 
phia, '  May  the  Union  Government  protect  the  Manufactures  of  America.'' 

Forty-three  years  have  since  passed,  and  it  is  now  earnestly  maintained, 
and  that  by  intelligent  citizens,  that  the  federal  constitution  thus  adopted, 
under  the  influence  of  the  mechanics  and  manufacturers,  (who  knew  that 
by  the  new  government  the  power  of  protecting  their  pursuits  was  taken 
from  the  governments  of  the  states,  who  had  before  held  and  exercised 
it),  confers  no  power  on  congress  to  protect  the  labor  of  the  country,  and 
that  the  exercise  of  such  power  is  unconstitutional.  When  we  consider 
the  control  over  public  sentiment  possessed  by  the  associated  mechanics 
and  manufacturers  of  our  large  towns,  and  the  slender  majorities  by  which, 
in  some  states,  the  constitution  was  adopted,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that 
if  such  a  conception  pf  its  powers  had  then  prevailed,  it  never  would  have 
been  ratified. 

r^Aquorum  of  the  house  of  representatives  under  the  new  constitu- 
tion was  formed,  for  the  first  time,  on  1st  April,  1789.  In  one  week  from 
that  day,  Mr.  Madison  brought  forward  the  subject  of  the  revenue  sys- 
tem, as  the  most  important,  which  required  the  attention  of  the  national 
legislature.  Pending  the  discussion  of  this  subject,  and  three  days  aftei 
it  commenced,  a  memorial  was  presented  'from  the   tradesmen,  manufac- 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  359 

turers,  and  others  of  the  town  of  Baltimore,  in  the  state  of  Maryland,  pray- 
ing an  imposition  of  such  duties  on  all  foreign  articles,  which  can  be  made 
in  America,  as  will  give  a  just  and  decided  preference  to  the  labors  of  the 
petitioners,  and  that  there  may  be  granted  to  them,  in  common  wiih  the 
other  manufacturers  and  mechanics  of  the  United  States,  such  relief  as  to 
the  wisdom  of  congress  may  seem  proper.'  This  was  followed  up,  the 
next  day,  by  a  petition  from  the  shipwrights  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  stating 
'the  distress  they  were  in,  from  the  decline  of  that  branch  of  the  busi- 
ness, and  the  present  situation  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States,  and  pray- 
ing that  the  wisdom  and  policy  of  the  national  legislature  may  be  directed 
to  such  measures,  in  a  general  regulation  of  trade,  and  the  establishment 
of  a  proper  navigation  act,  as  will  relieve  the  particular  distresses  of  the 
petitioners,  in  common  with  those  of  their  fellow  shipwrights,  throughout 
the  union.' 

Thus  the  two  first  memorials  presented  to  the  congress  of  the  United 
States  were  for  protecting  duties  on  American  industry ;  and  of  these 
memorials,  one  was  from  Baltimore,  and  the  other  from  Charleston,  South 
Carolina. 

A  few  days  after,  a  similar  memorial  came  in  from  New  York,  '  setting 
forth  that,  in  the  present  deplorable  state  of  commerce  and  manufactures, 
they  look  with  confidence  to  the  operations  of  the  new  government  for  a 
restoration  of  both,  and  that  relief  which  they  have  so  long  and  so  ardently 
desired ;  that  they  have  subjoined  a  list  of  such  articles  as  can  be 
manufactured  in  New  York,  and  humbly  pray  the  countenance  and  atten- 
tion of  the  national  legislature  thereto.' 

Numerous  other  petitions  of  like  purport  were  shortly  after  presented, 
and  in  pursuance  of  their  prayers,  as  well  as  from  the  crying  demands  of 
the  public  service,  the  first  impost  law  was  passed,  at  an  early  period  of 
the  session.  It  was,  with  the  exception  of  the  law  prescribing  the  oaths 
of  office,  the  first  law,  which  was  passed  under  the  new  government.  In 
the  long  debate,  which  arose,  at  different  stages  of  its  progress,  the  idea 
was  advanced,  by  members  from  every  part  of  the  country,  that  congress 
were  bound  to  lay  duties,  that  would  encourage  its  manufacturing  indus- 
try ;  and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  suggestion  was  made  in  the  reported 
debates,  that  they  did  not  constitutionally  possess  the  power.  Mr.  Madison 
thus  expressed  himself  on  the  subject:  —  "The  states,  that  are  most  ad- 
vanced in  population  and  ripe  for  manufactures,  ought  to  have  their  par- 
ticular interest  attended  to,  in  some  degree.  While  these  states  retained 
the  power  of  making  regulations  of  trade,  they  had  the  power  to  protect 
and  cherish  such  institutions.  By  adopting  the  present  constitution,  they 
have  thrown  the  exercise  of  this  power  into  other  hands.  They  must 
have  done  this  with  the  expectation,  that  those  interests  would  not  be  ne- 
glected here."  And  again,  "  duties  laid  on  imported  articles  may  have  an 
effect,  which  comes  within  the  idea  of  national  prudence.  It  may  happen 
that  materials  for  manufactures  may  grow  up,  without  any  encouragement 
for  this  purpose.  Ithas  been  the  case  in  some  of  the  states.  But  mothers, 
regulations  have  been  provided  and  have  succeeded  in  producing  some 
establishments,  which  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  perish,  from  the  alteration 
which  has  taken  place.  It  would  be  cruel  to  neglect  them,  and  turn  their 
industry  to  other  channels ;  for  it  is  not  possible  for  the  hand  of  man  to 
shift  from  one  employment  to  another,  without  being  injured  by  the  change. 


360  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

There  may  be  some  manufactures,  which,  being  once  formed,  can  advance 
toward  perfection,  without  any  adventitious  aid  ;  while  others,  for  want  of 
the  fostering  hand  of  government,  will  be  unable  to  go  on  at  all.  Legisla- 
tive attention  will  be  therefore  necessary  to  collect  the  proper  objects  for 
this  purpose.'  Such  were  the  principles  on  which  this  law  was  supported  ; 
and  when  it  finally  passed,  it  was  stated,  in  the  preamble,  to  be  '  for  the 
support  of  government,  the  discharge  of  the  debts  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  encouragement  and  protection  of  manufactures//' 

The  present  manufacturing  system  of  the  United  ^States  may  be  consid- 
ered, partly  as  the  result  of  the  revenue  laws  of  1789,  which  remained 
without  essential  changes  till  the  embargo  of  1807,  and  partly  as  the  effect 
of  that  and  the  other  restrictive  measures,  and  of  the  war  which  followed 
them.  Those  branches  of  industry,  which  are  commonly  called  the  me- 
chanic arts,  received,  for  the  most  part,  though  not  without  exception,  an 
ample  protection  under  the  former  laws  :  —  manufactures  on  a  large  scale, 
requiring  great  capital  and  skill,  owed  their  existence  to  the  total  interrup- 
tion of  commerce.  In  the  combined  result,  a  very  large  amount  of  Ameri- 
can capital  was,  at  the  peace  of  1815,  found  invested  in  manufactures. 
It  was  the  prevalent  opinion  of  the  statesmen  of  that  day,  and  those  of  the 
south  among  the  foremost,  that  this  capital  ought  to  be  protected ;  and  the 
success  which  had  attended  some  of  the  manufactures,  on  a  large  scale, 
had  produced  some  change  in  the  public  opinion,  as  to  the  capacity  of  the 
country  to  support  them. 

In  other  parts  of  the  volume  we  have  mentioned  the  chief  manufacturing 
establishments  in  the  country,  and,  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  repetition, 
have  reserved  statistical  details  for  the  tabular  views  at  the  end  of  the 
work. 


361 


CHAPTER  V.— COMMERCE. 

In  the  rapid  growth  of  their  commerce,  the  United  States  have  enjoyed 
a  most  wonderful  prosperity.  We  have,  in  a  previous  chapter,  alluded  to 
the  restrictive  measures  adopted  by  the  mother  country,  while  we  remained 
in  colonial  subjection,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  enter  into  farther 
details  on  that  subject.  During  the  revolutionary  difficulties,  the  traffic 
which  had  previously  existed  was  of  course  suspended,  and  after  the  peace, 
commerce  was  still  embarrassed  with  numerous  impediments,  Thes* 
found  their  origin  in  the  very  nature  of  the  confederation,  and  were  in- 
separable from  the  confused  and  ineffective  powers  of  such  a  political  sys- 
tem. Congress  had  no  power  to  impose  any  duties  without  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  states,  and  it  is  apparent  at  once  how  entirely  impossible  it 
was,  under  such  circumstances,  to  adjust  a  system  that  should  be  univer- 
sally acceptable.  The  foreign  articles  on  which  Pennsylvania  laid  a  duty, 
New  Jersey  admitted  free ;  facility  of  smuggling  from  one  of  these  states 
to  the  other  was  unavoidable  from  their  situation. 

The  several  states  laid  different  rates  of  duty  on  foreign  tonnage ;  in 
some,  one  shilling  sterling  per  ton  was  imposed  on  vessels  which  in  other 
states  paid  three  shillings  per  ton.  Such  was  the  misunderstanding  among 
the  several  states,  that  there  were  no  general  commercial  regulations ;  nor 
could  congress  enforce  any,  while  the  opposition  of  any  one  of  the  states 
could  prevent  the  passage  of  any  act  on  the  subject.  The  evil  of  this 
condition  of  affairs  was  flagrantly  manifest,  when,  to  provide  a  fund  to 
discharge  the  public  debt,  and  to  pay  the  arrears  of  the  revolutionary  sol- 
diers, it  was  proposed  to  congress,  during  the  operation  of  the  articles  of 
confederation,  to  lay  a  duty  of  five  per  cent,  ad  valorem  on  all  foreign 
merchandise  imported,  and  the  opposition  of  Rhode  Island  alone  was  suf- 
ficient to  defeat  the  plan. 

European  nations  gladly  availed  themselves  of  the  embarrassed  situation 
of  our  affairs,  and  labored  to  throw  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  our  in- 
creasing commerce.  They  refused  to  negotiate  commercial  treaties ;  for 
even  those  nations  which  were  ready  to  countenance  our  assertion  of  inde- 
pendence, were  not  ready  to  receive  us  as  competitors  and  rivals  in  a 
struggle  where  their  own  interests  were  so  deeply  involved.  The  call  for 
an  amendment  of  the  regulations  on  foreign  trade,  was  one  of  the  leading 
inducements  to  the  change  of  the  old  confederation,  and  the  new  constitu- 
tion embraced  the  necessary  provisions  for  the  establishment  of  a  success- 
ful intercourse  with  foreign  nations.  Not  long  after  the  adoption  of  the 
new  constitution,  Mr.  Jefferson,  then  secretary  of  state,  proposed  a  liberal 
system  of  policy  in  relation  to  this  intercourse.  His  report  on  the  subject 
of  our  commercial  relations  at  that  period,  contains  a  variety  of  interesting 
matter,  which  enables  us  to  make  a  correct  comparison  between  the  condi- 
tion of  our  trade  at  that  period  and  its  present  very  great  increase.  This 
report  was  prepared  in  the  summer  of  1792,  The  countries  with  which 
46  31 


362  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  United  States  had  commercial  intercourse  at  that  period  were  Spain, 
Portugal,  France,  Great  Britain,  the  United  Netherlands,  Denmark,  and 
Sweden,  and  their  American  possessions  :  and  the  articles  of  export, 
Which  constitute  the  basis  of  that  commerce,  with  their  respective  amounts, 
were, 

Bread  stuff,  that  is  to  say,  bread  grains,  meals,  and  bread,  to  the  annual 

amount  of $7,649,887 

Tobacco, 4,349,567 

Kice,     .     *     >     . . 1,753,796 

Wood, 1,263,534 

Salted  fish, L 941,696 

Pot  and  pearl  ashes, » 839,093 

Salted  meats) 599,130 

Indigo,         537,379 

Horses  and  mules, 339,753 

"Whale  oil,        252,591 

Flaxseed, 236,072 

Tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,     .    . 217,177 

Live  provisions, .     ,. 137,743 

Ships, ........ 

Foreign  goods, 620,274 

To  descend  to  articles  of  smaller  value  than  these,  would  lead  into  a 
minuteness  of  detail  neither  necessary  nor  useful  to  the  present  object. 

The  proportions  of  our  exports,  which  went  to  the  nations  before  men- 
tioned, and  to  their  dominions  respectively,  were  as  follows  : 

To  Spain  and  its  dominions, $  2,005,907 

Portugal  and  its  dominions,     .     .     .     .     . 1,283,462 

France  and  its  dominions, 4,698,735 

Great  Britain  and  its  dominions, 9,363,416 

The  United  Netherlands  and  their  dominions, 1,963,880 

Denmark  and  its  dominions, 224,415 

Sweden  and  its  dominions, 47,240 

Our  imports  from  the  same  countries  were, 

Spain  and  its  dominions, $335,110 

Portugal  and  its  dominions, 595,763 

France  and  its  dominions,        2,068,348 

Great  Britain  and  its  dominions, 15,285,428 

United  Netherlands  and  their  dominions,        1,172,692 

Denmark  and  its  dominions, 351,364 

Sweden  and  its  dominions, 14,325 

These  imports  consist  mostly  of  articles  on  which  industry  has  been 
exhausted. 

Our  navigation,  depending  on  the  same  commerce,  will  appear  by  the 
following-  statement  of  the  tonnage  of  our  own  vessels,  entering  in  our 
J)orts,  from  those  several  nations  and  their  possessions,  in  one  year ;  that 
is  to  say,  from  October,  1789,  to  September,  1790,  inclusive,  as  follows  * 

Spain,     . 19.695  tons 

Portugal)       . . 23,576  " 

France,        116,410  " 

Great  Britain, 43,580  " 

United  Netherlands, 58,858  " 

Denmark, 14,655  ■ 

Sweden)       i;  %.    %.  ■%    %',%    &  *    *    %    4    %    *    *.  .% 750 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  363 

The  report  then  goes  on  to  describe  the  degree  of  favor  with  which  each 
of  the  several  articles  of  export  is  received  in  each  of  the  nations  mention- 
ed, and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  restrictions  which  had  been  adopted 
by  each  government  in  reference  to  American  commerce.  It  then  proceeds 
to  the  investigation  of  the  question,  how  may  these  restrictions  be  removed, 
modified,  or  counteracted  ?  Two  methods  are  suggested ;  first,  by  friendly 
arrangements  with  the  several  nations  with  whom  these  restrictions  exist ; 
or,  secondly,  by  the  separate  act  of  our  own  legislatures  for  countervailing 
their  effects.  The  views  taken  in  this  report  have  so  important  a  bearing 
on  many  political  subjects  that  have  of  late  years  agitated  the  country,  and 
indicate  so  clearly  the  opinions  of  Mr.  Jefferson  in  regard  to  the  constitu- 
tional powers  of  Congress,  in  regulating  commerce,  that  it  seems  not  im- 
proper to  present  in  this  connection  the  following  extracts  : 

■  Instead  of  embarrassing  commerce  under  piles  of  regulating  laws,  du- 
ties, and  prohibitions,  could  it  be  relieved  from  all  its  shackles  in  all  parts 
of  the  world ;  could  every  country  be  employed  in  producing  that  which 
nature  has  best  fitted  it  to  produce,  and  each  be  free  to  exchange  with 
others  mutual  surplusses  for  mutual  wants,  the  greatest  mass  possible 
would  then  be  produced  of  those  things  which  contribute  to  human  life 
and  human  happiness  ;  the  numbers  of  mankind  would  be  increased,  and 
their  condition  bettered. 

'  Would  even  a  single  nation  begin  with  the  United  States  this  system 
of  free  commerce,  it  would  be  advisable  to  begin  it  with  that  nation ;  since 
it  is  one  by  one  only,  that  it  can  be  extended  to  all.  Where  the  circum- 
stances of  either  party  render  it  expedient  to  levy  a  revenue,  by  way  of 
impost,  on  commerce,  its  freedom  might  be  modified,  in  that  particular,  by 
mutual  and  equivalent  measures,  preserving  it  entire  in  all  others, 

1  Some  nations,  not  yet  ripe  for  free  commerce  in  all  its  extent,  might 
still  be  willing  to  mollify  its  restrictions  and  regulations  for  us,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  advantages  which  an  intercourse  with  us  might  offer.  Par- 
ticularly they  may  concur  with  us  in  reciprocating  the  duties  to  be  levied 
on  each  side,  or  in  compensating  any  excess  of  duty  by  equivalent  advan- 
tages of  another  nature.  Our  commerce  is  certainly  of  a  character  to 
entitle  it  to  favor  in  most  countries.  The  commodities  we  offer  are  either 
necessaries  of  life,  or  materials  for  manufacture,  or  convenient  subjects  of 
revenue ;  and  we  take  in  exchange,  either  manufactures,  when  they  have 
received  the  last  finish  of  art  and  industry,  or  mere  luxuries.  Such  cus- 
tomers may  reasonably  expect  welcome  and  friendly  treatment  at  every 
market.  Customers,  too,  whose  demands,  increasing  with  their  wealth 
and  population,  must  very  shortly  give  full  employment  to  the  whole  in- 
dustry of  any  nation  whatever,  in  any  line  of  supply  they  may  get  into  the 
habit  of  calling  for  from  it. 

1  But  should  any  nation,  contrary  to  our  wishes,  suppose  it  may  better 
find  its  advantage  by  continuing  its  system  of  prohibitions,  duties,  and 
regulations,  it  behoves  us  to  protect  our  citizens,  their  commerce  and 
navigation,  by  counter  prohibitions,  duties,  and  regulations,  also.  Free 
commerce  and  navigation  are  not  to  be  given  in  exchange  for  restrictions 
and  vexations,  nor  are  they  likely  to  produce  a  relaxation  of  them. 

'  Our  navigation  involves  still  higher  considerations.  As  a  branch  of 
industry,  it  is  valuable,  but  as  a  resource  of  defence,  essential. 

*  Its  value,  as  a  branch  of  industry,  is  enhanced  by  the   dependence  of 


364  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

so  many  other  branches  on  it.  In  times  of  general  peace,  it  multiplier 
competitors  for  employment  in  transportation,  and  so  keeps  that  at  its  pro- 
per level ;  and  in  times  of  war,  that  is  to  say,  when  those  nations  who 
may  be  our  principal  carriers,  shall  be  at  war  with  each  other,  if  we  have 
not  within  ourselves  the  means  of  transportation,  oar  produce  must  be  ex- 
ported in  belligerent  vessels,  at  the  increased  expense  of  war-freight  and 
insurance,  and  the  articles  which  will  not  bear  that,  must  perish  on  our 
hands.' 

The  troubled  situation  of  affairs  in  Europe  exerted  a  very  favorable 
influence  on  American  commerce.  The  wars  which  followed  in  the  traia 
of  the  French  revolution,  created  a  demand  for  our  exports,  and  invited 
our  shipping  for  the  carrying  trade  of  a  very  considerable  portion  of  Eu- 
rope. American  bottoms  not  only  carried  the  colonial  productions  to  the 
several  parent  states,  but  our  merchants  became  the  purchasers  of  them  in 
the  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  colonies.  A  new  era  was  established  in 
our  commercial  history.  Large  numbers  of  individuals  embarked  in  com- 
mercial enterprises,  and  the  other  departments  of  industry  were  compara- 
tively deserted.  The  most  adventurous  became  the  most  wealthy,  and 
that,  too,  without  any  knowledge  of  the  principles  on  which  trade  is  usually 
conducted.  No  one  confined  himself  to  a  single  branch  of  business,  but 
the  same  individual  was  concerned  in  voyages  to  the  four  quarters  of  the 
globe.  Our  tonnage  increased  with  a  rapidity  proportioned  to  its  de- 
mand; in  proportion  to  our  population,  we  ranked  as  the  most  commercial 
of  nations  ;  in  point  of  value,  our  trade  was  second  only  to  that  of  Great 
Britain. 

This  astonishing  increase  of  commercial  connections,  and  consequent 
accumulation  of  wealth,  could  not  but  excite  the  jealousy  of  European  na- 
tions, and  eventually  occasioned  a  series  of  restrictive  and  prohibitory 
codes,  on  the  part  of  England  and  France,  at  that  time  belligerent,  by 
which  the  Americans,  as  a  neutral  power,  suffered  infinite  damage.  In- 
deed, between  the  years  1804  and  1807,  inclusive,  above  one  thousand 
American  merchant  vessels  were  captured  by  nations  professedly  at  peace 
with  the  United  States,  for  alleged  breaches  of  blockade,  or  of  commercial 
decrees.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
at  the  close  of  the  year  1807,  resorted  to  an  embargo,  to  prevent  the  de- 
struction of  the  mercantile  navy,  which  was  continued  till  March,  1809. 
Thus  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States,  after  having,  in  the  course  of 
sixteen  years,  from  1790  to  1806,  acquired  an  augmentation  of  nearly 
ninety  millions  of  dollars,  was,  in  1807,  reduced  by  a  single  blow  to  the 
aggregate  of  twenty-two  millions,  four  hundred  and  thirty  thousand,  nine 
hundred  and  sixty  dollars,  being  only  one  million,  six  hundred  and  seventy- 
seven  thousand,  eight  hundred  and  sixty-two  dollars  more  than  the  amount 
in  1791,  the  second  year  after  the  organization  of  the  present  government. 
On  raising  the  embargo,  commerce  at  once  revived,  and  during  the  years 
1809  and  1810,  the  amount  of  exports,  so  far  as  related  to  domestic  pro- 
ducts, was  greater  than  the  average  of  the  ten  years  from  1802  to  1812. 

Subsequently  to  the  declaration  of  war  with  Great  Britain,  the  export 
trade  of  the  United  States  was  materially  depressed,  till,  in  the  year  1814, 
it  did  not  amount  to  seven  millions  of  dollars.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
war,  the  exports  rose  in  1815  to  fifty-two  millions ;  in  1816,  to  eighty- 
one  ;  in  1817,  to  eighty-seven ;  in  1818,  to  ninety-three.     From  1819  u 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  365 

1824,  the  amount  ranged  between  sixty-five  and  seventy-five  millions,  the 
average  being  above  seventy ;  but  in  1825,  the  amount  of  exports  again 
rose  to  nearly  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  From  1826  to  1830,  the 
exports  ranged  from  seventy  to  eighty  millions ;  the  exports  of  foreign 
goods  have  materially  declined,  the  amount  for  1830  being  little  more  than 
fourteen  millions,  a  smaller  amount  than  any  year  since  1803,  except  those 
of  the  embargo  and  war,  while  the  domestic  exports  are  nearly  sixty  mil- 
lions, an  amount  exceeding  those  of  any  preceding  year,  excepting  the 
years  1816,  '17,  18,  and  '25. 

The  official  accounts  presented  to  congress  divide  the  exports  into  four 
classes  :  products  of  the  sea,  the  forest,  agriculture,  and  manufactures. 
The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  exports  of  the  year  1830 ;  the  details 
of  this  and  other  years  will  be  found  in  the  tabular  views  at  the  end  of  the 
volume.  The  products  of  the  sea,  consisting  of  the  results  of  the  whale, 
cod,  mackerel,  and  herring  fisheries,  exported  mostly  from  the  northern 
states,  amount  to  one  million,  seven  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand, 
two  hundred  and  seventy  dollars,  being  nearly  a  thirty-fifth  part  of  the 
vhole  domestic  exports.  About  one  third  of  this  value  consists  of  codfish, 
and  more  than  half  of  the  products  of  the  whale  fisheries. 

The  value  of  skins,  furs,  ginseng,  amber,  staves,  bark,  tar,  pitch,  resin, 
and  turpentine,  and  pot  and  pearl  ashes,  partly  from  the  northern  and  part- 
ly from  the  southern  states,  which  were  formerly  of  much  greater  compa- 
rative importance,  now  constitutes  nearly  one  fifteenth  part  of  the  whole 
value  of  domestic  exports,  and  amounts  to  four  millions,  one  hundred  and 
ninety-two  thousand,  and  forty  dollars.  A  large  proportion  of  the  trade 
in  these  articles,  as  well  as  in  those  of  codfish  and  bread  stuffs,  is  carried  on 
with  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  South  America.  The  skins  and  the 
furs  go  to  Europe  and  Canton,  the  ginseng  to  Canton,  and  the  pot  and 
pearl  ashes  to  France  and  England. 

The  chief  amount  of  articles  of  export  consist,  as  would  naturally  be 
supposed,  of  the  products  of  agriculture.  The  article  of  cotton  alone  fur- 
nishes nearly  half  of  the  amount  of  the  whole  exports  of  the  United  States, 
being  for  the  year  1830  twenty-nine  million,  six  hundred  and  seventy-four 
thousand,  eight  hundred  and  thirty-three  dollars.  The  next  important  ar- 
ticle of  export  is  wheat,  either  as  grain,  flour,  or  biscuit ;  the  amount  being 
six  million,  three  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  six  hundred  seventeen 
dollars.  The  third  in  amount  is  tobacco,  five  million,  five  hundred  and 
eighty-six  thousand,  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  dollars ;  the  fourth,  rice, 
one  million,  nine  hundred  and  eighty-six  thousand,  eight  hundred  twenty- 
four  dollars  ;  the  fifth,  the  produce  of  swine,  including  pork,  bacon,  and 
live  hogs,  one  million,  three  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand,  two  hundred 
and  forty-five  dollars.  Three  of  the  most  important  of  these  articles,  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  and  rice,  amounting  collectively  to  thirty-seven  million,  two 
hundred  and  forty-eight  thousand,  and  seventy-two  dollars,  are  the  pro- 
duce of  the  southern  states,  including  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  The  other 
agricultural  exports,  viz.  beef,  tallow,  hides  and  cattle,  butter,  cheese, 
horses,  mules,  sheep,  rye  meal,  oats,  potatoes,  and  apples,  flax  seed,  and 
hops,  are  mostly  furnished  by  the  middle  and  western  states.  Cattle  and 
their  products,  including  butter  and  cheese,  amounted  to  eight  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand,  and  fifty-three  dollars.     This  species  of  export  is  of 

31* 


366  BOOK  OF  THE  UMTED  STATES. 

far  less  comparative  importance  than  formerly,  being  limited  to  its  present 
amount,  not  by  the  capacity  for  production,  but  by  the  extent  of  demand  in 
the  foreign  markets.  An  increase  of  the  foreign  demand  would  soon 
double  and  treble  the  quantity.  Some  of  the  articles  comprehended  in 
the  above  list,  though  agricultural  products,  yet  involve  some  process  of 
manufacture  ;  such,  for  example,  as  butter,  cheese,  bacon,  flour,  biscuit, 
meal,  and  part  of  the  tobacco.  A  great  many,  however,  of  the  exports 
coming  under  the  head  of  manufactures,  include  in  them  the  value  of  ma- 
terials, such  as  the  cotton  fabrics,  those  of  leather,  and  spirits  distilled  from 
grain  :  so  that,  on  the  whole,  the  strictly  agricultural  products  of  the  coun- 
try constitute  a  larger  proportion  of  the  whole  exports  than  the  tables 
represent ;  and  if  we  add  the  value  of  materials  supplied  by  agriculture 
for  the  manufactured  exports,  we  shall  have  at  least  six  sevenths  of  the 
whole  domestic  exportation  consisting  of  the  raw  products  of  agriculture. 

The  total  amount  of  manufactured  articles  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  the  year  1830,  is  estimated  in  the  official  returns  at  six  million, 
two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  thousand,  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  dollars, 
being  rather  more  than  one  tenth  of  the  domestic  exports  of  the  country ; 
about  nine  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  dollars  should,  however,  be  struck 
out  of  this  list,  being  gold  and  silver  coin,  consisting  mostly  of  metals 
coined  at  the  mint,  and  again  exported.  The  labor  put  upon  these  mate- 
rials in  coining  is  so  inconsiderable  a  part  of  their  value,  that  the  amount 
of  coin  of  the  country  exported  ought  not  to  be  included  in  the  estimate  of 
the  value  of  manufactured  exports.  Of  the  articles  exported  on  which  the 
arts  of  the  United  States  are  employed,  the  most  considerable  are  cotton 
twist,  thread,  and  fabrics,  the  exported  value  of  which,  for  the  year  1830, 
was  one  million,  eight  hundred  and  thirteen  thousand,  one  hundred  and 
eighty-three  dollars,  being  more  than  one  fiftieth  part  of  the  whole  domes- 
tic exports,  the  principal  markets  of  which  are  South  America,  Mexico, 
and  the  Mediterranean. 

The  value  of  leather  and  its  various  manufactures,  exported,  is  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand,  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  Hats 
exported  the  same  year  amount  to  three  hundred  and  nine  thousand,  three 
hundred  and  sixty-two  dollars,  a  very  large  sum,  considering  the  short 
period  during  which  this  article  has  been  sent  to  foreign  markets.  Soap 
and  candles  have  long  been  supplied  for  the  foreign  markets,  but  have 
lately  been  on  the  decline,  the  amount  for  the  year  1830  being  six  hun- 
dred and  nineteen  thousand,  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  dollars ;  and 
for  1831  only  about  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  more.  The  various  arti- 
cles manufactured  for  the  most  part  of  wood,  such  as  furniture,  or  of  wood, 
leather,  and  iron,  such  as  coaches  and  carriages,  besides  various  agricul- 
tural implements  supplied  to  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  consti- 
tute an  important  branch  of  trade.  The  American  glass  begins  to  appear 
in  the  foreign  markets ;  the  value  sent  abroad  in  1830,  was  sixty  thousand, 
two  hundred  and  eighty  dollars  ;  in  the  next  year  it  was  nearly  doubled, 
and  it  bids  fair  to  be  still  increased.  The  other  exports  consist  of  a  variety 
of  articles  in  small  quantities,  among  which  are  wearing  apparel,  combs 
and  buttons,  brushes,  fire  engines  and  apparatus,  printing  presses  and  types, 
musical  instruments,  books,  maps,  paper  and  stationery,  and  trunks.  It  is 
apparent  from  the  above  enumeration  and  estimates,  that  the  manufactured 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  367 

articles  of  which  the  export  is  the  most  considerable  and  most  flourishing, 
are  those  of  which  the  raw  materials  consist  mostly  of  cotton,  wood,  and 
leather. 

The  foreign  articles  imported  and  again  exported  from  the  country  during 
the  year  1830,  amounted  to  fourteen  million,  three  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight  thousand,  four  hundred  and  seventy-nine  dollars.  This  transit  trade 
consequently  forms  an  important  part  of  American  commerce.  The  prin- 
cipal foreign  articles  exported  are  cottons,  coffee  and  cocoa,  sugar,  tea, 
wines,  and  hardware.* 

'  The  tendency  to  the  sea,'  says  Mr.  Cooper,  in  his  Notions  of  the  Ame- 
ricans, 'which  the  American  has  manifested  since  the  earliest  of  the  co- 
lonial establishments,  is,  no  doubt,  to  be  ascribed  originally  to  the  temper 
of  his  ancestors.  Nothing  can  be  more  absurd,  however,  than  to  argue, 
that  although  peculiar  circumstances  drew  him  on  the  ocean,  during  the 
continuance  of  the  late  and  general  hostilities,  he  will  return  to  his  fertile 
valleys  and  vast  prairies,  now  that  competitors  for  the  profits  of  commerce 
and  navigation  are  arising  among  the  former  belligerents.  The  argument 
implies  an  utter  ignorance  of  history,  no  less  than  of  the  character  and  sa- 
gacity of  a  people  who  are  never  tardy  to  discover  their  individual  inte- 
rests. It  is,  notwithstanding,  often  urged  with  so  much  pertinacity,  as  to 
savor  much  more  of  the  conclusions  of  what  we  hope  for,  than  of  what  our 
reason  would  teach  us  to  believe.  The  fact  is,  there  never  has  been  a 
period,  since  society  was  first  firmly  organized  in  their  country,  when  the 
Anglo-Americans  have  not  possessed  a  tonnage  greater,  in  proportion  to 
their  population  and  means,  than  that  of  any  other  people,  some  of  the 
small  commercial  cities,  perhaps,  alone  excepted.  This  was  true,  even 
previously  to  their  revolution,  when  the  mother  country  monopolized  all 
of  trade  and  industry  that  the  temper  of  the  colonies  would  bear,  and  it  is 
true  now,  to  an  extent  of  which  you  have  probably  no  suspicion.  The 
present  population  of  the  United  States  may  be  computed  at  twelve  million, 
while  the  amount  of  shipping  materially  exceeds  one  million  four  hundred 
thousand  tons.t  Assuming  that  amount,  however,  it  gives  one  ton  to  eve- 
ry eight  and  a  half  of  the  inhabitants.  The  tonnage  of  the  British  empire 
is,  in  round  numbers,  two  million,  five  hundred  thousand.  This,  divided 
among  the  twenty-three  million  of  the  British  islands  alone,  would  give 
but  one  ton  to  every  nine  of  the  inhabitants.  In  this  calculation,  the  vast 
difference  in  wealth  is  forgotten.  But  by  the  British  empire,  we  are  to 
understand  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  and  all  the  vast  possessions  which 
are  tributary  to  the  wealth  and  power  of  that  great  nation.  I  know  not 
whether  the  shipping  employed  in  the  East  Indies  ought  to  be  enumerated 
in  the  amount  named.  If  it  is,  you  will  see  the  disproportion  in  favor  of 
America  is  enormous.  But  assuming  that  it  is  not,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  add  several  millions  for  their  other  dependencies.  There  is,  however, 
still  another  point  of  view  in  wrhich  this  comparison  should,  with  strict 
justice,  be  made.  A  large  proportion  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
are  so  situated,  that  in  the  nature  of  things  they  cannot  turn  much,  if  any, 

*  For  further  information  and  details  in  respect  to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States, 
see  the  tabular  views  and  summaries  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

t  On  the  thirtieth  of  December,  1826,  it  had  swelled  to  one  million,  five  hundred  and 
thirty.four  thousand. 


368  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  their  attention  to  navigation.  If  the  slaves  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
new  states,  where  the  establishments  are  still  too  infant,  to  admit  of  such 
a  development  of  their  resources,  be  deducted  from  the  whole  amount  of 
the  population,  it  will  not  leave  more  than  seven  million  of  souls  in  pos- 
session of  those  districts  in  which  navigation  can  be  supposed  at  all  to 
exist.  The  latter,  too,  will  include  all  those  states  that  are  called  interior, 
where  time  has  not  been  given  to  effect  any  thing  like  a  natural  division 
of  the  employments  of  men.  The  result  will  show,  that  the  Americans, 
relatively  considered,  are  addicted  to  navigation,  as  compared  with  Great 
Britain,  in  the  proportion  of  more  than  seven  to  five ;  nor  has  this  com- 
mercial, or  rather  maritime  spirit,  arisen  under  auspices  so  encouraging  as 
is  generally  imagined. 

'  The  navigation  laws,  adopted  by  the  United  States,  so  soon  as  their 
present  constitution  went  into  operation,  are  generally  known.  Their  ef- 
fect was  to  bring  the  shipping  of  the  country  into  instant  competition  with 
that  of  foreign  nations,  from  the  state  of  temporary  depression  into  which 
it  had  been  thrown  by  the  struggle  of  the  revolution.  From  that  hour, 
the  superiority  enjoyed  by  the  American,  in  cheapness  of  construction, 
provisions  and  naval  stores,  aided  by  the  unrivalled  activity,  and  practical 
knowledge  of  the  population,  put  all  foreign  competition  at  defiance.  Of 
six  hundred  and  six  thousand  tons  of  shipping  employed  in  1790,  in  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  country,  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty-one  thou- 
sand tons  were  the  property  of  strangers.  In  1794,  while  the  trade  em- 
ployed six  hundred  and  eleven  thousand  tons,  but  eighty-four  thousand 
tons  were  owned  by  foreigners.  In  1820,  (a  year  of  great  depression,)  the 
trade  gave  occupation  to  eight  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  tons,  of  which 
no  more  than  seventy-nine  thousand  tons  were  foreign  property.  This 
estimate,  however,  includes  the  intercourse  with  the  least,  no  less  than 
that  with  the  most  maritime  nation.  The  trade  between  the  United  States 
and  England,  which  is  the  most  important  of  all,  in  respect  of  the  tonnage 
it  employs,  was  about  three  to  one,  in  favor  of  the  former ;  with  other 
countries  it  varies  according  to  the  maritime  character  of  the  people,  but 
with  all  and  each  it  is  altogether  in  favor  of  the  United  States.' 


369 


CHAPTER  VI.— RAIL-ROADS. 

The  first  rail-road  attempted  in  the  United  States,  was  that  constructed 
in  Quincy,  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  granite  from  the  quarry  at  that 
place.  It  extends  from  the  quarry  to  the  Neponset  river,  a  distance  of 
about  three  miles.  It  is  a  single  track  road,  and  the  distance  between  the 
rails  is  five  feet.  The  rails  are  of  pine,  covered  with  oak,  and  overlaid 
with  thin  plates  of  wrought  iron.  When  first  constructed,  the  passage 
from  the  quarry  to  the  landing  of  a  car  carrying  ten  tons,  with  a  single 
horse,  was  performed  in  an  hour.     It  was  completed  in  1827. 

The  Boston  and  Loiaell  rail-road  commences  at  Boston,  near  the  en- 
trance to  the  Warren  bridge.  Twenty  acres  of  flat  have  been  purchased 
at  this  place  to  accommodate  the  various  depots  of  the  company.  The 
rail-road  crosses  Charles  river  by  a  wooden  viaduct,  and  terminates  at  the 
basin  of  the  canal  in  Lowell ;  whence  branches  extend  along  the  several 
canals  to  the  factories.  At  present,  it  is  to  be  composed  of  a  single  track, 
with  the  requisite  number  of  turn-outs.  It  is  constructed  of  stone  and 
iron,  in  the  most  substantial  manner.  The  company  to  form  this  road 
was  incorporated  in  June,  1830. * 

*  The  following  extract  from  the  Lowell  Journal  possesses  sufficient  interest  to  entitle 
it  to  preservation. 

1  The  excavation  which  is  now  about  being  made  in  a  hill  in  this  town  for  the  bed  of 
the  contemplated  rail-way,  may  be  considered,  next  to  the  various  manufacturing 
establishments,  the  most  wonderful  "  lion"  of  the  place.  This  hill  is  near  the  terminus 
of  the  rail-way,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  brewery,  but  not  in  a  populous  part  of  the 
town.  It  consists  of  a  ledge  of  rock,  which  is  about  three  hundred  yards  in  length,  and 
the  average  depth  of  the  excavation  is  about  forty  feet.  It  is  thirty  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom,  and  sixty  at  the  top,  and  the  masses  of  stone  which  have  already  been  riven 
from  the  ledge  by  blasting,  seem  to  be  immense. 

i  A  contract  was  originally  made  with  a  person  to  effect  a  sufficient  passage  through 
this  hill,  for  the  sum  of  seventy-two  thousand  dollars.  He  commenced  the  undertaking, 
employed  sixty  workmen  for  about  four  months,  and  failed.  Another  person  then  un- 
dertook to  finish  the  work  for  the  same  amount ;  but  after  a  few  months,  he  also  aban- 
doned the  undertaking.  Those  individuals  are  said  to  have  both  been  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  the  business  which  they  undertook,  but  they  were  deceived  by  the  quality 
of  the  rock,  which  consists  principally  of  gneiss  and  mica,  through  which,  although 
much  lighter  and  softer  than  limestone  or  granite,  it  was  found  much  more  difficult  and 
expensive  to  effect  a  passage,  than  if  it  was  composed  of  those  more  solid  materials. 
The  drilling  may  not  be  so  difficult ;  but  the  rocks,  lying  in  numerous  horizontal  strata, 
almost  defy  the  power  of  gunpowder,  and  heavy  blasts,  which  would  shiver  an  immense 
mass  of  granite,  are  frequently  found  here  to  produce  but  little  effect.  In  addition  to 
this,  the  ledge  is  found  to  be  full  of  springs  of  water,  which  sometimes  render  it  neces- 
sary for  the  workmen  to  expend  much  time,  and  exercise  no  inconsiderable  ingenuity, 
in  counteracting  its  effects.  There  are  also  found  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ledge,  huge 
masses  of  quartz,  and  a  species  of  rock  composed  almost  entirely  of  hornblende,  which 
is,  of  course,  almost  impenetrable  to  the  drill. 

The  Locks  and  Canal  company  have  now  undertaken  to  complete  this  work,  at  the 
expense  of  the  Rail-road  company.  About  seventy  men  are  constantly  employed,  and 
the  work-advances  as  rapidly  as  the  attending  circumstances  will  allow.  Seven  hun- 
dred  kegs  of  powder  have  been  used  in  blasting,  since  the  latter  part  of  April,  when  the 
vork  was  recommenced.' 
47 


370  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Boston  and  Worcester  rail-road  was  commenced  in  August,  1832. 
In  this  road,  the  greatest  degree  of  inclination  from  a  level  will  be  at  the 
rate  of  thirty  feet  a  mile  ;  the  average  inclination  will  be  but  ten  and  a 
half  feet,  the  main  street  in  Worcester  being  but  four  hundred  and  fifty- 
six  feet  higher  than  Charles  street  in  Boston.  The  length  of  the  route  is 
forty-three  and  a  quarter  miles.  A  continuation  of  this  road  to  Connecticut 
river  has  been  proposed,  and  also  a  branch  to  Millbury. 

The  Boston  and  Providence  Rail-road  company  was  incorporated  in 
June,  1831,  with  a  capital  of  a  million  of  dollars,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
structing a  rail-road  from  Boston  to  the  boundary  line  of  Massachusetts,  in 
the  direction  of  Providence.  A  company  has  been  formed  for  the  continu- 
ation of  this  road  to  Stonington.  Rail-roads  have  been  projected  from 
Boston  or  Lowell  to  Brattleborough ;  from  West  Stockbridge  to  the  boun- 
dary line  of  the  state  of  New  York,  to  meet  a  rail-road  from  Albany ;  from 
Boston  to  Salem,  to  be  continued  to  the  northern  line  of  the  state ;  from 
Troy,  in  New  York,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Hudson  river,  to 
Bennington,  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  to  the  town  of  Adams  ;  and  from 
Boston  to  Ogdensburg,  in  New  York. 

The  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rail-road  extends  from  Albany  to  Schenectady, 
and  affords  a  communication  between  the  tide-water  of  Hudson  river  and 
the  Erie  canal.  It  is  a  double  track  road,  about  sixteen  miles  in  length. 
It  commences  at  the  termination  of  the  city  line  on  the  Hudson  river,  and 
about  thirteen  acres  of  land  are  owned  by  the  company  in  the  vicinity,  for 
depots  of  transports.  About  four  miles  from  Schenectady,  there  is  a  curve 
in  the  road  of  twenty-three  thousand  feet  radius ;  there  are  six  principal 
embankments.  The  descent  from  the  Schenectady  summit  to  the  level  of 
the  Hudson,  is  three  hundred  and  thirty-five  feet.  The  soil  through  which 
the  road  passes  is  sandy.  Several  ravines  are  crossed,  and  some  conside- 
rable elevations  are  cut  through.  Both  locomotive  engines  and  horses  are 
used  upon  this  route.  A  locomotive  has  travelled  upon  it,  with  a  load  of 
eight  tons,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  per  hour.  In  October,  1831,  the 
number  of  daily  passengers  averaged  nearly  four  hundred.  The  cost  of 
this  road  was  between  six  and  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

The  Saratoga  and  Schenectady  rail-road  forms  a  continuation  of  the 
Mohawk  and  Hudson  rail-road,  extending  from  the  city  of  Schenectady  to 
the  villages  of  Ballston  Spa  and  Saratoga,  and  uniting  these  places  with 
the  line  of  steam  navigation  upon  the  Hudson.  It  is  twenty  miles  in 
length  ;  was  commenced  in  1831,  and  completed  in  the  following  year. 

The  Ithaca  and  Susquehanna  rail-road  is  to  extend  from  the  village  of 
Ithaca,  near  the  south  end  of  Cayuga  lake,  to  Owego,  on  the  Susquehanna. 
The  distance  is  about  twenty-eight  miles.  The  Ithaca  and  Catskill  rail- 
road is  to  extend  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  miles,  from 
Ithaca  to  Catskill,  on  the  Hudson.  The  Catskill  and  Canajoharie  rail- 
road is  to  extend  for  the  distance  of  seventy  miles,  from  Catskill  to  Cana- 
joharie, on  the  Mohawk.  The  company  was  incorporated  in  1830,  with  a 
capital  of  six  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The  Harlem  rail-road  is  about 
six  miles  in  length,  extending  from  Twenty-third  street,  New  York  city, 
to  Harlem  river. 

The  New  York  and  Erie  rail-road  company  was  incorporated  in  April 
1832,  with  a  capital  of  ten  million  dollars.  It  was  the  original  design  that 
the  road  should  extend  from  the  city  of  New  York,  or  some  point  in  its 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  371 

vicinity,  and  continue  through  the  southern  counties,  through  Owego,  in 
the  county  of  Tioga,  to  the  shore  of  lake  Erie,  at  some  point  between  Cat- 
taraugus creek  and  the  Pennsylvania  line.  It  is  to  be  commenced  within 
four  years  from  the  date  of  the  act  of  incorporation,  one  fourth  to  be  com- 
pleted within  ten  years,  one  half  within  fifteen  years,  and  the  whole  to  be 
completed  within  twenty  years,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  the  charter. 
The  New  York  and  Albany  rail-road  company  was  incorporated  in 
April,  1832,  with  a  capital  of  three  millions.  It  is  to  be  completed  within 
ten  years  ;  commencing  at  New  York  city,  opposite  the  termination  of  the 
Fourth  avenue,  and  ending  on  the  Hudson,  opposite  Albany.*  '  The  pro- 
posed route  of  this  road,'  says  the  Boston  Advertiser,  '  passes  through  the 
county  of  Berkshire,  in  this  state,  from  West  Stockbridge  to  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  state  of  Connecticut,  following  the  valley  of  the  Housa- 
tonic  river  from  Stockbridge  to  Sharon,  in  Connecticut.  It  will  thus  afford 
an  additional  inducement  for  the  extension  of  the  Boston  and  Worcester 
rail-road  from  Worcester  to  Springfield,  and  thence  to  the  western  boundary 
of  the  state.  This  latter  rail-road  will  meet  the  New  York  and  Albany  road 
at  Stockbridge  or  West  Stockbridge,  and  will  thus  come  in  contact  with  a 
continued  line  of  rail-roads,  interrupted  only  by  the  Hudson  river,  extend- 
ing northwardly  to  Saratoga,  westwardly  to  Utica,  and  southwardly  to  the 
city  of  New  York.  It  will  thus  afford  the  means  of  direct  and  rapid  in- 
tercourse between  Boston  and  the  towns  in  Berkshire  county,  along  the 
fertile  valley  of  the  Housatonic,  and  with  the  rich  marble  quarries  and 
beds  of  iron  ore  in  that  region,  as  well  as  with  the  vast  country  which  will 
be  opened  to  this  mercantile  market,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  state.  The 
distance  by  the  rail-road  from  West  Stockbridge  to  Albany  will  be  about 
forty  miles,  of  which  distance  over  sixteen  miles  will  be  a  perfect  level. 
From  West  Stockbridge  to  Utica,  the  distance  by  the  rail-road  will  be  one 

*  In  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  Rail-road  companies  were  incorporated  at 
the  session  of  the  New  York  legislature  in  1832. 

Name.  Capital. 

Lake  Champlain  and  Ogdensburgh, $3,000,000 

Watertown  and  Rome, 1,000,000 

Utica  and  Susquehanna,  (from  Utica  to  the  New  York  and  Erie  rail-road,)      1,000,000 

Black  river,  (from  the  Erie  canal,  at  Rome  or  Herkimer,  to  the  St.  Lawrence,)  900,000 

Ithaca  and  Geneva,       800,000 

Buffalo  and  Erie,         65o!o00 

Dutchess,  (from  Poughkeepsie  to  Connecticut  line,)         600,000 

Tonawanda,  (from  Rochester  to  Attica,) 500,000 

Hudson  and  Berkshire,  (from  Hudson  to  Massachusetts  line,) 350,000 

Schoharie  and  Otsego,  (from  the  Catskill  and  Canajoharie  rail-road  to  the 

Susquehanna  river,) 300,000 

Dansville  and  Rochester, 300  000 

Aurora  and  Buffalo,       .     , '.*.*.'.  30o'o00 

Rensselaer  and  Saratoga, 30o'oOO 

Brooklyn  and  Jamaica, *..'.*.  300000 

Fish-house  and  Amsterdam, ••;"."'."  25o'o00 

Warren  county,  (from  Glen's  Falls  to  Caldwell,)        '  .'.'.'  .  25o!o00 

Saratoga  and  Fort  Edward, , 200  000 

Otsego,  (from  Cooperstown  to  Colherville,)     '  .     .     .     .     .......  20o'o00 

Albion  and  Tonawanda,       '  200000 

Auburn  and  Erie  canal, '..'.".".*.*  150000 

Mayville  and  Portland, ■■"...."  ........  15o'oOO 

Elvira  and  Williamsport,       »....""."     "."."."  ,                     '  75000 


372  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

feundred  and  thirty-seven  miles,  over  a  country  a  great  part  of  which  is 
level.  From  Albany  to  Schenectady,  and  thence  to  Saratoga,  the  rail- 
road is  already  finished.  From  Schenectady  to  Utica,  the  road  is  yet  to 
be  made ;  but  the  company  for  building  it  is  formed,  with  an  adequate  capi- 
tal. About  seven  times  the  requisite  amount  of  stock  was  subscribed. 
The  required  amount  has  been  apportioned  by  commissioners  among  the 
subscribers,  and  the  subscription  money  for  the  surplus  shares  has  been 
returned.' 

The  Camden  and  Amboy  rail-road  commences  at  Camden,  on  the  Dela- 
ware, opposite  to  Philadelphia,  and  passing  through  Burlington,  Borden- 
town,  Highstown,  and  Spotswood,  over  South  river,  terminates  at  Amboy. 
It  is  sixty-one  miles  in  length,  passing  through  a  very  level  country.  Be- 
ing designed  for  steam  locomotives,  it  is  to  be  constructed  in  the  most  im- 
proved and  substantial  manner,  though  at  present  wooden  rails  are  laid 
over  a  great  portion  of  the  line,  in  order  that  the  embankments  may  be  con- 
solidated before  laying  the  permanent  track.  A  double  track  of  rails  is  to 
be  laid  ultimately  through  the  whole  distance.  Between  Bordentown  and 
Amboy,  there  is  a  cut  varying  in  depth  to  sixty  feet,  extending  nearly  two 
miles.  In  the  vicinity  of  Bordentown,  there  are  stone  culverts  and  via- 
ducts. It  has  been  calculated  that  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  per  an- 
num will  be  received  for  the  conveyance  of  light  freight  and  passengers. 
As  the  Delaware  is  frequently  closed  with  ice  during  part  of  the  winter, 
and  the  Philadelphia  trade  is  consequently  diverted  to  New  York,  it  is 
supposed  that  vessels  destined  to  Philadelphia,  may  put  into  Raritan  bay, 
which  is  open  at  all  seasons,  and  the  cargoes  be  conveyed  at  once  upon  the 
rail-road  to  the  place  of  their  destination.  To  secure  this  object,  large  lots 
on  the  Raritan  and  the  Delaware  have  been  purchased  by  the  company 
for  the  convenience  of  ships  and  steamboats. 

The  Patterson  and  Hudson  river  rail-road  extends  from  Patterson,  on 
the  Passaic,  to  Jersey  city  and  the  Hudson  river,  opposite  New  York,  four- 
teen miles.  After  the  expiration  of  fifty  years,  the  state  of  New  Jersey 
has  a  right  to  take  this  road  at  an  appraised  value.  The  Elizabethtoivn 
and  Somerville  rail-road  company  was  incorporated  in  1830,  with  a  capital 
of  two  hundred  thousand  dollars,  with  the  liberty  of  increasing  it  to  four 
hundred  thousand.  The  West-Jersey  rail-road  is  to  extend  from  the  Dela- 
ware river,  in  the  county  of  Gloucester,  or  from  some  point  on  the  Camden 
and  Amboy  rail-road,  to  the  township  of  Penn's  Neck,  on  the  same  river, 
in  the  county  of  Salem.  This  company  was  incorporated  at  the  same 
session  with  the  above,  with  a  capital  of  five  hundred  thousand  dollars, 
and  liberty  to  increase  it  to  two  million.  The  New  Jersey  rail-road  is  to 
extend  from  New  Brunswick,  through  Rahway,  Woodbridge,  Elizabeth- 
town  and  Newark,  to  Hudson  river.  It  was  incorporated  in  1832,  with  a 
capital  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  A  charter  was  also 
granted  to  a  company  to  construct  a  rail-road  connecting  the  Morris  canal 
with  the  Patterson  and  Hudson  river  rail-road. 

The  Mauck  Chunk  rail-road  was  the  first  rail-road  constructed  in  Penn- 
sylvania. It  was  commenced  and  finished  in  the  first  five  months  of  1827. 
It  extends  from  the  coal  mines  near  Mauch  Chunk,  along  the  side  of  the 
mountain,  down  an  inclined  plain  of  various  declivities,  to  the  Lehigh 
river.  The  mines  are  nine  hundred  and  thirty-six  feet  above  the  point 
where  the  boats  receive  the  coal,  of  which  from  three  hundred  to  thre« 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  373 

hundred  and  fifty  tons  arc  delivered  daily.  From  the  river  to  the  mines, 
the  road  is  nine  miles  in  length  ;  and  its  branches  at  the  ends  and  side- 
lings,  four  and  a  half  miles  more.  The  Mount  Carbon  rail-road  company 
was  incorporated  in  the  spring  of  1829,  and  the  rail  road  was  commenced 
in  the  succeeding  October.  At  the  termination,  the  road  is  elevated  upon 
thirty-one  piers  of  masonry  erected  upon  the  landings.  The  Schuylkill 
Valley  rail-road  commences  at  Port  Carbon,  and  terminates  at  Tuscarora, 
being  ten  miles  in  length.  It  is  intersected  by  fifteen  lateral  rail-roadss 
whose  combined  distances  amount  to  about  thirteen  miles.  The  Schuylkill 
rail-road  consists  of  a  double  track,  is  thirteen  miles  in  length,  and  cost 
seven  thousand  dollars  a  mile!  Mill  Creek  rail-road  commences  at  Port 
Carbon,  and  extends  up  Mill  creek  four  miles  ;  it  has  but  a  single  track. 
The  West  Branch  rail-road  commences  at  Schuylkill  haven,  and  terminates 
at  the  foot  of  the  Broad  mountain.  It  is  fifteen  miles  in  length,  with  five 
miles  of  lateral  roads  that  intersect  it ;  only  the  main  stem  has  a  double 
track.  The  Pinegrove  rail-road  extends  from  the  mines  to  the  Svvatara 
feeder,  a  distance  of  five  miles.  The  Little  Schuylkill  rail-road  commence* 
at  Port  Clinton,  and  extends  up  the  stream  to  the  mines  at  Tamaqua,  a 
distance  of  about  twenty-three  miles.  The  Lackawaxen  rail-road  com- 
mences at  the  termination  of  the  Lackawaxen  and  Delaware  and  Hudson 
canal,  and  connects  that  canal  with  the  coal  bed  in  Carbondale.  It  is  six- 
teen miles  in  length,  and  overcomes  an  elevation  of  eight  hundred  feet. 
The  road  consists  of  a  single  track  of  wooden  rails,  capped  with  iron. 

The  Alleghany  Portage  rail-road  is  intended  to  connect  the  eastern  and 
western  sections  of  the  Pennsylvania  canal,  and  complete  the  direct  line 
of  communication  between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburg.  The  route  adopted 
commences  at  Frankstown,  crosses  the  Alleghany  mountains  at  Blair's 
gap  summit,  and  descends  in  the  valleys  of  Laurel  run  and  the  Little 
Conemaugh,  to  Johnstown,  a  distance  of  thirty-eight  and  a  half  miles.  A 
tunnel  of  one  thousand  feet  is  projected  at  one  of  the  bends  of  the  Cone- 
maugh, which  will  be  crossed  by  two  bridges.  This  road  is  to  be  con- 
structed by  the  state  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  Philadelphia  and  Columbia  rail-road  is  intended  to  connect  the 
Delaware  navigation  at  Philadelphia  with  that  of  the  Susquehanna  at  Co- 
lumbia, passing  through  the  counties  of  Delaware,  Chester,  and  Lancaster. 
It  is  about  eighty-three  miles  in  length,  and  it  is  proposed  to  continue  it 
fourteen  miles  further,  across  the  Susquehanna,  by  the  Columbia  bridge, 
to  the  borough  of  York.  About  seventy  other  rail-roads  have  been  pro- 
jected in  Pennsylvania,  and  companies  for  constructing  several  of  them 
have  been  incorporated. 

The  Newcastle  and  Frenchtown  rail-road  extends  from  Newcastle,  on  the 
Delaware,  to  the  Elk  river,  near  Frenchtown,  in  Maryland  ;  it  is  nearly 
parallel  to  the  Chesapeak  and  Delaware  canal,  and  is  in  direct  competition 
with  it.  This  road  consists  of  a  single  track,  with  the  requisite  number 
of  turn-outs,  and  is  about  sixteen  and  a  half  miles  in  length — only  eight 
hundred  and  fifty-three  yards  longer  than  a  perfectly  straight  line  'drawn 
between  its  two  extremities.  It  consists  of  six  curve  and  six  straight  lines. 
The  curve  lines  vary  in  length  from  one  thousand,  nine  hundred  and 
thirty-nine  to  eight  thousand,  two  hundred  and  ninety-six  feet.  The  radii 
of  the  three  smaller  curves  are  of  ten  thousand,  five  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  each  ;  the  radius  of  the  largest,  twenty  thousand  feet.     The  aggregate 

32 


374 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


length  of  the  curves  is  five  miles  and  one  sixth ;  that  of  the  straight  lines 
eleven  miles  and  three  tenths.  The  graduation  of  the  road  departs  from  a 
perfect  level,  by  ascents  and  descents  varying  from  ten  feet  six  inches  to 
sixteen  feet  four  inches  a  mile  ;  at  one  place,  for  about  four  thousand  feet 
the  slope  is  at  the  rate  of  twenty-nine  feet  to  the  mile.  The  whole  amount 
of  excavation  is  about  five  hundred  thousand  cubic  yards  of  earth,  exclusive 
of  the  side  drains.  The  amount  of  embankment  is  four  hundred  and. 
twenty  thousand  cubic  yards.  The  road  crosses  four  viaducts  and  twenty- 
nine  culverts,  all  constructed  of  substantial  stone  masonry.  The  width  is 
twenty-six  feet,  exclusive  of  the  side  drains.  It  was  completed  in  1832. 
Cost,  including  land,  wharf,  depots,  and  locomotive  engines,  four  hundred 
thousand  dollars. 

The  Wilmington  and  Doionington  rail-road  was  incorporated  by  the 
legislature  of  Delaware,  in  1831,  with  a  capital  of  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  with  liberty  to  increase  it  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dol- 
lars, for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a  rail-road  from  Wilmington  to  the 
boundary  line  of  the  state,  in  the  direction  of  Downington,  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  Baltimore  and  Susquehannah  rail-road  was  commenced  in  1830, 
and  is  to  extend  from  Baltimore  to  York,  in  Pennsylvania,  a  distance  of 
seventy-six  miles.  The  company  has  the  right  of  constructing  a  lateral 
rail-road,  commencing  at  the  main  stem,  within  ten  miles  of  Baltimore, 
through  Westminster,  to  the  head  waters  of  Monocacy  river. 

The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail-road  is  intended  to  connect  the  city  of 
Baltimore  with  some  point  on  the  Ohio,  thus  affording  a  communication 
between  the  waters  of  Chesapeak  bay  and  those  of  the  great  western  river. 
Active  operations  on  this  great  work  were  commenced  in  the  autumn  of 
1828.  The  road  begins  at  the  head  of  the  basin  in  Baltimore.  In  the 
city  it  consists  of  a  single  track,  and  is  to  be  confined  to  horse  power 
branch  railways  are  to  be  constructed  in  various  directions.  On  the  portion 
of  the  rail-road  within  a  few  miles  of  the  city,  several  magnificent  viaducts 
are  constructed,  of  substantial  stone  masonry.  The  Carrollton  viaduct, 
over  Gwyn's  falls,  is  constructed  of  granite  ;  its  whole  exterior  is  hewn  , 
it  consists  of  two  arches,  and  is  three  hundred  and  twelve  feet  in  length. 


Carrollton  Viaduct. 

Its  height,  from  the  foundation  to  the  top  of  the  parapet,  is  sixty-three  feet 
nine  inches  ;  from  the  surface  of  the  water  to  the  top  of  the  parapet,  fifty- 
bne   feet  and  nine  inches.     The  width  of   the   railway  travelling-path  is 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  375 

twenty-six  feet  six  inches ;  the  chord  of  the  arch  springing  from  the  abut- 
ments, eighty  feet  three  inches.  It  is  a  structure  of  great  beauty  and 
solidity.  The  bridge  across  the  Patapsco  is  a  stone  structure,  consisting 
of  two  arches  of  fifty-five  feet  span  each,  and  two  of  twenty  feet  span  each. 
There  are  also  several  deep  cuts  and  extensive  embankments. 

Upon  the  route  selected  for  this  rail-road,  there  are  only  two  summits 
for  the  distance  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles.  The  approach  to  the 
first  of  these  summits,  at  Parr  Spring  ridge,  is  by  an  acclivity  so  gradual 
as  not  to  exceed  eighteen  feet  to  the  mile.  From  the  western  side  of  this 
ridge,  to  the  coal  mines  near  Cumberland,  the  route  for  the  whole  distance 
is  adapted  to  steam  locomotive  engines.  From  the  eastern  base  of  the 
Alleghany  mountain,  a  series  of  inclined  planes  will  be  required  to  over- 
come a  summit  of  twelve  hundred  feet ;  from  thence  the  road  may  be  con- 
structed upon  a  line  so  nearly  level  to  the  Ohio  river,  as  to  be  traversed  by 
steam  locomotive  engines  without  difficulty.  The  progress  of  the  rail-road 
beyond  the  Point  of  Rocks  has  been  interrupted  by  a  lawsuit  between  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Rail-road  company,  and  the  Chesapeak  and  Ohio 
Canal  company,  which  has  been  decided  in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  road 
is  to  be  extended  to  the  mouth  of  the  Shenandoah.  A  further  extension 
of  thirty  miles  will  carry  it  to  Williamsport,  and  another  of  seventy-five 
miles  to  Cumberland,  and  a  country  abounding  in  rich  bituminous  coal. 
From  this  point  to  Pittsburg,  the  distance  is  one  hundred  and  forty  miles, 
making  the  whole  length  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles. ;X= 

*  The  following  account  of  a  visit  to  the  Point  of  Rocks,  along  the  track  of  the  rail- 
road from  Baltimore  to  that  place,  a  distance  of  seventy-three  miles,  is  interesting,  and 
may  be  not  improperly  introduced  in  this  connection.  It  is  taken  from  the  Baltimore 
American  of  June,  1832. 

1  In  the  middle  of  the  merry  month  of  May,  the  governor  of  Maryland,  president  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail-road  company,  several  of  the  directors  and  other  gentle- 
men, visited  the  Point  of  Rocks  in  one  of  the  rail-road  cars.  The  road  is  so  well 
known  from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott's  mill  that  it  requires  no  description,  further  than 
that  point  has  become  a  very  desirable  retreat,  both  on  account  of  the  wild  magnificence 
of  the  surrounding  scenery  and  the  elegant  accommodations  of  the  hotel.  From  thence 
to  the  Monocacy,  it  leads  along  the  margin  of  the  Patapsco  river  and  Bush  creek, 
through  a  woody  region  rarely  intersected  by  some  cultivated  spots,  and  improvements 
indicating  much  comfort.  The  viaduct  across  the  Monocacy  is  a  light,  airy  and  tasteful 
structure,  reflecting  great  credit  on  the  architect,  and  of  sufficient  solidity  to  insure  its 
safety  and  duration.  From  that  point  is  a  view  of  the  bridge  below,  the  mountains  six 
miles  distant,  and  a  short  distance  up  and  down  the  river.  Here  the  branch  road 
leading  to  Frederick  leaves  the  continuous  line  which  proceeds  through  a  finely  cultivat- 
ed champaign  country  for  eleven  miles  to  the  Potomac.  I  formed  one  of  the  party,  and 
as  every  spot  at  the  Point  and  the  opposite  shore  was  familiar  to  me,  I  enjoyed  a  satis- 
faction, mingled  with  some  pleasing,  melancholy  recollections  of  former  days,  which 
was  not  felt  by  others,  although  I  believe  that  every  one  was  highly  gratified  with  the 
trip,  which  took  up  about  twelve  hours,  allowing  time  to  breakfast  at  the  Mills,  dine  at 
Frederick,  and  an  hour  to  examine  the  long-contested  Point,  which  rises  in  almost  a 
perpendicular  line  from  the  river,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  hundred  feet,  on  the 
top  of  which  is  an  Indian  barrow  where  lay  mouldering  the  bones  of  some  mighty 
Tecumsehs  or  valiant  Little  Turtles,  commingled  with  the  arrows  which  probably  have 
often  been  dye. I  in  the  blood  of  many  a  noble  tawny  Hector  or  implacable  Achilles. 
Here  the  soaring  eagle  and  boding  raven  have  immemorably  pitched  their  eyries  in 
social  proximity,  and  looked  down  upon  the  humble  fish  hawk  perched  upon  a  jutting 
rock,  or  hovering  with  equal  poise  over  his  finny  prey,  and  from  which  there  is  a  view 
of  Harper's  Ferry,  the  Blue  ridge  and  Washington's  beloved  river,  studded  with  isles, 
for  several  miles.     The  stillness  of  the  scene  is  often  broken  by  the  refreshing  murmurs 


376  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Baltimore  and  Washington  rail-road  is  a  branch  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  rail-road,  and  its  completion  has  been  undertaken  by  the  same 
company.  Its  length  from  the  point  of  intersection,  at  Elk  ridge  landing  to 
Washington,  is  about  thirty-three  miles. 

The  Manchester  raii-road  is  in  Chesterfield  county,  Virginia.  It  ex- 
tends from  Manchester  to  the  coal  mines.  It  consists  of  a  single  track, 
and  is  thirteen  miles  in  length.  The  Petersburg  and  Roanoke  rail-road 
was  undertaken  to  counteract  the  injurious  effect  which  the  Dismal  Swamp 
canal  has  had  upon  the  trade  of  Petersburg.^  It  affords  a  rapid  and  easy 
intercourse  between  the  James  and  Roanoke  rivers,  and  has  become  a 
most  important  link  in  the  chain  of  communication  between  the  North  and 

of  Hook's  falls.  Instead  of  the  low  cabin  under  the  pendant  rock  where  I  have  often 
felt  the  genial  warmth  of  a  blazing  fire  while  waiting  for  the  ferry  boat,  there  is  now 
rising,  as  if  by  magic,  the  town  of  Port  Johnson.  Already  there  are  several  houses, 
shops  and  warehouses  finished  and  occupied,  and  a  large  tavern  nearly  completed  on 
the  rail-road,  which  will  enable  visiters  to  spend  time  enough  to  enjoy  all  the  beauties 
of  the  prospect  and  a  cheerful  repast. 

'  The  distance  from  Baltimore  is  seventy  miles,  and  may  be  travelled  going  and 
returning  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  But  if  the  eye  is  delighted,  and  the  senses 
gratified  with  the  objects  on  the  Maryland  side,  they  will  be  doubly  increased  bypassing 
to  the  other  shore,  where  a  tavern  and  ferry  house  are  erecting  directly  opposite  the 
point  where  the  boats  land.  Immediately  in  the  rear  of  the  ferry  house,  is  a  tunnel  cut 
out  of  the  solid  rock  three  hundred  yards,  at  the  base  of  the  mountain  ;  half  a  mile 
farther  the  most  extensive  beds  of  excellent  iron  ore  and  a  favorable  appearance  of 
bituminous  coal.  The  tunnel  was  made  to  let  the  waters  of  Catoctin  creek  into  a  run 
which  supplied  a  furnace,  saw  and  extensive  merchant  mills,  destroyed  some  years  ago 
by  fire.  If  the  view  charms  from  the  Indian  barrows,  it  almost  enraptures  from  the  Vir- 
ginia promontory,  which  rises  several  hundred  feet  above  it,  looking  down,  as  it  were, 
upon  the  little  hillock  of  its  Maryland  neighbor.  The  summit  is  gained  by  a  circuitous 
road  from  the  river,  about  a  mile  in  length,  where  immediately  bursts  upon  the  eye  the 
most  beautiful  and  extensive  prospect  in  the  country.  On  the  one  side  you  behold 
Harper's  Ferry  gap,  at  twelve  miles  distance,  the  whole  valley  of  the  Blue  ridge  as  far 
as  vision  can  extend,  on  either  side  of  the  river  the  rich  settlements  of  the  Maryland 
tract,  the  Friends,  German  and  Tunkerville  districts,  and  the  Blue  ridge  mountains. 
The  whole  of  these  tracts  are  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation,  and  from  the  height 
you  occupy,  appear  like  large  and  beauteous  gardens,  irrigated  with  perennial  streams 
and  adorned  with  tasty  summer  houses.  On  the  other  side  are  seen  the  rich  Loudon 
lands,  the  town  of  Leesburg,  the  lofty  Sugar-Loaf  Peak  in  Mar)dand,  and  the  verdant 
fields  of  Carrollton  manor,  and  from  one  point,  the  Potomac  for  miles  up  and  down, 
with  its  numerous  islands,  gentle  falls  and  smooth  bosom.  On  both  sides  of  the  river 
at  the  point  will  arrive  in  boats  and  wagons,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  barrels  of  flour, 
large  quantities  of  lumber,  iron,  coal  and  other  productions  for  transportation  on  the 
rail-road.  A  new  energy  will  be  imparted  to  the  enterprising  and  industrious  popula- 
tion of  both  states  by  the  choice  of  markets  at  the  district  and  Baltimore,  and  the  facili- 
ties of  transportation.  If,  as  Mr.  Jefferson  says,  the  view  at  Harper's  Ferry  is  worth 
a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  surely  that  from  the  Virginia  summit  is  worth  a  ride  from 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  or  even  the  cradle  city  of  independence. ' 

#  An  intelligent  friend,  who  has  just  visited  the  Petersburg  and  Roanoke  rail-road, 
writes  us  as  follows  : — 

1  The  locomotive  engines  travel  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  the  hour,  with  ease,  and 
with  a  train  of  from  ten  to  twenty  cars,  all  loaded — some  with  passengers,  and  others 
with  produce  of  every  description.  The  whole  line  of  the  Petersburg  road  presents  a 
scene  of  cheerfulness  and  industry,  not  to  be  seen  on  any  other  road  in  Virginia. 
Plantations  that  have  been  abandoned  are  now  re-settling  ;  houses  repairing,  and  fences, 
of  the  best  kind,  erecting.  In  the  bodies  of  wood  through  which  the  road  passes,  work- 
men are  employed,  some  getting  staves,  some  sawing,  and  others  clearing,  and,  in  fact, 
on  the  whole  line,  there  is  a  spirit  and  animation  that  is  delightful  to  behold.' — Fred' 
ericksburg  Arena. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  377 

the  South.  Rail-roads  have  also  been  projected  from  Richmond  to 
Lynchburg ;  from  Lynchburg  to  New  River  ;  from  Suffolk,  in  Nansemond 
county,  to  the  Roanoke  river,  opposite  to  the  town  of  Weldon,  in  North 
Carolina  ;  and  in  several  other  directions. 

The  Fayetteville  rail-road  company  was  incorporated  by  the  legislature 
of  North  Carolina,  in  1S30,  with  a  capital  stock  of  twenty  thousand  dol- 
lars, for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a  rail-road  from  Fayetteville  to  Camp- 
belltown,  on  Cape  Fear  river.  Rail-roads  from  Cape  Fear  to  the  Yadkin  ; 
from  the  Yadkin  to  the  Catawba  ;  and  from  Wilmington  to  the  iron  mining 
districts,  near  Statesville,  have  been  projected,  and  are  in  progress. 

The  Charleston  and  Hamburg  rail-road,  extending  one  hundred  and 
thirty-six  miles,  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  to  Hamburg,  opposite 
Augusta,  in  Georgia,  was  opened  in  October,  1833,  for  its  entire  length. 
The  passenger  train  leaves  each  place  every  morning,  and  arrives  on  the 
evening  of  the  day  of  departure.  This  enterprise  was  undertaken  by  the 
South  Carolina  Canal  and  Rail-road  company,  which  has  received  pecu- 
niary assistance  from  the  state.  A  second  rail-road  of  about  the  same 
length,  to  extend  from  Charleston  to  Columbia,  is  also  embraced  within 
the  objects  of  this  company. 

Companies  have  been  incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  Alabama,  to 
construct  a  rail-road  from  Montgomery  to  Chattahoochie,  opposite  Colum- 
bus, in  Georgia;  and  from  Selma,  on  the^Alabama,  through  Elyta  and 
Montevallo,  to  Decatur,  on  the  Tennessee.  Rail-roads  have  also  been 
projected  between  Augusta  and  Heshman's  lake,  a  distance  of  fifty  miles  ; 
and  between  Augusta  and  Columbus,  on  the  Chattahoochie. 

The  Lexington  and  Ohio  rail-road  was  commenced  in  1831;  it  is  to 
extend  from  Lexington  to  Frankfort,  and  thence  to  the  Ohio  river,  just 
below  the  falls,  near  Shippingport,  which  is  two  miles  distant  from  Louis- 
ville. Its  length  is  about  eighty  miles.  The  company  by  which  it  was 
undertaken  was  incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  in  1830,  with 
a  capital  stock  of  one  million  dollars.  Mad  River  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
road is  to  commence  at  Dayton,  at  the  head  of  the  Miami  canal,  and  extend 
to  Sandusky,  on  lake  Erie,  thus,  by  means  of  the  canal  and  rail-road, 
opening  a  communication  between  Cincinnati  and  the  lake.  The  distance 
is  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  miles. 

The  IRinois  and  1  richigan  rail-road  is  to  commence  at  Chicago,  on  lake 
Michigan,  and  conti  le  in  a  southwesterly  direction  eleven  and  a  half 
miles  to  the  summit  level :  in  this  distance  the  ascent  is  only  twenty-five* 
feet.  After  passing  the  summit  level,  it  is  to  cross  and  continue  along  the 
river  Des  Plaines,  to  the  foot  of  the  Illinois  rapids,  the  distance  of  eighty- 
five  miles,  with  a  descent  of  exactly  two  feet  a  mile  ;  thus  giving,  in  a  dis- 
tance of  ninety-six  and  a  half  miles,  only  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  feet 
of  rise  and  fall.  A  company  has  been  formed  for  the  construction  of  a 
rail-road  between  Detroit  and  Pontiac,  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles. 
The  Tuscumlia  rail-road  extends  from  Tuscumbia  to  Decatur.  The  Lake 
Pontchartrain  rail-road  extends  from  lake  Pontchartrain  to  New  Orleans, 
four  and  a  half  miles.  It  consists  of  a  single  track,  is  perfectly  straight, 
and  nearly  level.  A  port  of  entry  has  been  established  on  the  lake,  and 
an  artificial  harbor  and  breakwater  have  been  constructed  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  rail-road.  The  West  Feliciana  rail-road  company  was  incorpo- 
rated by  the   legislature  of  Louisiana,  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a 


378  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

rail-road  from  the  river  Mississippi,  near  St.  Francisville,  to  the  boundary 
line  of  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  in  the  direction  of  Woodville,  Missis- 
sippi. 

The  materials  for  the  history  of  rail-roads  in  the  United  States  are  now 
so  scattered  and  uncertain,  and  the  roads  themselves  are  so  rapidly  chang- 
ing their  aspect,  that  it  is  in  vain  to  hope  for  any  thing  like  an  authentic 
account,  till  all  the  great  systems  and  chains  are  completed  throughout  the 
country.  The  American  edition  of  Mr.  Wood's  Treatise  contains  the  most 
complete  account  of  the  roads  in  the  United  States.  To  this  work,  to  the 
American  Almanac  for  1833,  the  tenth  volume  of  the  Encyclopedia  Ameri- 
cana, the  Gazetteer  of  Darby  and  D wight,  and  a  number  of  public  journals, 
we  have  been  indebted  for  the  materials  of  the  present  chapter. 


f 


379 


CHAPTER  VIL— CANALS. 

Great  improvements  have  been  introduced  in  the  inland  navigation  of 
the  United  States  within  the  last  twenty  years,  both  by  removing  impedi- 
ments that  have  obstructed  river  navigation,  and  by  the  construction  of 
canals.  More  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  miles  of  canal  have  been 
constructed  in  the  country,  and  numerous  works  of  this  description  are 
now  in  progress,  though  the  rail-road  has  perhaps,  in  most  instances,  been 
preferred,  where  the  circumstances  admitted  of  a  choice.  Our  description 
of  the  principal  canals  in  the  country  must  be  limited  to  a  mere  enumera- 
tion of  the  most  important  particulars. 

Canals  in  New  England.  The  Cumberland  and  Oxford  canal  extends 
from  Portland  to  Sebago  pond,  and  was  completed  in  1829.  Its  length  is 
twenty  and  a  half  miles  ;  its  width  at  the  surface  is  thirty-four  feet,  at 
the  bottom,  eighteen  ;  its  depth  is  four  feet.  The  number  of  its  locks 
it  twenty-six.  A  lock  is  also  constructed  in  Songo  river,  by  which  navi- 
gation is  continued  into  Brandy  and  Long  ponds,  making  the  whole  natu- 
ral and  artificial  water  communication  fifty  miles. 

Middlesex  canal  was  completed  in  1808,  and  opens  a  water  communica- 
tion between  Boston  and  the  central  part  of  New  Hampshire,  by  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Merrimack  river.  It  has  but  one  summit  level,  one  hundred 
and  four  feet  above  Boston  harbor,  and  thirty-two  above  the  level  of  the 
Merrimack,  at  the  place  where  it  unites  with  that  river  in  Chelmsford, 
above  Pawtucket  falls,  on  which  are  situated  the  great  manufacturing 
establishments  of  Lowell.  Its  length  is  twenty-seven  miles,  breadth  at  the 
surface  thirty  feet,  at  the  bottom  twenty ;  its  depth  of  water  is  three  feet, 
and  locks  are  twenty.  It  has  seven  aqueducts  over  streams  and  rivers, 
and  fifty  bridges,  with  stone  abutments  twenty  feet  apart.  Around  the 
^numerous  falls  of  the  river,  within  the  limits  of  New  Hampshire,  the  fol- 
lowing canals  have  been  constructed  : — Bow  canal,  completed  in  1812,  is 
one  third  of  a  mile  long,  and  passes  a  fall  of  twenty-five  feet  with  four 
locks  ;  Hooksett  canal,  fifty  rods  in  length,  passes  Hooksett  falls  by  three 
locks,  with  a  lockage  of  sixteen  feet ;  Amoskeag  canal,  eight  miles  below 
the  above,  passes  a  fall  of  the  same  name,  by  a  lockage  of  forty-five  feet, 
with  nine  locks ;  Union  canal,  immediately  below  Amoskeag,  overcomes 
seven  falls  in  the  river,  and  has  seven  locks  in  nine  miles. 

Pawtucket  canal,  in  the  town  of  Lowell,  is  used  not  only  for  passing  a 
fall  of  the  same  name,  but  also  for  supplying  very  extensive  hydraulic 
works.  It  is  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  ninety  feet  wide,  and  four  feet 
deep,  overcoming  a  difference  of  level  of  thirty-two  feet. 

In  1811,  a  charter,  that  has  been  subsequently  renewed,  was  granted  to 
a  company  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a  canal  from  Winnipisiogee 
lake  to  Cocheco  river,  below  the  landing  at  Dover.  The  distance  is  twenty- 
seven  miles.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  four  hundred  and  fifty-two  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  river,  and  the  fall  would  require  fifty-three  locks. 
The  expense  has  been  estimated  at  about  three  hundred  thousand  dollars. 


3S0  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Blachstone  canal  extends  from  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  to  Provi- 
dence, Ehode  Island.  It  is  forty-five  miles  long,  and  follows  in  the  greaier 
part  of  its  course  the  valley  of  the  Blackstone  or  Pawtucket  river,  from 
which  it  is  supplied  with  water.  Its  fall  from  the  summit  at  Worcester  to 
tide  water  at  Providence,  is  four  hundred  and  fifty-one  and  six  tenths  feet 
It  has  forty-eight  locks,  eighty  feet  long  by  ten  wide ;  the  breadth  at  its 
surface  is  thirty-four  feet,  at  the  bottom  eighteen  ;  depth  of  water,  four 
feet.  It  was  built  by  an  incorporated  company,  under  charter  from  the 
legislatures  of  the  states  in  which  it  lies,  at  a  cost  of  about  six  hundred 
thousand  dollars.  It  was  finished  in  the  autumn  of  1828.  This  canal 
facilitates  and  greatly  increases  the  trade  from  the  northern  part  of  Rhode 
Island,  and  the  central  parts  of  Massachusetts,  to  the  markets  of  Provi- 
dence, New  York,  and  the  middle  and  southern  states. 

The  Farmington  canal  was  commenced  in  1825,  upon  the  plan  of  con- 
necting, by  a  line  of  seventy-eight  miles  of  artificial  navigation,  Connecti- 
cut river,  at  Northampton,  in  Massachusetts,  with  New  Haven  harbor.  It 
is  thirty-six  feet  broad  at  the  surface,  twenty  at  the  bottom,  and  four  feet 
in  depth.  The  locks  are  eighty  feet  in  the  clear,  and  twelve  feet  wide. 
It  extends  fifty-eight  miles,  from  New  Haven  to  Southwick  ponds,  on  the 
boundary  of  Massachusetts,  and  cost  about  six  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
In  continuation  of  this  work,  the  Hampshire  and  Hampden  canal  has  been 
constructed  in  Massachusetts,  as  far  as  Westfield  ;  it  is  to  be  continued 
twenty  miles,  to  Northampton,  and  perhaps  even  to  Barnet,  in  Vermont. 
The  difference  of  level  in  this  canal  is  two  hundred  and  ninety-eight  feet. 

Enfield,  South  Hadley,  Montague,  and  Bellows  Falls  canals  are  short 
cuts  at  the  different  falls  on  the  Connecticut  river.  The  first  was  built  by 
a  company  incorporated  in  1824.  It  extends  around  the  falls  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  state  of  Connecticut,  and  is  five  and  a  half  miles  in  length. 
It  has  two  stone  locks  of  ten  feet  lift,  each  ninety. feet  by  twenty,  and  is 
used  for  extensive  hydraulic  works,  as  well  as  for  navigation.  Before  the 
construction  of  this  work,  these  rapids  were  passed  in  boats,  but  offered 
great  obstructions  to  the  navigation  of  the  river.  South  Hadley  canal  was 
constructed  for  passing  a  fall  of  forty  feet  in  the  town  of  the  same  name, 
in  Massachusetts,  and  is  two  miles  in  length.  There  is  a  cut  in  this  canal 
through  the  solid  rock,  three  hundred  feet  long  and  forty  feet  deep.  The 
company  that  undertook  this  work  was  incorporated  in  1792.  Montague 
canal,  in  the  town  of  the  same  name,  in  the  same  state  with  the  preceding, 
and  constructed  for  passing  Montague  falls,  is  three  miles  long,  twenty- 
five  feet  wide,  and  three  deep.  Belloivs  Falls  canal,  in  Vermont,  opposite 
the  town  of  Walpole,  is  half  a  mile  long,  with  nine  locks,  overcoming  a 
fall  of  about  fifty  feet.  Several  other  short  canals  have  been  constructed 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Connecticut  in  this  state,  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  the  navigation  of  the  river. 

New  York  Canals.  The  state  of  New  York  has  an  extensive  system 
of  inland  artificial  navigation,  connecting  the  navigation  of  the  Hudson 
with  that  of  the  lakes  and  Delaware  river.  The  Champlain  canal  in  this 
state  passes  from  Albany  to  Whitehall,  on  lake  Champlain,  and  is  seventy- 
two  miles  in  length.  It  is  four  feet  deep,  twenty-eight  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom,  and  forty  at  the  surface.  It  has  twenty-one  locks,  and  its  rise  and 
fall  amount  to  one  hundred  and  eighty-eight  feet.  This  work  was  com- 
menced in  October,  1817,  and  was  opened  for  navigation  in  Novembei, 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  381 

1819.     The  whole  cost  was  nearly  one  million  two   hundred   thousand 
dollars. 

The  Erie  canal  extends  from  Albany,  on  the  Hudson,  to  Buffalo,  on  lake 
Erie.  It  was  commenced  on  the  fourth  of  July,  1817,  and  was  first  navi- 
gated from  Utica  to  Rome,  fifteen  miles,  on  the  third  of  October,  1819 ; 
tolls  were  first  received  in  July,  1820,  and  the  whole  work  was  completed 
in  1825.  It  is  three  hundred  and  sixty-three  miles  in  length.  It  is  four 
feet  deep,  twenty-eight  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  forty  at  the  surface.  The 
number  of  locks  is  eighty-four,  and  the  rise  and  fall  are  six  hundred  and 
ninety-eight  feet.  The  cost  was  over  nine  millions  of  dollars.  A  little 
below  the  Cohoes  falls,  a  feeder  enters  from  the  Mohawk,  and  connects 
the  Erie  with  the  Champlain  canal,  and  the  united  work  then  proceeds  to 
Albany,  eight  and  a  half  miles,  and  terminates  in  the  tide  waters  of  the 
Hudson.  The  collections  upon  the  Erie  canal,,  for  the  month  of  Septem- 
ber, in  the  three  last  years,  stand  thus  : 

1S31.  1832.  1833.  Increase  since  '31.     Increase  since  '32. 

$131,694         $137,184        $190,229  $58,536         $54,771 

This  great  increase  in  the  total  amount  of  tolls  has  taken  place, 
notwithstanding  a  reduction  in  the  rates  of  tolls  in  the  spring  of 
1833,  which  was  equal  to  about  twenty  per  cent,  compared  with  former 
rates.  The  entire  amount  of  tolls  received  at  this  canal  in  1831,  was  one 
million,  ninety-one  thousand,  seven  hundred  and  fourteen  dollars,  twenty- 
six  cents. 

Oswego  canal  is  a  branch  of  the  Erie,  extending  from  Salina  to  Oswego, 
connecting  lake  Ontario  with  the  Erie  canal.  It  is  thirty-eight  miles  in 
length,  having  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  feet  of  lockage,  all  descend- 
ing to  lake  Ontario.  One  half  the  distance  is  a  canal  connected  with 
Oswego  river  by  locks  and  dams ;  the  other  half  is  a  slack-water  naviga- 
tion on  the  river.  It  cost  five  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand,  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  dollars.  The  Cayuga  and  Seneca  canal,  extending 
from  Geneva,  on  Seneca  lake,  to  Montezuma,  on  Erie  canal,  is  one  half 
canal,  and  one  half  slack-water  navigation.  It  was  constructed  in  1828. 
Its  length  is  twenty  miles  and  forty-four  chains  ;  the  descent  from  Seneca 
lake  to  Montezuma  is  seventy-three  and  a  half  feet.  The  four  canals  last 
described  were  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  and  still  remain  un- 
der the  administration  of  the  state  government  as  public  property.* 

#  Aggregate  length  of  the  canals,  including  eight  miles  of  navigable  feeders,  492  miles. 

"  cost, $10,946,443.68 

"  tolls  in  1830,        1,056.799.67 

"  tolls  in  1831, 1,222,801.90 

The  canal  tolls  received  in  the  month  of  July,  1833,  amounted  to  the  sum  of  one  hun- 
dred and  forty -seven  thousand,  eight  hundred  and  ninety-nine  dollars  ;  exceeding,  by 
forty-two  thousand,  two  hundred  and  eighty -two  dollars,  and  two  cents,  the  sum  collected 
in  the  corresponding  month  the  preceding  year.  The  following  is  a  comparison  of  the 
tolls  for  July  on  all  the  canals  of  the  state,  for  1832  and  1833,  to  wit  : 

Canal.  1833.  1832.  Increase  since  1832. 

Erie, $125,488.04  $91,747.57  $33,740.47 

Champlain, 17,293.94  11,112.23  6,181.71 

Cayuga  and  Seneca,    ....         2,084.63  1,890.03  194.60 

Oswego,       3,032.72  1,867.48  2,165.24 

$147,899.33  $106,617.31  $42,282.02 


382  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Chemung  canal,  another  work  of  the  state,  extends  from  the  head  waters 
of  Seneca  lake  to  the  Chemung  (or  Tioga)  river.  It  is  eighteen  miles  in 
length,  with  a  navigable  feeder  of  thirteen  miles  from  Painted  Post,  on  the 
Chemung  river,  to  the  summit  level,  making  in  the  whole  thirty-one  miles 
of  canal  navigation.  On  this  canal  are  fifty-three  locks  of  wood,  three 
aqueducts,  and  seventy  bridges.     It  was  completed  in  1832. 

The  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal  company  was  incorporated  in  April, 
1S23,  with  a  capital  of  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars,  for  the  purpose  of 
constructing  a  canal  and  rail-road  from  the  Hudson  river  to  the  coal  mines 
in  Luzerne  county,  Pennsylvania.  The  canal  extends  from  the  tide-water 
of  the  Hudson  to  Honesdale,  Wayne  county,  Pennsylvania,  a  distance  of 
one  hundred  and  eight  miles,  when  it  meets  the  rail-road.  The  canal  is 
from  thirty-two  to  thirty-six  feet  wide,  and  four  feet  deep.  The  most  im- 
portant article  of  transport  upon  this  canal  is  coal,  of  which  forty-three 
thousand  two  hundred  tons  were  brought  down  in  1830.  In  1831,  the 
amount  of  tolls,  exclusive  of  that  of  coal  boats,  was  nineteen  thousand,  five 
hundred  dollars. 

The  Harlem  canal  company  was  incorporated  in  April,  1826,  with  a 
capital  of  five  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  This  canal  is  to  extend 
from  Hudson  to  East  river,  through  Manhattan  island;  its  length  is  three 
miles,  its  width  sixty  feet,  and  its  depth  six  or  seven.  It  is  to  be  walled 
with  stone  on  both  sides,  and  to  have  a  street  on  each  side  fifty  feet  wide 
its  whole  length,  with  a  lock  at  each  end  to  command  the  tide  water. * 

New  Jersey.  The  Morris  canal  was  commenced  in  1825,  and  extends 
from  Jersey  city,  on  the  Hudson,  across  the  state  of  New-Jersey,  to  Dela- 

The  receipts  for  tolls  to  the  close  of  July,  are  greater  by  one  hundred  thousand,  five  hun- 
dred and  trventy-tmo-  dollars,  and  ninety-eight  cents,  than  they  were  for  the  same  period  last 
year.  Some  estimate  of  the  great  increase  of  business  upon  the  canals  may  be  formed 
from  the  fact,  that  the  diminution  in  the  rates  of  toll,  operating  upon  the  articles  which 
were  transported  upon  the  canals  in  1832,  would  probably  diminish  the  aggregate 
amount  of  tolls  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  the  whole  season.  At  the 
diminished  rates  of  toll,  such  has  been  the  increase  of  articles  transported,  that  in  three 
months  and  eight  days,  the  aggregate  amount  exceeds  that  of  the  corresponding  months 
of  1832,  by  the  sum  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

*  The  following  canals  are  projected  or  in  progress,  the  first  two  by  the  state,  the  re- 
mainder by  private  corporations. 

Chenango  canal,  to  extend  from  the  Erie  canal,  in  Oneida  county,  to  Binghampton,  in 
Broome  county,  on  Susquehannah  river.     Length,  ninety-two  and  three  fourths  miles. 

Elevation  from  the  Erie  canal  to  the  summit  level,       706  feet. 

Descent  from  thence  to  the  Susquehannah  river, 303     " 

Total  lockage, 1,009     " 

Estimated  cost, $944,775.36 

Black  River  canal,  to  extend  from  Rome  to  the  High  falls  on  the  Black  river,  thirty-six 
miles,  with  a  navigable  feeder  of  nine  miles  at  Boonville,  and  the  improvement  of  forty 
mile**'  river  navigation  from  the  High  falls  to  Carthage. 

Length  of  canal  and  river  navigation, 76  miles. 

Rise  and  fall  from  Rome  to  the  Black  river, 1,078  feet. 

Estimated  cost, $602,544 

Chittenango  canal.  Company  incorporated  in  1818.  Length  one  and  a  half  mile. 
Extends  from  Chittenango  mill  to  the  Erie  canal,  with  four  locks. 

Sodus  canal.  Company  incorporated  in  1829.  Capital,  two  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars.    Canal  to  extend  from  Seneca  river  to  Great  Sodus  bay,  on  lake  Ontario. 

The  following  canal  companies  have  been  incorporated,  which  have  not  yet  commenced 
operation^.  Harlem  river,  Owasco  and  Erie,  Auburn  and  Owasco,  New  York  and 
Sharon,  Niagara,  Jefferson  county,  Oswego,  Greenville,  Black  river,  and  Long  Island 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  383 

ware  river,  opposite  Easton,  Pennsylvania,  where  it  unites  with  Lehigh 
canal.  It  is  one  hundred  and  one  miles  in  length,  with  rise  and  fall  of 
one  tnousand,  six  hundred  and  fifty-seven  feet;  of  which  two  hundred  and 
twenty-three  are  overcome  by  twenty-four  locks,  and  the  remaining  one 
thousand,  three  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet  by  twenty-three  inclined 
planes.  This  canal  is  supplied  with  water  from  Hopatcong  lake,  situated 
nine  hundred  feet  above  tide-water.  The  cost  is  estimated  at  somewhat 
more  than  one  million,  one  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The  Delaware  and 
Raritan  canal,  extending  from  Lamberton,  on  Delaware  river,  to  New 
Brunswick,  on  the  Raritan,  is  thirty-eight  miles  in  length.  It  is  seventy- 
five  feet  wide,  and  seven  feet  deep. 

Pennsylvania.  The  canal  system  of  this  state  is  very  extensive,  and 
has  been  in  a  great  measure  established  by  the  state  government.  We 
shall  first  notice  the  canals  constructed  by  private  corporations.  The 
Schuylkill  canal  was  commenced  in  1816,  and  has  been  in  operation  for  a 
number  of  years.  It  extends  from  Philadelphia  to  Reading,  and  thence  to 
mount  Carbon.  Its  length  is  one  hundred  and  ten  miles,  and  in  this  dis- 
tance is  a  lockage  of  six  hundred  and  twenty  feet.  It  comprises  thirty- 
one  dams,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  locks,  seventeen  arched  aqueducts, 
a  tunnel  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length,  cut  through  the  solid 
rock,  and  sixty-five  toll  and  gate  houses.  The  whole  cost  of  this  work,  up 
to  January  1,  1830,  was  two  million,  three  hundred  and  thirty-six  thou- 
sand, three  hundred  and  eighty  dollars.  The  Union  canal  was  constructed 
in  1827.  It  extends  from  Middleton,  on  the  Susquehanna,  to  the  head  of 
the  Girard  canal,  two  miles  below  Reading,  connecting  the  waters  of  the 
Susquehannah  with  those  of  the  Schuylkill.  Its  length  is  eighty  miles, 
exclusive  of  Swatara  feeder,  which  extends  twenty-four  miles.  The  works 
comprehend  a  tunnel,  eighteen  feet  wide,  fourteen  high,  and  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty-nine  in  length  ;  two  summit  reservoirs,  containing  twelve 
million  cubic  feet  of  water;  two  steam  engines,  each  of  one  hundred  horse 
power;  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  bridges;  twelve  small  and  two  large 
aqueducts;  ninety-two  cut  stone  locks  ;  and  fourteen  miles  of  protection 
wall  of  stone.  Connected  with  this  canal  is  a  rail-road,  about  four  miles 
in  length,  extending  from  the  basin  at  Pine  grove  to  the  coal  mines.  The 
cost  of  the  whole  work  was  about  two  million  dollars.  The  Lackawaxen 
canal  commences  at  the  termination  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal, 
near  Carpenter's  point,  and  unites  with  a  rail-road  at  Honesdale.  It  is 
thirty-six  miles  in  length.  In  junction  with  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
canal,  this  canal  opens  a  navigation  of  one  hundred  and  seventeen  miles, 
including  seventeen  miles  of  Lackawaxen  river.  The  Lehigh  canal  com- 
pany was  incorporated  in  1818,  and  constructed  a  canal  from  Easton,  on 
Delaware  river,  to  Stoddartsville,  connecting  Morris  canal  with  the  Mauch 
Chunk  rail-road.  Its  length  is  forty-six  and  three  fourths  miles,  and  it 
cost  one  million,  five  hundred  and  fifty-eight  thousand  dollars.  The 
Conestoga  canal  extends  eighteen  miles,  from  Safe  Harbor,  on  Susquehanna 
river,  to  Lancaster.  Concwago  canal  is  two  and  a  half  miles  long,  and  is 
constructed  about  a  fall  of  the  same  name  on  the  Susquehanna. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a  view  of  the  canals  in  Pennsylvania,  con- 
structed by  the  state,  prior  to  the  first  of  January,  1831,  with  the  amount 
expend,  d  for  ordinary  and  extraordinary  repairs  during  the  year  1831. 


384  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Length  Ordinary  Extraord.  «,  .  « 

miles.  repairs.  repairs.  xoiai. 

Delaware  division,     .         .     .  59  34  $10,000  $87,339  $97,339 

Columbia,  east  division,  .     .  10  1,658  7,316  8,974 

Harrisburg  line,         ...      )  fiq  3,108  6',216  9,324 

Susquehanna  division,      .     .   J  5,855  11,709  17,964 

North  branch  do 55  1-2  18,584  37,168  55,752 

West  branch  do 24  1-2  6,699  13,397  20,096 

Juniata  do 89  22,326  44,651  66,977 

Western  do 105  24,406  48,812  73,218 

French  creek  feeder,      ...  19 1-2  74  4,327  4,401 

Total,  4261-4  $92,708  $260,936  $353,644 

The  main  trunk  of  this  system  of  canals  commences  at  Columbia,  at  the 
termination  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Columbia  rail-road,  and  extends  thence 
westward  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  and  a  half  miles,  till  it  meets  the 
Alleghany  Portage  rail-road  at  Holidaysburg.  It  recommences  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  rail-road,  and  continues  westward  one  hundred 
and  five  miles,  to  the  Monongahela  river  at  Pittsburg. 

The  following  canals,  constructed  by  the  state,  have  been  but  recently 
completed  : 

Frankstown  line  of  the  Juniata  division,  extending  from  Huntingdon  to 
Holidaysburg,  is  thirty  and  one  third  miles  in  length,  including  about  fif- 
teen and  three  fourths  miles  of  slackwater  navigation.  Beaver  division 
commences  upon  the  Ohio  river,  at  the  mouth  of  Big  Beaver,  and  extends 
to  Newcastle.  Length,  twenty-four  and  three  fourths  miles,  of  which 
about  two  thirds  are  slackwater  and  towing-path.  Franklin  line  com- 
mences on  Alleghany  river,  at  the  mouth  of  French  creek,  and  extends  up 
the  latter  stream  till  it  meets  the  French  creek  feeder.  Length,  twenty- 
two  and  one  fourth  miles,  seventeen  of  which  are  slackwater  and  towing- 
path.  "Lycoming  line  commences  at  Muncy  dam,  and  extends  up  the  west 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  and  terminates  at  the  Big  island,  opposite  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Bald  Eagle.  Length,  forty-one  and  one  fourth  miles,  of 
which  about  ten  miles  are  slackwater.  Wyoming  line  of  the  North  branch 
division  commences  at  the  Nanticoke  dam,  and  extends  up  the  North 
branch,  and  terminates  near  the  mouth  of  Lackawannock  creek.  Length, 
sixteen  miles. 

Delaware  and  Maryland.  The  Chesapeak  and  Delaivare  canal  was 
commenced  in  1824,  and  completed  in  about  five  years.  It  is  thirteen  and 
five  eighths  miles  long,  ten  feet  deep,  and  sixty-six  feet  wide  at  the  sur- 
face. Leaving  the  Delaware,  forty-five  miles  below  Philadelphia,  it  crosses 
the  peninsula,  and  meets  Chesapeak  bay.  The  summit  level  is  twelve 
feet  above  tide  water.  The  whole  cost  of  this  work  was  two  million,  two 
hundred  thousand  dollars.  Port  Deposit  canal  is  a  public  work  of  the 
state  of  Maryland,  extending  ten  miles  along  a  line  of  rapids,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Susquehanna,  north  of  the  boundary  line  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania.  There  are  two  short  canals,  one  of  twelve  hundred  yards, 
and  one  of  two  and  a  half  miles,  around  the  Great  and  Lower  Falls  of  the 
Potomac. 

The  Chesapeak  and  Ohio  canal  company  received  their  charter  from 
Virginia  in  1824,  and  it  was  confirmed  in  the  following  year  by  Maryland 
and  congress.     The  proposed  length  is  three  hundred  and  forty-one  and 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  386 

one  fourth  miles,  from  the  tide  water  of  the  Potomac  river,  above  George- 
town, in  the  district  of  Columbia,  to  its  termination  near  Pittsburg,  Penn- 
sylvania. Its  depth  is  six  or  seven  feet,  its  breadth  at  the  bottom  fifty, 
and  at  the  surface  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet.  Five  miles  from  Georgetown, 
arrangements  have  been  made  for  constructing  branches  to  Alexandria, 
Baltimore,  and  the  navy  yard  at  Washington.  The  amount  of  lockage 
required  on  the  whole  canal  is  three  thousand,  two  hundred  and  fifteen 
feet.  At  the  summit  level  on  the  Alleghany  mountain,  a  tunnel  is  requir- 
ed, four  miles  and  eighty  yards  long,  with  a  deep  cut  of  one  thousand  and 
sixty  yards  at  the  western  end,  and  another  of  fourteen  yards  at  the  eastern 
end,  each  of  which  opens  into  a  large  basin.  The  original  estimate  of  the 
cost  was  twenty-two  million,  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand 
dollars. 

Ohio.  This  state  has  been  active  and  liberal  in  the  encouragement  of 
canals  as  public  works.  The  state  canals  ar?  the  Ohio  and  the  Miami. 
The  Ohio  canal  connects  lake  Erie,  at  Cleaveland,  with  the  Ohio  river,  at 
Portsmouth ;  its  main  trunk  is  three  hundred  and  ten  miles  in  length ;  its 
lateral  branches  and  feeders  make  twenty-four  in  addition.  Miami  canal 
connects  the  town  of  Dayton,  situated  on  the  Great  Miami  river,  with  the 
Ohio  river,  at  Cincinnati.  Its  main  trunk  is  sixty-five  miles  in  length,  and 
it  has  a  side-cut  of  one  mile.  The  total  length  of  canals  in  Ohio,  con- 
structed at  the  public  expense,  and  owned  by  the  state,  is  four  hundred 
miles.  The  Lancaster  Lateral  canal  is  nine  miles  in  length,  and  was  con- 
structed by  an  incorporated  company.  The  expense  of  the  Ohio  canals 
has  been  about  five  million  dollars. 

Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  At  the  city  of  Richmond  is  the  James 
River  canal,  around  a  fall,  with  twelve  locks,  overcoming  an  ascent  of 
eighty  feet,  and  connecting  tide  water  with  a  basin  on  Shockoe  hill.  From 
this  basin  proceeds  a  canal  two  and  a  half  miles  long,  uniting  with  the 
river.  Three  miles  further  up  is  a  short  canal,  with  three  locks,  over- 
coming a  fall  of  thirty-four  feet.  The  James  and  Jackson  River  canal  ex- 
tends from  the  basin  at  Richmond,  to  a  fall  in  Goveland  county,  a  distance 
of  thirty  and  a  half  miles.  There  is  also  a  canal  seven  miles  long,  around 
the  falls  on  James  river,  in  Rockland  county.  Canals  have  also  been  con- 
structed to  improve  the  navigation  of  the  Shenandoah.  The  Dismal 
Swamp  canal  is  twenty-two  and  a  half  miles  long,  lying  partly  in  Virginia, 
and  partly  in  North  Carolina.  It  connects  the  waters  of  Chesapeak  bay 
with  Albemarle  sound,  extending  from  Deep  creek  to  Joyce's  Creek,  at  the 
head  of  Pasquotank  river.  The  expense  of  this  canal  was  three  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand  dollars,  of  which  two  hundred  thousand  were  subscribed 
by  the  United  States.  The  Danville  and  Dan  River  canals  are  a  series  of 
improvements  upon  the  upper  branches  of  Roanoak  river.  The  North 
West,  Weldo?i,  Clubfoot  and  Harlow,  Cape  Fear,  Yadkin.  Tar  River,  New 
River,  and  Catawba  canals,  have  done  much  to  improve  the  inland  naviga- 
tion of  North  Carolina.  The  Santee,  Columbia,  and  Saluda  canals,  from 
Columbia,  through  the  Columbia  canal  into  Broad  river,  and  through  the 
Saluda  canal,  from  Broad  into  Saluda  river,  through  Drehr  and  Zorick's 
canals,  on  to  the  Abbeville  county  line,  near  Cambridge ;  also  from  Santee 
river,  by  the  Santee  canal,  into  Cooper's  river,  and  down  this  river  to  the 
port  at  Charleston,  present  a  mixed  navigation  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
49  33 


386  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

miles.  Winyaw  canal  is  ten  miles  in  length,  uniting  the  Santee  river 
with  Winyaw  bay. 

Kentucky.  The  Louisville  and  Portland  canal  passes  from  the  Ohio 
at  Louisville,  to  a  point  of  the  same  below  the  rapids,  a  distance  of  three 
miles.  It  is  constructed  for  the  accommodation  of  large  vessels,  and  the 
general  government  have  contributed  towards  its  completion. 

Georgia  and  Louisiana.  The  Savannah  and  Ogatchee  canal  is  sixteen 
miles  in  length,  passing  from  Savannah  river,  at  Savannah,  to  the  Ogat- 
chee river  ;  hence  it  is  to  be  continued  to  the  Alatahama.  The  Carondeht 
canal  is  a  short  cut  to  admit  small  vessels  into  a  basin  in  the  rear  of  New 
Orleans,  extending  from  bayou  St.  John.  It  is  only  a  mile  and  a  half  long, 
and  is  without  locks.  The  Lafourche  is  a  small  canal,  supplied  with  water 
only  when  the  Mississippi  is  in  flood,  uniting  the  outlet  of  Lafourche 
with  the  chain  of  lakes  and  creeks  which  lead  into  the  lower  Teche,  and 
opens  the  commerce  of  Attacapas  to  New  Orleans.  The  Plaquemine  canal 
passes  from  the  Mississippi  into  bayou  Plaquemine,  at  its  efflux  from  the 
Mississippi,  and  is  navigable  only  at  times  of  high  flood.  The  New  Or- 
leans and  Teche  River  canal  is  a  projected  navigation  of  one  hundred 
miles,  from  a  point  on  the  Mississippi,  to  the  waters  which  unite  with  the 
Teche  river,  at  Berwick's  bay. 

1  The  spirit  of  enterprise,'  says  Mr.  Smith,  '  has  been  displayed  on  a 
scale  commensurate  with  the  extensive  territory  of  the  United  States. 
With  the  exception  of  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  no  country  on  the  face 
of  the  globe  contains  so  many  or  as  extensive  canals  as  this  republic ;  and 
the  whole  of  combined  Europe  has  not  effected  as  much  during  the  last 
sixteen  years,  as  the  three  states  of  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Ohio 
only.  The  total  number  of  miles  of  canals  in  the  union  is  two  thou- 
sand, five  hundred  and  twenty-six,  including  about  two  hundred  and 
sixty-four  which  are  nearly  finished,  and  which  will  be  navigable  during 
the  ensuing  spring,  (1S33.)  Several  extensive  canals  are  in  progress,  and 
an  immense  number  of  projected  or  authorized  works  are  not  included  in 
the  summary  just  given.  Nearly  three  fifths  of  the  aggregate  amount 
have  been  executed  in  the  three  states  above  mentioned.' 


387 


CHAPTER  VIII.— GOVERNMENT. 

The  political  association  of  the  American  people  commenced  at  a  very 
early  period.  A  long  time  before  the  revolutionary  troubles,  it  was  gene- 
rally perceived  and  acknowledged  that  the  true  safety  and  prosperity  of  the 
colonies  were  to  be  found  only  in  their  union.  In  the  year  1643,  the  colo- 
nies of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven,  entered 
into  a  perpetual  league,  offensive  and  defensive,  for  mutual  protection 
against  the  claims  of  their  Dutch  neighbors,  and  to  resist  apprehended  ag- 
gression from  the  Indians.  By  their  articles  of  confederation,  the  juris- 
diction of  each  colony  within  its  own  borders  was  to  be  exclusive  ;  in  every 
war,  each  of  the  confederates  was  to  furnish  its  quota  of  men  and  provi- 
sions, according  to  its  population  ;  and  an  annual  congress  of  two  commis- 
sioners from  each  colony  was  to  be  held,  with  power  to  decide  on  all  mat- 
ters of  general  interest.  With  some  alterations,  this  confederacy  existed 
more  than  forty  years ;  and  it  was  dissolved  only  in  1686,  when  the  char- 
ters of  the  New  England  colonies  were  vacated  by  a  commission  from 
king  James  II. 

In  the  year  1754,  a  congress  of  a  very  interesting  character  assembled 
at  Albany.  It  was  called  at  the  instance  of  the  lords  commissioners  for 
trade  and  the  plantations,  and  consisted  of  delegates  from  the  New  England 
provinces,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  The  object  of  the 
meeting  was  to  consider  the  best  means  of  defending  the  colonies,  in  the 
case  of  a  war  with  France.  The  lords  commissioners  had  reference  mere- 
ly to  forming  friendly  connections  with  the  Indian  tribes  ;  but  the  colonies 
indulged  more  extensive  views.  This  convention  proposed  a  plan  of  union, 
for  which,  however,  public  sentiment  was  not  yet  ripe,  and  it  met  with  the 
singular  fortune  of  being  rejected  both  by  the  crown  and  the  people.  Lo- 
cal jealousies  and  disputes  in  regard  to  boundaries,  had  at  that  time  so 
excited  the  different  colonies,  that  governor  Pownal  felt  himself  authorized 
to  say,  in  his  work  on  the  Administration  of  the  Colonies,  that  they  had 
no  one  principle  of  association  among  them,  and  that  their  manner  of  set- 
tlement, diversity  of  charters,  conflicting  interests,  and  mutual  rivalship 
and  jealousies,  would  render  an  union  impracticable.  Happy  for  our  peo- 
ple that  the  stone  which  they  rejected  has  become  the  corner  stone  of  our 
political  temple ;  for  the  whole  edifice  must  be  crushed  and  crumbled, 
when  profane  hands  shall  be  laid  upon  that  which  is  its  strength  and  foun- 
dation ! 

Men  could  not,  however,  remain  insensible  of  the  great  advantages  that 
must  inevitably  result  from  a  federate  union.  A  common  interest  was 
destined  to  be  made  more  apparent  and  pressing  by  a  common  danger,  and 
soon  after  the  first  unfriendly  measures  of  the  British  government,  a  con- 
gress of  delegates  from  nine  colonies  was  assembled  at  New  York  in  Octo- 
ber, 1765.  This  step  was  adopted  at  the  suggestion  of  Massachusetts,  and 
was  preparatory  to  a  more  extensive  and  general  association  of  the  colo- 
nies, which  took  place  in  September,  1774,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  per- 


388  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

manent  independence.  At  this  last  period,  the  impending  oppressions  of 
Great  Britain  induced  the  colonies  to  unite  in  sending  delegates  to  a  con- 
gress at  Philadelphia,  with  authority  to  consult  together  for  the  common 
welfare.  The  measures  adopted  by  this  assembly  met  with  a  prompt  and 
general  obedience,  and  the  union  thus  auspiciously  formed  was  continued 
by  a  succession  of  delegates  in  congress ;  it  has  continued  through  the 
struggles  of  a  revolution,  foreign  war  and  domestic  dissension. — God  grant 
that  it  may  be  perpetual. 

In  May,  1775,  a  congress,  with  ample  discretionary  powers,  assembled 
in  Philadelphia.  Georgia  soon  after  acceded  to  the  measures  that  had 
been  adopted,  and  completed  the  confederacy  of  the  thirteen  colonies.  In 
Massachusetts,  hostilities  had  been  already  commenced,  and  the  appeal  to 
arms  was  now  considered  as  the  only  resource.  Congress  prepared  to  sup- 
port this  measure,  and,  gradually  assuming  all  the  attributes  of  sovereignty, 
on  the  fourth  day  of  July,  1776,  declared  the  united  colonies  to  be  free 
and  independent  statas.  The  consequences  of  this  step  belong  more  pro- 
perly to  another  portion  of  this  volume.  In  June,  1776,  congress  under- 
took to  prepare  articles  of  confederation ;  but  it  was  not  till  November  of 
the  following  year  that  they  were  able  so  far  to  unite  discordant  interests, 
as  to  adopt  these  articles.  In  passing  through  the  states,  they  met  with 
still  stronger  impediments,  and  it  was  not  till  three  years  after  their  first 
promulgation,  that  they  received  the  unanimous  approbation  of  the  United 
States.  This  confederation  proved  imbecile  and  insignificant,  and  it  was 
only  by  the  assumption  of  power  not  granted  by  the  fundamental  charter 
of  the  union,  that  congress  could  rescue  the  country  from  the  most  humili- 
ating consequences.  A  quorum  of  congress  could  with  difficulty  be  assem- 
bled ;  the  finances  of  the  nation  were  annihilated  ;  in  1784,  the  whole 
army  amounted  but  to  eighty  men,  and  the  states  were  urged  to  provide 
some  of  the  militia  to  garrison  the  western  posts.  In  short,  to  use  the  im- 
pressive and  melancholy  language  of  the  Federalist,  ■  each  state,  yielding 
to  the  voice  of  immediate  interest  or  convenience,  successively  withdrew 
its  support  from  the  confederation,  till  the  frail  and  tottering  edifice  was 
ready  to  fall  upon  our  heads,  and  to  crush  us  beneath  its  ruins.' 

The  first  effort  to  relieve  the  country  from  the  miseries  and  dangers  of 
the  confederation  originated  in  Virginia,  in  the  proposition  for  a  convention 
of  delegates  to  regulate  our  foreign  commerce.  A  partial  representation 
of  the  states  was  in  this  manner  collected  at  Annapolis,  and  the  plan  of  a 
national  convention  was  by  this  body  strongly  recommended  to  congress, 
for  the  purpose  of  devising  a  government  that  should  be  adequate  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  nation.  Congress  adopted  the  suggestion,  and  imme- 
diately acted  upon  it;  with  the  exception  of  Rhode  Island,  all  the  states 
acceded  to  the  proposal  of  a  general  convention,  and  their  delegates  assem- 
bled at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787.  This  assembly  united  men  of  the 
most  distinguished  talents,  high-minded  integrity,  and  disinterested  patri- 
otism, and  commanded  the  public  regard  and  confidence  in  their  fullest 
extent.  After  a  tranquil  deliberation  of  several  months,  the  plan  of  go- 
vernment, which  now  forms  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  was 
adopted  with  unprecedented  unanimity.  Nearly  a  year  elapsed  before  it 
received  the  assent  of  a  sufficient  number  of  states  to  give  it  a  political  ex- 
istence ;  but  on  the  fourth  of  March,  1789,  the  government  was  duly  orga- 
nized and  set  in  motion.     It  was  not  till  the  year  1790,  that  the  constitu 


POLITICAL  GFOGRAPHY.  3S9 

tion  had  received  the  unanimous  ratification  of  all  the  members  of  the 
onginal  confederacy.  '  The  peaceable  adoption  of  this  government,'  says 
chancellor  Kent,  '  under  all  the  circumstances  which  attended  it,  presented 
ihe  case  of  an  effort  of  deliberation,  combined  with  a  spirit  of  amity  and  of 
mutual  concession,  which  was  without  example.  It  must  be  a  source  of 
just  pride,  and  of  the  most  grateful  recollection,  to  every  American,  who 
reflects  seriously  on  the  difficulty  of  the  experiment,  the  manner  in  which 
it  was  conducted,  the  felicity  of  its  issue,  and  the  fate  of  similar  trials  in 
other  nations  of  the  earth.'  The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  constitution  as 
adopted,  with  its  subsequent  amendments  : 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  establish 
justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defence,  promote  the 
general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  congress  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives. 

Sec.  II.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen  every 
second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  states,  and  the  electors  in  each  state  shall  have 
the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  state  legis- 
lature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  state  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states  which 
may  be  included  within  this  union,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall 
be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to 
service  for  a  tenn  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other 
persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years,  after  the  first  meet- 
ing of  the  congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years, 
m  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  representatives  shall  not 
exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  state  shall  have  at  least  one  representa- 
tive ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  state  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be 
entitled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations 
one,  Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware 
one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia 
three. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  state,  the  executive  authority 
thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

The  house  of  representatives  shall  choose  their  speaker  and  other  officers  ;  and  shall 
have  Ihe  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Sec.  III.  The  senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  senators  from 
each  state,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each  senator  shall  have 
one  vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first  election,  they 
shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  senators  of 
the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class 
at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth 
year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by 
resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  state,  the  executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature, 
which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years, 
and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be 
an  inhabitant  of  that  state  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  vice-president  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of  the  senate,  but  shall 
have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

The  senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president  pro  tempore,  in  ihe 

33* 


390  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

absence  of  the  vice  president,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  president  of  .he 
United  States. 

The  senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments  :  when  sitting  for  that 
purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the  president  of  the  United  States 
is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall  preside  5  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the 
concurrerce  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present. 

Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to  removal  from 
office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit,  under 
the  United  States ;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to 
indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Sec.  IV.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives, shall  be  prescribed  in  each  state  by  the  legislature  thereof;  but  the  congress 
may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  places  of  choosing 
senators. 

The  congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be 
on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Sec  V.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns  and  qualifications  of 
its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business  ;  but 
a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as  each  hous«> 
may  provide. 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  members  for  dis- 
orderly behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish  the 
same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy  ;  and  the  yeas  and 
nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  cf  one  fifth  of 
those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  congress,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  othei, 
adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two 
houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Sec.  VI.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation  for  their 
services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States. 
They  shall,  in  all  cases  except  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged 
from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  go- 
ing to  and  returning  from  the  same  ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house,  they 
shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  ap- 
pointed to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have 
been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during  such  time  ; 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  member  of  either 
house  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Sec  VII.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  house  of  representatives  j 
but  the  senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments,  as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  house  of  representatives  and  the  senate,  shall, 
before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  president  of  the  United  States  :  if  he  approve, 
he  shall  sign  it :  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which 
it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and 
proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall 
agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house, 
by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  house, 
it  shall  become  a  law./  But  in  all  such  cases,  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill 
shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  re- 
turned by  the  president  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been 
presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  congress,  by  their  adjournment,  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  senate  and  house  ©f 
representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  the  president  of  the  United  States  ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall 
be  approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of" 
the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed 
in  the  case  of  a  bill. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  391 

Sec.  VIII.  The  congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts 
and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare 
of  the  United  States  :  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout 
the  United  States ; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several  states,  and  with 
the  Indian  tribes; 

To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of 
bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard 
of  weights  and  measures : 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the 
United  States  ; 

To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads  ; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing  for  limited  times  to 
authors  and  inventors,  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries ; 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  court ; 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offences 
against  the  law  of  nations ; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  cap- 
tures on  land  and  water  ;         , 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  term  than  two  years  ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  ; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces  ; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  union,  suppress 
insurrections,  and  repel  invasions  ; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  firming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  governing 
such  parts  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to 
the  states  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the 
militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  congress  ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such  district  (not  ex- 
ceeding ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  states,  and  the  acceptance  of 
congress,  become  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like 
authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  state  in  which 
the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock  yards,  and  other 
needful  buildings ;  and 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  office  thereof. 

Sec.  IX.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  states  now  ex- 
isting shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  congress  prior  to  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such 
importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when,  in 
cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation,  or  other  direct  tax,  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or 
enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  state. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports 
of  one  state  over  those  of  another  :  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  state,  be 
obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence  of  appropriations 
made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of 
all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States  :  And  no  person  holding  any 
office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  congress,  accept  of  any 
present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or 
foreign  state. 

Sec.  X.  No  state  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation  ;  grant  letters 
of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money  •  emit  bills  of  credit  j  make  any  thing  but  gold 


392 '  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts ;  pass  any  bills  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto 
law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports 
or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws  : 
and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  state  on  imports  or  exports, 
shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States  ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  congress. 

No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  congress,  lay  any  duty  on  tonnage,  keep  troops, 
or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact  with  another 
state,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such 
imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

AETICLE  II. 

Section  I.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  president  of  the  United  States 
of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with 
the  vice  president,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected  as  follows  : 

Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a 
number  of  electors  equal  to  the  wffiole  number  of  senators  and  representatives  to  which 
the  state  may  be  entitled  in  the  congress  :  but  no  senator  or  representative,  or  person 
holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

[*  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  per- 
sons, of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  themselves. 
And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each  ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  senate.  The  president  of  the 
senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  votes  shall  be  the  president,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number 
of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have 
an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  house  of  representatives  shall  immediately  choose 
by  ballot  one  of  them  for  president ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the 
live  highest  on  the  list,  the  said  house  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  president.  But 
in  choosing  the  president,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  representation  from 
each  state  having  one  vote  :  A  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  01 
members  from  two  thirds  of  the  states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  president,  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  vice  president.  But  if  there  should  re- 
main two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot 
the  vice-president.] 

The  congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on  which 
they  shall  give  their  votes  ;  which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

No  person,  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the  time 
of  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  president ;  neither 
shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of  thirty- 
five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  president  from  office,  or  his  death,  resignation,  or  ina- 
bility to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
vice  president,  and  the  congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  re- 
signation, or  inability,  both  of  the  president  and  vice  president,  declaring  what  officer 
shall  then  act  as  president,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be 
removed,  or  a  president  shall  be  elected. 

The  president  shall  at  stated  times  receive  for  his  services  a  compensation,  which 
shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been 
elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or 
affirmation  : — '  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office 
of  president  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect, 
and  defend  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.' 

*  This  clause  is  annulled.    See  amendments,  Art.  12 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  393 

Sec.  II.  The  president  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  states,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
United  States ;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective 
offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  otfences  against  the 
United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  to  make  trea- 
ties, provided  two  thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United 
States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be 
established  by  law  :  but  the  congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  president  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads 
of  departments. 

The  president  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the 
recess  of  the  senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their 
next  session. 

Sec.  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  congress  information  of  the  state  of 
the  union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  ne- 
cessary and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  ei- 
ther of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them,  writh  respect  to  the  time  of  ad- 
journment, he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper  :  he  shall  receive 
ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully 
executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  IV.  The  president,  vice-president,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other 
high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Sec.  I.  The  judicial  powers  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  supreme  court, 
and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish. 
The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Sec  II.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity,  arising  under 
this  constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made 
under  their  authority  ; — to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls  ; — to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction  ; — to  controversies  lo  which 
the  United  States  shall  be  a  party  ; — to  controversies  between  two  or  more  states ; — be- 
tween a  state  and  citizen  of  another  state  ; — between  citizens  of  different  states; — be- 
tween citizens  of  the  same  state  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  states,  and  be- 
tween a  state  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  and  those  in 
which  a  state  shall  be  a  party,  the  supreme  court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In 
all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  supreme  court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction, 
both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  con- 
gress shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury  ;  and  such 
trial  shall  beheld  in  the  state  where  the  sa-d  crimes  shall  have  been  committed;  but 
when  not  committed  within  any  state,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the 
congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Sec  III.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against 
them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 

No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason,  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to 
the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

The  congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  pv  ishment  of  treason  ;  but  no  attainder 
of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  per- 
son attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV. 
Sec  I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  &nven  in  each  state  to  the  public  acts,  records, 
and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  state.    And  the  congress  may  by  general  laws 
50 


394  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and 
the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  II.  The  citizens  of  each  state  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of 
citizens  in  the  several  states. 

A  person  charged  in  any  state  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from 
justice,  and  be  found  in  another  state,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the 
state  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  state  having  jurisdiction 
of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  state,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into 
another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or 
labor  may  be  due. 

Sec.  III.  New  states  may  be  admitted  by  the  congress  into  this  union :  but  no  new 
state  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  state  ;  nor  any  state 
be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  states,  or  parts  of  states,  without  the  consent  of 
the  legislatures  of  the  states  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  congress. 

The  congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regula- 
tions respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United  States  ;  and  noth- 
ing iu  this  constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United 
States,  or  of  any  particular  state. 

Sec.  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  state  in  the  union,  a  republican 
form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion  :  and  on  applica- 
tion of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened) 
against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 
The  congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall  pro- 
pose amendments  to  this  constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of  the  legislatures  of  two 
thirds  of  the  several  states,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which, 
in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  constitution, 
when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  states,  or  by  conventions 
in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by 
congress  :  provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in 
the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article ;  and  that  no  state,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  de- 
prived of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

All  debts  contracted  and  agreements  entered  into,  before  the  adoption  of  this  constitu- 
tion, shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this  constitution,  as  under  the 
confederation. 

This  constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance 
thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land ;  and  the  judges  in  every  state  shall  be  bound 
thereby,  any  thing  in  the  constitution  or  laws  of  any  state  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members  of  the  several 
state  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  several  states,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation,  to  support  this  constitution  : 
but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  of  public  trust 
under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 
The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  states,  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establish- 
ment of  this  constitution  between  the  states  so  ratifying  the  same. 

AMENDMENTS 
To  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  ratified  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  fifth 
article  of  the  foregoing  Constitution. 
[Congress,  at  its  first  session,  begun  and  held  in  the  city  of  New  York,  on  Wednesday, 
the  4th  of  March,  1789,  proposed  to  the  legislatures  of  the  several  states,  twelve  amend- 
ments to  the  constitution,  ten  of  which,  only,  were  adopted.  They  are  the  ten  first  fol 
lowing : 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  395 

The  11th  article  of  the  amendments  was  proposed  at  the  second  session  of  the  third 
congress,  in  1794 ;  and  the  12th  article  at  the  first  session  of  the  eighth  congress  ir\ 
1804.    Both  of  which  were  afterwards  adopted  by  the  requisite  number  of  states.] 

Article  I.  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press , 
or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a 
redress  of  grievances. 

Art.  II.  A  well-regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  state, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Art.  III.  No  soldier  shall  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Art.  IV.  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and 
effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  war- 
rants shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particu- 
larly describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

Art.  V.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in 
the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  pub- 
lic danger ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeo- 
pardy of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against 
himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

Art.  VI.  In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy 
and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  state  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have 
been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be 
informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  confronted  by  the  witnesses 
against  him  ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to 
have  the  assistance  of  council  for  his  defence. 

Art.  VII.  In  suits  of  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved;  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury, 
shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  common  law. 

Art.  VIII.  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Art.  IX.  The  enumeration  in  the  constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

Art.  X.  The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States,  by  the  constitution,  nor  pro- 
hibited by  it  to  the  states,  are  reserved  to  the  states  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

Art.  XI.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States 
by  citizens  of  another  state,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

Art.  XII.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by  ballot  for 
president  and  vice  president,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
same  state  with  themselves  ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
president,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  vice-president,  and  they  shall 
make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  president,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as 
vice-president,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  cer- 
tify, and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
president  of  the  senate  : — The  president  of  the  senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  se- 
nate and  house  of  representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted  :— The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  president,  shall  be  the 
president,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and 
if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not 
exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  president,  the  house  of  representatives 
shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  president.  But  in  choosing  the  president,  the 
votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  representation  from  each  state  having  one  vote  ;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the 
house  of  representatives  shall  not  choose  a  president  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall 
devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  vice-presi- 
ient  shall  act  as  president,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability 


3%  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  the  president.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  vice-presicen 
shall  be  the  vice-president,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electoi 
appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  th 
list,  the  senate  shall  choose  the  vice-president ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consu 
of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  numbe 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  offic< 
of  president  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  vice-president  of  the  United  States. 


Analysis  of  the   State  Constitutions. 

Maine.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  a  house  of  representc- 
tives,  both  elected  annually  by  the  people,  on  the  second  Monday  in  September.  These 
two  bodies  are  together  styled  The  Legislature  of  Maine.  The  number  of  representatives 
cannot  be  less  than  one  hundred,  nor  more  than  two  hundred.  A  town  having  fifteen 
hundred  inhabitants  is  entitled  to  send  one  representative ;  but  no  town  can  ever  be 
entitled  to  more  than  seven  representatives.  The  number  of  senators  cannot  be  less 
than  twenty,  nor  more  than  thirty -one.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
who  is  elected  annually  by  the  people,  on  the  second  Monday  in  September,  and  his 
term  of  office  commences  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January.  A  council  of  seven  mem- 
bers is  elected  annually  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January,  by  joint  ballot  of  the  sena- 
tors and  representatives,  to  advise  the  governor  in  the  executive  part  of  government 
The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to  every  male  citizen  aged  twenty-one  years  or  up- 
wards (excepting  paupers,  persons  under  guardianship,  and  Indians  not  taxed),  having 
had  his  residence  established  in  the  state  for  the  term  of  three  months  next  preceding 
an  election.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  judicial  court,  and  such  other 
courts  as  the  legislature  may,  from  time  to  time,  establish.  All  the  judges  are  appoint- 
ed by  the  governor,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  council ;  and  they  hold  their  of- 
fices during  good  behavior,  but  not  beyond  the  age  of  seventy  years. 

New  Hampshire.  A  constitution  was  established  in  1784;  and  in  1792,  this  consti- 
tution  was  altered  and  amended,  by  a  convention  of  delegates  held  at  Concord,  and  is 
now  in  force.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of  representa- 
tives, which,  together,  are  styled,  The  General  Court  of  New  Hampshire.  Every  town, 
or  incorporated  township,  having  one  hundred  and  fifty  ratable  polls,  may  send  one 
representative  ;  and  for  every  three  hundred  additional  polls,  it  is  entitled  to  an  addition- 
al representative.  The  senate  consists  of  twelve  members,  who  are  chosen  by  the 
people  in  districts.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor  and  a  council,  which 
consists  of  five  members.  The  governor,  council,  senators,  and  representatives,  are 
all  elected  annually,  by  the  people,  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  Blarch  ;  and  their  term  of 
service  commences  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  June.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted 
to  every  male  inhabitant  of  twenty-one  years  of  age,  excepting  paupers  and  persons  ex- 
cused from  paying  taxes  at  their  own  request.  The  judiciary  power  is  vested  in  a  sur 
perior  court  and  a  court  of  common  pleas.  Judges  are  appointed  by  the  governor  and 
council,  and  hold  their  offices  during  good  behaviour,  but  not  beyond  the  age  of  seventy 
years. 

Vermont.  The  first  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  in  1777;  the  one  now 
in  operation  was  adopted  on  the  4th  of  July,  1793.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
single  body,  a  house  of  representatives,  elected,  annually,  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  Septem 
ber,  and  styled  The  General  Assembly  of  the  state  of  Vermont.  The  executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  lieutenant  governor,  and  a  council  of  twelve  persons,  who  are 
all  chosen  annually  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  September.  They  are  empowered  to  com- 
mission all  offices ;  to  sit  as  judges  to  consider  and  determine  on  impeachments ;  to 
prepare  and  lay  before  the  general  assembly  such  business  as  shall  appear  to  them  ne- 
cessary ;  and  have  power  to  revise  and  propose  amendments  to  the  laws  passed  by  the 
house  of  representatives.  The  constitution  grants  the  right  of  suffrage  to  every  man 
of  the  full  age  of  twenty-one  years,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  for  the  space  of  one 
whole  year,  next  before  the  election  of  representatives,  and  is  of  quiet  and  peaceable  le 
havior.    The  iudiciary  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  consisting  of  three  judges  , 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  39'r 

and  of  a  county  court  of  three  judges  for  each  county.  Judges  of  the  supreme,  coun- 
ty, and  probate  courts,  sheriffs,  and  justices  of  the  peace,  are  elected  annually  by  the 
general  assembly.  A  council  of  censors,  consisting  of  thirteen  persons,  are  chosen 
every  seven  years,  whose  duty  is  to  inquire  whether  the  constitution  has  been  preserved 
inviolate  ;  whether  the  legislative  and  executive  branches  of  government  have  performed 
their  duty  as  guardians  of  the  people  ;  whether  the  public  tar.es  have  been  justly  laid  and 
collected;  in  what  manner  the  public  moneys  have  been  disposed  of;  and  whether  the 
laws  have  been  duly  executed. 

Massachusetts.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  in  1780,  and  amended 
in  1821.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives, 
which  together  are  styled  The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts.  The  members  of  the 
house  of  representatives  are  elected  annually  on  the  second  Monday  in  November. 
Every  corporate  town  having  one  hundred  and  fifty  ratable  polls  may  elect  one  repre- 
sentative, and  another  for  every  additional  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  ratable  polls. 

The  senate  consists  of  forty  members,  who  are  chosen,  by  districts,  annually,  on  the 
second  Monday  in  November.  The  supreme  executive  magistrate  is  styled  the  Governor 
of  the  commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  and  has  the  title  of  "His  Excellency."  The  gover- 
nor is  elected  annually  by  the  people  on  the  second  Monday  in  November,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  lieutenant  governor  is  chosen,  who  has  the  title  of  "His  Honor."  The  go- 
vernor is  assisted  in  the  executive  part  of  government  by  a  council  of  nine  members,  who 
are  chosen  by  the  joint  ballot  of  the  senators  and  representatives,  from  the  senators ; 
and  in  case  the  persons  elected,  or  any  of  them,  decline  the  appointment,  the  deficiency 
is  supplied  from  among  the  people  at  large.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to  every 
male  citizen,  twenty -one  years  of  age  and  upwards  (excepting  paupers  and  persons  un- 
der guardianship),  who  has  resided  within  the  commonwealth  one  year,  and  within  the 
town  or  district  in  which  he  may  claim  a  right  to  vote,  six  calendar  months  next  prece- 
ding any  election,  and  who  has  paid  a  state  or  county  tax,  assessed  upon  him  within 
two  years  next  preceding  such  election ;  and  also  every  citizen  who  may  be  by  law  ex- 
empted from  taxation,  and  who  may  be  in  all  other  respects  qualified  as  above  mention- 
ed. The  judiciary  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  a  court  of  common  pleas,  and  such 
other  courts  as  the  legislature  may  establish.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  gover- 
nor, by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  council,  and  hold  their  offices  during 
good  behavior. 

Rhode  Island.  The  government  of  this  state  is  founded  on  the  provisions  of 
the  charter  granted  to  the  colony  by  Charles  II.,  in  1(363  ;  and  this  is  the  only  state  in 
the  union  which  is  without  a  written  constitution.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in 
a  General  Assembly,  consisting  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of  representatives.  The  house 
of  representatives  consists  of  seventy-two  members,  elected  semi-annually.  The  senate 
consists  of  ten  members,  who  are  elected  annually  in  April.  The  executive  power 
:s  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  annually  in  April.  A  lieutenant  governor  is 
also  elected,  on  whom  the  executive  duties  devolve  in  case  of  the  office  of  governor  be- 
ing vacated.     The  judges  are  appointed  annually  by  the  general  assembly. 

Connecticut.  The  charter  granted  in  1662  by  Charles  II. ,  formed  the  basis  of 
the  government  of  Connecticut  till  1818,  when  the  present  constitution  was  framed. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  which  together 
are  styled  the  General  Assembly.  Members  of  the  house  of  representatives  are  chosen 
by  the  different  towns  in  the  state  :  the  more  ancient  towns,  the  majority  of  the  whole 
number,  send  each  two  representatives  ;  the  rest  only  one  each.  The  present  number 
is  two  hundred  and  eight.  The  senate  must  consist  of  not  less  than  eighteen,  nor  more 
than  twenty-four  members,  who  are  chosen  by  districts.  The  present  number  is  twenty- 
one.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor.  A  lieutenant  governor  is  also 
chosen,  who  is  president  of  the  senate,  and  on  whom  the  duties  of  the  governor  devolve 
in  case  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  absence.  The  representatives,  senators,  governor, 
and  lieutenant  governor,  are  all  elected  annually  by  the  people  on  the  first  Monday  in 
April.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  of  errors,  a  superior  court, 
and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  general  assembly  may,  from  time  to  time,  establish. 
The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  general  assembly ;  and  those  of  the  supreme  and 
superior  courts  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  but  not  beyond  the  age  of  seventy 
years.    No  person  is  compelled  to  join,  or  support,  or  to  be  classed  with,  or  associ- 

34 


398  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

feted  to,  any  congregation,  church,  or  religious  association.  But  every  person  may  be 
compelled  to  pay  his  proportion  of  the  expenses  of  the  society  to  which  he  may  belong: 
he  may,  however,  separate  himself  from  the  society,  by  leaving  a  written  notice  of  his 
wish  with  the  clerk  of  such  society. 

New  York.  The  present  constitution  of  the  state  of  New  York  was  formed  in  182. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  every  two 
years  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  a  lieutenant  governor  is  also  chosen,  who  is  president  of 
the  senate,  and  on  whom,  in  case  of  the  impeachment,  resignation,  death,  or  absence  of 
the  governor,  from  office,  the  powers  and  duties  of  governor  devolve.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  senate  of  thirty-two  members,  who  are  chosen  for  four  years,  and 
an  assembly,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  members,  who  are  elected  annually  ; 
and  these  bodies  united  are  styled  the  Legislature.  For  the  election  of  senators,  the  state 
is  divided  into  eight  districts,  each  being  entitled  to  choose  four  senators,  one  of  whom 
is  elected  every  year,  The  members  of  the  assembly  are  chosen  by  counties,  and  are 
apportioned  according  to  population.  The  constitution  grants  the  right  of  suffrage,  in 
the  election  of  public  officers,  to  every  white  male  citizen,  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years, 
who  has  been  an  inhabitant  of  the  state  one  year  next  preceding  any  election,  and,  for 
the  preceding  six  months,  a  resident  in  the  county  where  he  may  offer  his  vote  •  but  no 
toan  of  color  is  entitled  to  vote  unless  he  is  possessed  of  a  freehold  estate  of  the  value  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  without  any  incumbrance.  The  chancellor  and  judges  are 
appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate.  The  chancellor  and  justices 
of  the  supreme  and  circuit  courts  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  or  until 
they  attain  the  age  of  sixty  years.  The  judges  of  the  county  courts,  or  courts  of  com- 
mon pleas,  are  appointed  for  a  term  of  five  years. 

New  Jersey.  The  constitution  of  New  Jersey  was  formed  in  1776  ;  and  no  revision 
of  it  has  since  taken  place,  except  that  the  legislature  has  undertaken  to  explain  its 
provisions  in  particular  parts.  The.  government  is  vested  in  a  governor,  legislative 
council,  and  general  assembly  ;  and  these  bodies  united  are  styled  the  Legislature.  The 
members  of  the  legislative  council  and  of  the  general  assembly  are  elected  annually, 
on  the  second  Tuesday  in  October.  The  number  of  members  of  the  legislative  council 
is  fourteen,  one  being  elected  by  each  county  in  the  state.  The  general  assembly  has 
consisted,  for  a  number  of  years  past,  of  forty-three  members  ;  but  by  a  law  enacted  in 
1829,  seven  additional  members  were  added ;  and  it  now  consists  of  fifty  members. 
The  governor  is  chosen  annually  by  a  joint  Vote  of  the  council  and  assembly,  at  their 
first  joint  meeting  after  each  annual  election.  The  governor  is  president  of  the  coun- 
cil ;  and  the  council  also  elect  from  their  own  body,  at  their  first  annual  meeting,  a 
vice-president,  who  acts  in  the  place  of  the  governor  in  his  absence.  The  governor  and 
council  form*  a  court  of  appeals,  in  the  last  resort  in  all  cases  of  law;  and  they  possess 
the  power  of  granting  pardon  to  criminals  after  condemnation.  The  constitution  grants 
the  right  of  suffrage  to  <  all  persons  of  full  age  who  are  worth  fifty  pounds  proclamation 
money,  clear  estate  in  the  same,  and  have  resided  within  the  county  in  which  they  claim 
to  vote  for  twelve  months  immediately  preceding  the  election.'  [The  legislature  has 
declared  by  law,  that  every  white  male  inhabitant,  who  shall  be  over  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  and  shall  have  paid  a  tax,  shall  be  considered  worth  fifty  pounds,  and  shall 
be  entitled  to  vote  ; — and  by  another  legislative  act,  females  and  negroes  are  prohibited 
from  voting.]  Judges  are  appointed  by  the  legislature ;  those  of  the  supreme  court 
for  a  term  of  seven  years,  and  those  of  the  inferior  courts,  for  five  years  ;  both  are  capa- 
ble of  being  re-appointed. 

Pennsylvania.  The  first  constitution  of  Pennsylvania  was  adopted  in  1776;  the 
present  constitution  in  1790.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  General  Assembly,  con- 
sisting of  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives.  The  representatives  are  elected  annu- 
ally, on  the  second  Tuesday  in  October,  by  the  citizens  of  Philadelphia  and  of  the  several 
counties,  apportioned  according  to  the  number  of  taxable  inhabitants.  The  number 
cannot  be  less  than  sixty,  nor  more  than  one  hundred.  The  senators  are  chosen  for 
four  years,  one  fourth  being  elected  annually,  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  the  repre- 
sentatives. Their  number  cannot  be  greater  than  one  third,  nor  less  than  one  fourth, 
of  the  number  of  the  representatives.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
who  is  elected  by  the  people  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  October,  and  who  holds  his  office 
during  three  years,  from  the  third  Tuesday  in  December  next  following  his  election  ».' 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  399 

and  he  cannot  hold  the  office  more  than  nine  years,  in  any  term  of  twelve  years.  The 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  in,  courts  of  oyer  and  terminer  and  jail  de- 
livery, in  courts  of  common  pleas,  an  orphans'  court,  a  registers'  court,  a  court  of  quar- 
ter sessions  of  the  peace  for  each  county ;  and  in  such  other  courts  as  the  legislature 
may  from  time  to  time  establish.  The  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  and  the  several 
courts  of  common  pleas,  are  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  hold  their  offices  during 
good  behavior.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  possessed  by  every  freeman  of  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  two  years  next  preceding  an  election, 
and  within  that  time  paid  a  state  or  county  tax,  assessed  at  least  six  months  before  the 
election. 

Delaware.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  in  1792,  and  amended  1831. 
The  legislature  is  styled  the  General  Assembly,  and  consists  of  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives.  The  senators  are  nine  in  number,  namely,  three  from  each  county, 
and  are  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  representatives  are  elected  for  a  term  of 
two  years,  and  are  twenty-one  in  number,  seven  from  each  county.  The  general  elec- 
tion is  held  biennially,  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  November.  The  executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  is  not 
eligible  for  a  second  term.  Judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  court  of  errors  and  appeals,  a 
superior  court,  a  court  of  chancery,  an  orphans'  court,  a  court  of  oyer  and  terminer,  a 
court  of  general  sessions  of  the  peace,  and  jail  delivery,  a  registers'  court,  justices  of  the 
peace,  and  such  other  courts  as  the  general  assembly  may  (by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of 
each  house)  establish.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to  every  white  male  citizen,  of 
the  age  of  twenty-two  years  or  upwards,  having  resided  in  the  state  one  year,  next  be- 
fore the  election,  and  the  last  month  in  the  county  where  he  votes  ;  and  having  within 
two  years  paid  a  county  tax.  Also,  to  every  free  white  male  over  twenty-one,  and  un- 
der  twenty-two  years  of  age,  having  resided,  as  aforesaid,  without  payment  of  any  tax. 

Maryland.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  first  formed  in  1776 :  since  which 
time,  many  amendments  have  been  made.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate, 
consisting  of  fifteen  members,  and  a  house  of  delegates,  consisting  of  eighty  members  ; 
and  these  two  branches  united  are  styled  The  General  Assembly  of  Maryland.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  house  of  delegates,  four  from  each  county,  and  two  each  from  the  cities  of 
Baltimore  and  Annapolis,  are  elected  annually  by  the  people,  on  the  first  Monday  in 
October  ;  and  the  members  of  the  senate  are  elected  every  fifth  year,  on  the  third  Mon- 
day in  September,  at  Annapolis,  by  electors  who  are  chosen  by  the  people,  on  the  first 
Monday  of  the  same  month  of  September.  These  electors  choose  by  ballot  nine  sena. 
tors  from  the  western  shore,  and  six  from  the  eastern,  who  hold  their  offices  five  years, 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  annually,  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  January,  by  a  joint  ballot  of  both  houses  of  the  general  assembly.  No  one  can 
hold  the  office  of  governor  more  than  three  years  successively,  nor  be  eligible  as  gover- 
nor until  the  expiration  of  four  years  after  he  has  been  out  of  that  office.  The  governor 
is  assisted  by  a  council  of  five  members,  who  are  chosen  annually  by  a  joint  ballot  of 
the  senate  and  house  of  delegates.  The  general  assembly  meets  annually  (at  Annapo- 
lis) on  the  last  Monday  in  December.  The  council  of  the  governor  is  elected  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  January  ;  the  governor  nominates  to  office,  and  the  council  appoints. 
The  constitution  grants  the  right  of  suffrage  to  every  free,  white,  male  citizen,  above 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  having  resided  twelve  months  within  the  state,  and  six  months 
in  the  county,  or  in  the  city  of  Annapolis  or  Baltimore,  next  preceding  the  election  at 
which  he  offers  to  vote.  The  chancellor  and  judges  are  nominated  by  the  governor, 
and  appointed  by  the  council  j  and  they  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior. 

Virginia.  The  old  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  in  1776,  and  continued  in 
operation  until  1830,  when  the  present  amended  constitution  was  formed  by  a  conven- 
tion, and  accepted  by  the  people.  By  this  constitution,  the  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  senate  and  a  house  of  delegates,  which  are  together  styled  The  General  Assembly  of 
Virginia.  The  house  of  delegates  consists  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  members, 
chosen  annually.  The  senate  consists  of  thirty-two  members.  Senators  are  elected  for 
four  years  ;  and  the  seats  of  one  fourth  of  them  are  vacated  every  year.  In  all  elections 
to  any  office  or  place  of  trust,  honor,  or  profit,  the  votes  are  given  openly,  or  viva  voce, 
and  not  by  ballot.  A  re-apportionment  for  representation  in  both  houses  is  to  take  place 
every  ten  years,  commencing  in  1841,  until  which  time  there  is  to  be  no  change  in  the 


400  BOOK  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

number  of  delegates  and  senators  from  the  several  divisions ;  and  after  1841,  the  nnro 
ber  of  delegates  is  never  to  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty ;  nor  that  of  the  senators, 
thirty-six.  The  time  of  election  of  delegates  is  fixed  by  the  general  assembly,  and  at 
present  takes  place  in  April.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  elected  by 
the  joint  vote  of  the  two  houses  of  the  general  assembly.  He  holds  his  office  three 
years,  commencing  on  the  first  of  January  next  succeeding  his  election,  or  on  such  other 
day  as  may  be  from  time  to  time  prescribed  by  law ;  and  he  is  ineligible  for  the  three 
years  next  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office.  There  is  a  council  of  state,  consist- 
ing of  three  members  elected  for  three  years,  by  the  joint  vote  of  the  two  houses  :  the 
seat  of  one  being  vacated  annually.  The  senior  counsellor  is  lieutenant  governor. 
Judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  appeals,  and  of  the  superior  courts,  are  elected  by  a 
joint  vote  of  both  houses  of  the  general  assembly,  and  hold  their  offices  during  good  be- 
havior, or  until  removed  by  a  concurrent  vote  of  both  houses  ;  but  two  thirds  of  the 
members  present  must  concur  in  such  vote,  and  the  cause  of  removal  be  entered  on  the 
journals  of  each  house.  Right  of  suffrage  is  extended  to  every  white  male  citizen  of 
the  commonwealth,  resident  therein,  aged  twenty-one  years  and  upwards,  who  is  qualified 
to  exercise  the  right  of  suffrage  according  to  the  former  constitution  and  laws  ;  or  who 
owns  a  freehold  of  the  value  of  twenty-five  dollars  ;  or  who  has  a  joint  interest  to  the 
amount  of  twenty-five  dollars  in  a  freehold  ;  or  who  has  a  life  estate  in,  or  reversionary 
title  to,  land  of  the  value  of  fifty  dollars,  having  been  so  possessed  for  six  months ; 
or  who  shall  own  and  be  in  the  actual  occupation  of  a  leasehold  estate,  having  the  title 
recorded  two  months  before  he  shall  offer  to  vote — of  a  term  originally  not  less  than 
five  5'ears,  and  of  the  annual  value  or  rent  of  two  hundred  dollars  j  or  who,  for  twelve 
months  before  offering  to  vote,  has  been  a  housekeeper  and  head  of  a  family,  and  shall 
have  been  assessed  with  a  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  commonwealth  within  the  preceding 
year,  and  actually  paid  the  same. 

North  Carolina.  The  constitution  of  North  Carolina  was  agreed  to  and  resolved 
upon,  by  representatives  chosen  for  that  purpose,  at  Halifax,  December  18,  1776.  The 
legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  body,  styled  the  General  Assembly,  consisting  of  a 
senate  and  a  house  of  commons,  both  elected  annually  by  the  people.  The  chief  execu- 
tive officer  is  the  governor,  "who  is  chosen  annually  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  two  houses  ; 
and  he  is  eligible  for  three  years  only  in  six.  He  is  assisted  by  an  executive  council 
of  seven  members,  chosen  annually  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  two  houses.  In  case  of  the 
death  of  the  governor,  his  duties  devolve  upon  the  speaker  of  the  senate.  Judges  of  the 
supreme  and  superior  courts  are  appointed  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  two  houses,  and  hold 
their  offices  during  good  behavior.  The  constitution  grants  the  right  of  voting  for 
members  of  the  house  of  commons  to  all  freemen  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  who 
have  been  inhabitants  of  the  state  twelve  months  immediately  preceding  the  election  5 
but  in  order  to  vote  for  a  senator,  a  freeman  must  be  possessed  of  a  freehold  of  fifty 
acres  of  land. 

South  Carolina.  The  first  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  in  1775  ;  the  present 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1790.  Legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  General  Assembly, 
consisting  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of  representatives.  The  senate  consists  of  forty-five 
members,  who  are  elected  by  districts  for  four  years,  one  half  being  chosen  biennially. 
The  house  of  representatives  consists  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  members,  who  are 
apportioned  among  the  several  districts,  according  to  the  number  of  white  inhabitants 
and  taxation  ;  and  are  elected  for  two  years.  The  representatives,  and  one  half  of  the 
senators,  are  chosen  every  second  year,  on  the  second  Monday  in  October  and  the  day 
following.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  for  two  years, 
by  a  joint  vote  of  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  at  every  first  meeting  of  the 
house  of  representatives.  A  governor,  after  having  performed  the  duties  of  the  office 
for  two  years,  cannot  be  re-elected  till  after  the  expiration  of  four  years.  At  the  time 
■of  the  election  of  governor,  a  lieutenant  governor  is  chosen  in  the  same  manner,  and 
for  the  same  period.  The  chancellor  and  judges  are  appointed  by  the  joint  ballot  of  the 
senate  and  house  of  representatives,  and  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior.  The 
constitution  grants  the  right  of  suffrage  to  every  free,  white,  male  citizen,  of  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years,  having  resided  in  the  state  two  years  previous  to  the  day  of  election, 
and  having  been  possessed  of  a  freehold  of  fifty  acres  of  land,  or  a  town  lot,  at  least  six 
months  before  such  election,  or  (not  having  such  freehold  or  town  lot)  having  been  a 
resident  in  the  election  district  in  which  he  offers  his  vote,  six  months  before  said  eleo 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  401 

tion,  and  having  paid  a  tax  the  preceding  year  of  three  shillings  sterling  towards  the 
support  of  the  government. 

Georgia.  The  first  constitution  of  Georgia  was  formed  in  1777  ;  a  second,  in  1785  ; 
and  a  third,  the  one  now  in  operation,  in  1798.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
senate  and  house  of  representatives,  which,  together,  are  styled  the  General  Assembly. 
The  members  of  both  houses  are  chosen  annually,  on  the  first  Monday  in  October.  One 
senator  is  elected  for  each  county,  and  the  number  of  representatives  is  in  proportion  to 
population,  including  three  fifths  of  all  the  people  of  color :  but  each  county  is  entitled 
to  at  least  one,  and  no  one  to  more  than  four  members.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  governor,  who  was  formerly  elected  by  the  general  assembly,  but  he  is  now  (and 
ever  since  1824)  elected  by  the  people,  and  holds  the  office  for  two  years.  The  consti- 
tution grants  the  right  of  suffrage  to  all  '  citizens  and  inhabitants  who  have  attained  the 
age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  have  paid  all  the  taxes  which  may  have  been  required  of 
them,  and  which  they  may  have  had  opportunity  of  paying,  agreeably  to  law,  for  the 
year  preceding  the  election,  and  shall  have  resided  six  months  within  the  county.'  The 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  superior  court,  and  in  such  inferior  jurisdictions  as  the 
legislature  may,  from  time  to  time,  ordain  and  establish  ;  and  the  superior  and  inferior 
courts  sit  twice  in  each  county  every  year.  Judges  of  the  superior  court  are  elected  by 
the  legislature  for  three  years  ;  justices  of  the  inferior  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace, 
are  elected  quadrennially  by  the  people  ;  and  elerks  of  the  superior  and  inferior  courts 
biennially. 

Alabama.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  two  branches,  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives,  which  together  are  styled  The  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Alabama. 
The  representatives  are  elected  annually,  and  are  apportioned  among  the  different  coun- 
ties in  proportion  to  the  white  population  ;  the  whole  number  cannot  exceed  one  hun- 
dred, nor  fall  short  of  sixty.  The  senators  are  elected  for  three  years,  and  one  third  of 
them  are  chosen  every  year.  Their  number  cannot  be  more  than  one  third,  nor  less  than 
one  fourth  of  the  number  of  representatives.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  gover- 
nor, who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years,  and  is  eligible  four  years  out  of  six. 

The  representatives  and  one  third  of  the  senators  are  elected  annually  on  the  first 
Monday  in  August  and  the  day  following ;  and  the  governor  is  elected  biennially  at  the 
same  time.  The  general  assembly  meets  annually  at  Tuscaloosa,  on  the  fourth  Mon- 
day in  October.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  possessed  by  every  white,  male  citizen  of 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  within  the  state  one  year  preceding  an  election, 
and  the  last  three  months  within  the  county,  city,  or  town,  in  which  he  offers  his  vote. 
The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  one  supreme  court,  in  circuit  courts,  and  such  inferior 
courts  as  the  general  assembly  may,  from  time  to  time,  direct  and  establish.  The  judges 
are  elected  by  a  joint  vote  of  both  houses  of  the  general  assembly,  every  six  years. 

Mississippi.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  at  the  town  of  Washington,  in 
August,  1817,  but  has  been  recently  revised.  Among  the  articles  of  the  bill  of  rights 
of  the  new  constitution,  there  are  some,  embracing  subjects  which  are  elsewhere  made 
the  subject  of  legislation.  In  all  prosecutions  for  libel,  if  the  defendant  shall  make  it 
appear  that  the  matter  charged  as  libellous  is  true,  and  has  been  published  with  good 
motives  and  for  justifiable  ends,  he  is  to  be  acquitted.  It  is  also  provided  that  the  per- 
son of  a  debtor,  who  shall  deliver  up  his  estate  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors,  shall  not 
be  detained  in  prison,  unless  there  is  '  strong  presumption  of  fraud.'  Another  article 
declares,  that  no  person  shall  be  elected  or  appointed  to  any  office  for  life,  or  during 
good  behavior  :  but  the  tenure  of  all  offices  shall  be  for  some  limited  period  of  time. 
The  principle  of  representation  is  as  follows  :  The  legislature  is  at  stated  periods  to  require 
an  enumeration  of  the  free  white  inhabitants  to  be  made,  and  to  cause  the  whole  num- 
ber of  representatives,  which  is  not  to  be  less  than  thirty-six,  nor  more  than  one  hundred, 
to  be  apportioned  among  the  several  counties,  cities,  or  towns,  entitled  to  separate  repre- 
sentation, according  to  the  number  of  free  white  inhabitants  in  each ;  but  each  county 
is  to  be  entitled  to  at  least  one  representative.  When  any  city  or  town  shall  have  a 
number  of  free  white  inhabitants  equal  to  the  established  ratio,  it  is  to  have  a  separate 
representation  ;  and  if  the  residuum  or  fraction  in  any  such  city  or  town,  shall,  when 
added  to  the  fraction  of  the  county  in  which  it  lies,  be  equal  to  the  ratio,  the  county, 
city,  or  town,  having  the  largest  fraction,  shall  be  entitled  to  such  representation.  The 
senators  are  at  the  same  time  to  be  apportioned  among  several  districts,  according  to 
51  34* 


402  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  number  of  free  white  inhabitants  in  each,  and  their  number  is  not  to  exceed  one 
third,  or  be  less  than  one  fourth,  of  the  number  of  representatives.  These  districts  are 
to  be  formed  by  the  legislature,  at  stated  periods.  The  judicial  department  is  to  be  con- 
stituted as  follows  :  The  state  is  to  be  divided  into  three  districts,  in  which  three  judges 
of  a  high  court  of  errors  and*  appeals  are  to  be  chosen  by  the  people,  for  the  term  of  six 
years.  In  the  first  instance,  however,  the  seat  of  one  judge  is  to  be  vacated  in  'wo 
years,  that  of  a  second  in  four,  and  that  of  the  third  in  six,  so  that  there  may  be  a  new 
election  in  each  of  the  districts,  at  the  expiration  of  every  two  years.  Their  jurisdiction 
is  described  to  be  such  as  properly  belongs  to  a  court  of  errors  and  appeals.  A  circuit 
court  is  to  be  established,  consisting  of  judges  to  be  elected  in  districts,  into  which  the 
fctate  is  to  be  divided  for  the  purpose,  and  each  of  which  is  to  comprehend  not  more  than 
twelve,  nor  less  than  three  counties.  Among  the  other  provisions  of  this  instrument,  is 
the  following :  That  no  loan  shall  be  raised  on  the  credit  of  the  state,  nor  the  public 
faith  pledged  for  the  redemption  of  any  debt,  unless  the  bill  for  that  purpose,  after  pass- 
ing the  legislature,  shall  be  published,  for  three  months  successively,  in  three  news- 
papers, and  shall  be  passed  a  second  time  by  the  next  succeeding  legislature. 

Louisiana.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  in  1812.  The  legislative  power 
is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  both  together  styled  The  General 
Assembly  of  the  State  of  Louisiana.  The  representatives  are  elected  for  two  years.  Their 
number  cannot  be  less  than  twenty-five,  nor  more  than  fifty ;  and  they  are  apportioned 
according  to  the  number  of  electors,  as  ascertained  by  enumeration  every  four  years. 
Members  of  the  senate  are  elected  for  four  years  j  one  half  being  chosen  every  two 
years,  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  the  representatives.  The  state  is  divided  into  sixteen 
senatorial  districts,  in  each  of  which  one  senator  is  chosen.  Executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  for  the  term  of  four  years.  The  people  give  their  votes 
for  a  governor  at  the  time  and  place  of  voting  for  representatives  and  senators  j  and  on 
the  second  day  of  the  succeeding  session  of  the  general  assembly,  the  two  houses,  by  a 
joint  ballot,  elect  for  governor  one  of  the  two  candidates  who  have  the  greatest  number 
of  votes.  Right  of  suffrage  is  possessed  by  every  white  male  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  of  the  age  of  twrenty-one  years,  who  has  resided  in  the  county  in  which  he  offers 
to  vote  one  year  next  preceding  the  election,  and  who,  in  the  last  six  months  prior  to 
said  election,  has  paid  a  state  tax.  Judiciary  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  which 
possesses  appellate  jurisdiction  only,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  legislature  may 
establish.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  senate,  and  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior. 

Tennessee.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  atKnoxville,  in  1796.  Legis- 
lative authority  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  consisting  of  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives  ;  and  the  members  of  both  houses  are  elected  biennially,  on  the  first 
Thursday  and  Friday  in  August.  The  number  of  representatives  is  sixty,  who  are  ap- 
portioned among  the  different  counties,  according  to  the  number  of  taxable  inhabitants. 
The  number  of  senators  cannot  be  less  than  one  third,  nor  more  than  one  half,  of  the 
number  of  representatives.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected 
at  the  same  time  with  the  senators  and  representatives,  and  who  holds  his  office  for  the 
term  of  two  years,  but  is  not  eligible  more  than  six  years  in  any  term  of  eight.  The 
right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to  every  freeman  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  possessing 
a  freehold  in  the  county  where  he  offers  his  vote,  and  to  every  freeman  who  has  been 
an  inhabitant  of  any  one  county  in  the  state,  six  months  immediately  preceding  the  day 
of  election.  Judiciary  power  is  vested  in  such  superior  and  inferior  courts,  as  the  legis- 
lature may  from  time  to  time  direct  and  establish.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  a  joint 
ballot  of  both  houses,  and  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior. 

Kentucky.  On  the  separation  of  Kentucky  from  Virginia,  in  1790,  a  constitution 
was  adopted,  which  continued  in  force  till  1799,  when  a  new  one  was  formed  instead  of 
it ;  and  this  is  now  in  force.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives,  which,  together,' are  styled  The  General  Assembly  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Kentucky.  The  representatives  are  elected  annually,  and  are  apportioned,  every  four 
years,  among  the  different  counties,  according  to  the  number  of  electors.  The  senators 
are  elected  for  four  years,  one  quarter  of  them  being  chosen  annually.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is  ineligible  for  the 
succeeding  seven  years  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office.    At  the  election  of 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  403 

governor,  a  lieutenant  governor  is  also  chosen,  who  is  speaker  of  the  senate,  and  on 
whom  the  duties  of  the  governor  devolve,  in  case  of  his  absence  or  removal.  The  con- 
stitution grants  the  right  of  suffrage  to  every  free  male  citizen  (people  of  color  excepted) 
who  has  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  has  resided  in  the  state  two  years, 
er  in  the  county  where  he  offers  his  vote  one  year  next  preceding  the  election.  Judiciary 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  styled  the  court  of  appeals,  and  in  such  inferior 
courts  as  the  general  assembly  may,  from  time  to  time,  erect  and  establish.  Judges  of 
the  different  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace,  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior. 

Ohio.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  at  Chillicothe,  in  1802.  The  legis- 
lative power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  which,  together,  are 
styled  The  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  The  representatives  are  elected  annu- 
ally, on  the  second  Tuesday  in  October  ;  and  they  are  apportioned  among  the  counties 
according  to  the  number  of  white  male  inhabitants  above  twenty-one  years  of  age. 
Their  number  cannot  be  less  than  thirty-six,  nor  more  than  seventy-two.  The  senators 
are  chosen  biennially,  and  are  apportioned  according  to  the  number  of  white  male  in- 
habitants of  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Their  number  cannot  be  less  than  one  third,  nor 
more  than  one  half  of  the  number  of  representatives.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in 
a  governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years.  Right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to 
all  white  male  inhabitants  above  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  who  have  resided  in  the 
state  one  year  next  preceding  the  election,  and  who  have  paid,  or  are  charged  with  a 
state  or  county  tax.  Judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  in  courts  of  common 
pleas  for  each  county,  and  such  other  courts  as  the  legislature  may  from  time  to  time 
establish.  The  judges  are  elected  by  a  joint  ballot  of  both  houses  of  the  general  assem- 
bly, for  the  term  of  seven  years. 

Indiana.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  for 
a  term  of  three  years,  and  may  be  once  re-elected.  At  every  election  of  governor,  a 
lieutenant  governor  is  also  chosen,  who  is  president  of  the  senate,  and  on  whom,  in  case 
of  the  death,  resignation,  or  removal  of  the  governor,  the  powers  and  duties  of  governor 
devolve.  The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  consisting  of  a  se- 
nate, the  members  of  which  are  elected  for  three  years,  and  a  house  of  representatives, 
elected  annually.  The  number  of  representatives  can  never  be  less  than  thirty-six,  nor 
more  than  one  hundred ;  and  they  are  apportioned  among  the  several  counties,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  white  male  inhabitants  above  twenty-one  years  of  age.  The  num- 
ber of  senators,  who  are  apportioned  in  like  manner,  eannot  be  less  than  one  third,  nor 
more  than  one  half  of  the  number  of  representatives.  The  representatives,  and  one 
third  of  the  members  of  the  senate,  are  elected  annually,  on  the  first  Monday  in  August ; 
and  the  governor  is  chosen  on  the  same  day,  every  third  year.  Right  of  suffrage  is 
granted  to  all  male  citizens  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  or  upwards,  who  may  have 
resided  in  the  state  one  year  immediately  preceding  an  election.  Judiciary  power  is 
vested  in  one  supreme  court,  in  circuit  courts,  and  in  such  other  inferior  courts  as  the 
general  assembly  may  establish.  The  supreme  court  consists  of  three  judges  ;  and  each 
of  the  circuit  courts  consists  of  a  president  and  two  associate  judges.  Judges  are  all 
appointed  for  the  term  of  seven  years.  Judges  of  the  supreme  court  are  appointed  by 
the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate  ;  presidents  of  the  circuit  courts,  by  the 
legislature  ;  and  associate  judges  are  elected  by  the  people. 

Illinois.  The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  consisting  of  a 
senate,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  for  four  years  ;  and  of  a  house  of  representa- 
tives, elected  biennially.  <  The  number  of  representatives  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty- 
seven,  nor  more  than  thirty-six,  until  the  number  of  inhabitants  within  the  state  shall 
amount  to  one  hundred  thousand  ;  and  the  number  of  senators  shall  never  be  less  than 
one  third,  nor  more  than  one  half  of  the  number  of  representatives.'  Executive  power 
is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years  ;  and  he  is  not  eligi- 
ble for  more  than  four  years  in  any  term  of  eight  years.  At  the  election  of  governor,  a 
lieutenant  governor  is  also  chosen,  who  is  speaker  of  the  senate  ;  and  on  whom,  in  case 
the  governor  vacates  his  office,  the  duties  of  governor  devolve.  Representatives,  and 
one  half  of  the  senators,  are  elected  biennially,  on  the  first  Monday  in  August ;  and  the 
governor  is  -chosen  every  fourth  year,  at  the  same  time.  All  white  male  inhabitants, 
above  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  having  resided  in  the  state  six  months  next  preceding 
an  election,  have  the  rights  of  electors.    The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme 


404  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  general  assembly  may  establish.  The  judges 
are  appointed  by  a  joint  ballot  of  both  branches  of  the  general  assembly,  and  hold  their 
offices  during  good  behavior. 

Missouri.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  at  St.  Louis,  in  1820.  Legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  genera]  assembly,  consisting  of  a  senate  and  house  of  repre- 
sentatives. Representatives  are  chosen  every  second  year.  Every  county  is  entitled 
to  at  least  one  representative  ;  but  the  whole  number  can  never  exceed  one  hundred. 
The  senators  are  elected  for  four  years ;  the  seats  of  one  half  being  vacated  every  second 
year.  The  constitutional  number  is  not  less  than  fourteen,  nor  more  than  thirty-three. 
They  are  chosen  by  districts,  and  are  apportioned  according  to  the  number  of  free  white 
inhabitants.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  for  four  years,  on 
the  first  Monday  in  August ;  and  he  is  ineligible  for  the  next  four  years  after  the  expi- 
ration of  his  term  of  service.  At  the  time  of  the  election  of  governor,  a  lieutenant 
governor  is  also  chosen,  who  is,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  president  of  the  senate.  Right 
of  suffrage  is  granted  to  every  white  male  citizen  who  has  attained  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  and  has  resided  in  the  state  one  year  before  an  election,  the  last  three  months 
thereof  being  in  the  county  or  district  in  which  he  offers  his  vote.  Judicial  power  is 
vested  in  a  supreme  court,  in  a  chancellor,  circuit  courts,  and  such  other  inferior  tribu- 
nals as  the  general  assembly  may,  from  time  to  time,  establish.  Judges  are  appointed 
by  the  governor,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate  ;  and  they  hold  their 
cffices  during  good  behavior,  but  not  beyond  the  age  of  sixty-five  years. 


405 


CHAPTER  IX.— CONVENTION. 

In  the  chapter  preceding,  a  brief  account  has  been  given  of  the  progress 
of  Government  among  the  people  of  the  United  States,  from  those  early 
leagues,  or  compacts,  which  being  passed  by  the  colonists,  served  to  bind 
them  together  in  the  bonds  of  a  good  degree  of  peace  and  amity,  down  to 
the  formation  of  that  constitution,  which,  now,  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
has  bejn  the  basis  of  our  civil  and  political  prosperity.  But  in  relation  to 
this  last  great  change  in  the  general  government  of  the  country,  further 
statements  are  necessary.  There  are  certain  historical  facts,  in  relation 
to  the  Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution,  which  every  work  of  a 
similar  character  to  the  present  should  record,  and  which  should  be  treas- 
ured up  in  the  recollection  of  every  free-born  American. 

Not  a  few  of  the  men  who  composed  this  august  assembly  had  borne 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Revolutionary  struggle,  which  achieved  our  in- 
dependence. They  had  perilled  life  and  fortune,  in  the  great  cause  of 
freedom,  and  although  that  object  had  been  won,  they  perceived  that  some- 
thing further  was  necessary,  or  the  toils  and  hardships,  the  sacrifice  of  life 
and  fortune,  during  a  seven  years'  war  had  all  been  in  vain.  The  enemies 
of  the  revolution  had  predicted  that  a  separation  from  the  mother  country 
would  be  followed  by  anarchy  and  confusion.  It  was  confidently  affirmed, 
that  the  Americans  would  be  found  incapable  of  self-government.  So,  for  a 
time,  it  indeed  seemed  likely  to  prove.  The  confederation,  it  was  apparent, 
was  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the  people.  It  embraced  provisions  which 
rendered  the  administration  of  government  under  it  nearly  impossible ;  and 
yet  no  amendments  might  be  made  to  it,  without  the  assent  of  every  state  in 
the  Union.  Experience  had  shown  that  no  relief  could  be  expected  from 
this  quarter. 

The  first  measure  which  led  to  the  Convention  of  1787,  was  adopted  by- 
Virginia,  in  a  proposition  of  her  Legislature  in  January,  1786,  for  a  conven- 
tion of  delegates  to  regulate  our  foreign  commerce.  In  a  letter  to  General 
Washington  in  March,  1786,  Mr.  Jay  observed,  "Experience  has  pointed 
out  errors  in  our  national  government,  which  call  for  correction,  and  which 
threaten  to  blast  the  fruit  we  expected  from  our  tree  of  liberty.  The  con- 
vention proposed  by  Virgina,  may  do  some  good,  and  would,  perhaps,  do 
more,  if  it  comprehended  more  objects.  An  opinion  begins  to  prevail,  that 
a  general  convention  for  revising  the  articles  of  confederation,  would  be  ex- 
pedient. Whether  the  people  are  yet  ripe  for  such  a  measure,  or  whether 
the  system  proposed  to  be  obtained  by  it,  is  only  to  be  expected  from  calamity 
and  commotion,  is  difficult  to  ascertain." 

In  a  second  letter  to  the  same  person  in  June,  his  views  and  feelings 
are  thus  expressed  :  "  Our  affairs  seem  to  lead  to  some  crisis,  some  revo- 
lution, something  that  I  cannot  foresee  or  conjecture.  I  am  uneasy  and 
apprehensive,  more  so  than  during  the  war.  Then  we  had  a  fixed  object, 
and  though  the  means  and  time  of  obtaining  it,  were  often  problematical, 
yet  I  did  firmly  believe,  that  justice  was  with  us.  The  case  is  now  alter- 
ed.    We  are  going  and  doing  wrong,  and,  therefore,  I  look  forward  to 


406  BOOK    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

evils  and  calamities,  but  without  being  able  to  guess  at  the  instrument,  nature 
or  measure  of  them." 

"  Your  statements,"  said  General  Washington,  in  reply  to  these  com- 
munications, "  that  our  affairs  are  drawing  rapidly  to  a  crisis,  accord  with 
my  own.  What  the  event  will  be,  is  also  beyond  my  foresight.  We 
have  errors  to  correct ;  we  have,  probably,  had  too  good  an  opinion  of 
human  nature,  in  forming  our  confederation.  Experience  has  taught  us, 
that  men  will  not  adopt  and  carry  into  execution  measures  the  best  calcu- 
lated for  their  own  good,  without  the  intervention  of  coercive  power.  I 
do  not  conceive  we  can  exist  long  as  a  nation,  without  lodging  some- 
where, a  power,  which  will  pervade  the  whole  Union,  in  as  energetic  a 
manner  as  the  authority  of  the  state  governments  extends  over  the  several 
states." 

Similar  views  were  expressed  by  many  of  the  distinguished  men  of  the 
nation.  An  opinion  prevailed  among  all  classes  that  some  measures  were 
essential  to  the  salvation  of  the  country ;  but  as  yet  no  one  saw  distinctly 
what  those  measures  should  be,  or  what,  amid  the  prevalent  jealousies  of 
so  many  different  states,  could  be  adopted. 

The  above  proposal  of  Virginia  met  with  so  much  favor,  that  delegates, 
or  commissioners,  were  appointed  by  Virginia,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey  and  New  York.  These  convened  at  Annapolis,  in  Septem- 
ber of  1786.  Delegates  were  also  appointed  by  New  Hampshire,  Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode  Island,  and  North  Carolina,  but  did  not  attend.  In  con- 
sequence of  such  a  partial  representation  of  the  states,  the  commissioners 
deemed  it  inexpedient  to  proceed  in  the  important  business  which  had 
called  them  together.  But  it  was  still  more  than  ever  apparent,  that  a 
general  convention  was  essential,  and  must  be  effected.  They  therefore 
drew  up  a  report  and  an  address  to  the  states,  in  which,  after  stating  the 
defects  of  the  federal  government,  and  that  the  situation  of  the  United  States 
"  was  delicate  and  critical,  calling  for  an  exertion  of  the  virtue  and  wisdom 
of  the  confederacy,"  they  recommended  to  all  the  states,  to  concur  "in  the 
appointment  of  commissioners,  to  meet  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  second  Mon- 
day in  May,  1787,  to  take  into  consideration  the  situation  of  the  United 
States,  to  devise  such  further  provisions  as  should  appear  to  them  necessary, 
to  render  the  constitution  of  the  federal  government  adequate  to  the  exigen- 
ces of  the  Union.  This  address  was  also  sent  to  congress,  as  well  as  to  the 
several  states." 

Virginia  first  appointed  delegates,  according  to  the  recommendation  of 
the  meeting  at  Annapolis.  The  general  assembly  of  that  state,  which 
commenced  their  session  in  October,  1786,  selected  seven  of  their  most  dis- 
tinguished citizens,  to  meet  delegates  from  the  other  states,  at  Philadelphia, 
in  May  following,  and  "  to  join  with  them,  in  devising  and  discussing'  all 
such  alterations  and  further  provisions,  as  may  be  necessary  to  render  the 
federal  constitution  adequate  to  the  exigences  of  the  Union."  Other 
states  soon  after  followed  the  example  of  Virginia.  In  February,  1787,  the 
subject  claimed  the  attention  of  congress,  and  they  passed  the  following 
resolution : 

"  Whereas  there  is  provision,  in  the  articles  of  confederation  and  per- 
petual union,  for  making  alterations  therein,  by  the  assent  of  a  congress 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  legislatures  of  the  several  states ;  and 
whereas  experience  hath  evinced,  that  there  are  defects  in  the  present  con- 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY,  407 

federation,  as  a  means  to  remedy  which,  several  of  the  states,  and  particularly 
the  state  of  New  York,  by  express  instruction  to  their  delegates  in  congress, 
have  suggested  a  Convention  for  the  purpose  expressed  in  the  following 
resolution ;  and  such  Convention  appearing  to  be  the  most  probable  means 
of  establishing  in  these  states  a  firm  national  government— 

"Resolved,  That  in  the  opinion  of  congress,  it  is  expedient,  that  on  the 
second  Monday  in  May  next,  a  Convention  of  delegates,  who  shall  have  been 
appointed  by  the  several  states,  be  held  at  Philadelphia,  for  the  sole  and 
express  purpose  of  revising  the  articles  of  confederation,  and  reporting  to 
congress  and  the  several  legislatures,  such  alterations  and  provisions  therein, 
as  shall,  when  agreed  to  in  congress,  and  confirmed  by  the  states,  render  the 
federal  constitution  adequate  to  the  exigences  of  government,  and  the  pre- 
servation of  the  Union." 

In  consequence  of  this,  delegates  to  the  Convention  were  appointed  from 
all  the  states,  except  Rhode  Island. 

To  the  generation,  which  since  those  times  has  come  on  to  the  stage, 
it  may  appear  singular,  that  such  obstacles  to  a  Convention  should  have 
existed.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  path  to  be  trod  was  new  and 
untried.  The  political  elements  were  in  a  deranged  state.  Sectional 
interests  were  at  war.  The  principles  of  free  government  were  not  then 
drawn  out  and  harmonized.  No  model  existed  adapted  to  the  country.  Is 
it  surprising,  then,  that  the  process  was  slow — that  fears  were  indulged — 
that  opposite  views  were  entertained?  On  the  contrary,  looking  at  the 
state  of  the  country  as  it  then  was — the  political  and  commercial  jealousies, 
which  had  arisen  among  the  states — their  difference  in  extent,  wealth,  and 
population,  as  well  as  in  the  habits,  religion,  and  education  of  their  inha- 
bitants— it  may  well  excite  our  admiration,  that  a  few  years  achieved  such 
important  changes,  and  produced  a  constitution,  which  has  operated  so  hap- 
pily in  its  practical  influence  upon  political  communities  so  distinct,  and  to  this 
day  so  independent. 

Among  the  causes  which  served  to  produce  a  general  conviction  of  the 
necessity  of  a  more  efficient  government,  none,  perhaps,  had  greater  influ- 
ence, than  the  insurrection  in  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1786.  "This 
open  and  formidable  opposition  to  the  laws,"  observes  a  writer,  "threatened 
not  only  the  destruction  of  the  government  of  that  state,  but  of  the  Union. 
So  numerous  were  the  insurgents  in  the  western  counties,  and  so  confident 
of  success,  and  even  of  support  from  their  fellow-citizens,  that  they  refused 
all  terms  of  accommodation  offered  by  the  legislature.  They  completely  ob- 
structed judicial  proceedings  in  several  counties,  and  for  a  time,  it  was  ex- 
tremely doubtful,  whether  a  sufficient  force  could  be  found  in  Massachusetts 
to  reduce  them  to  obedience."* 

The  delegates  appointed  by  the  states  to  convene-at  Philadelphia,  met  at 
the  time  and  place  designated.  George  Washington  was  unanimously  elected 
to  preside  in  their  deliberations. 

A  question  of  great  magnitude  presented  itself,  in  the  very  commence- 
ment of  their  session,  viz.  :  whether  they  should  amend  the  old,  or  form 
a  new  system.  For  the  former  object  they  had  been  appointed,  congress 
having  limited  their  powers  to  revising  the  articles  of  the  confederation. 
But  the  defects  of  the  old  government  were  so  many,  and  so  serious,  that 
the  voice  of  the  majority  decided  in  favor  of  an  entirely  new  system.  Ac- 
*  Pitkin's  Civil  History. 


408  BOOK    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

cordingly  on  the  29th  of  May,  Edmund  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  submitted 
fifteen  resolutions,  as  the  basis  of  a  new  constitution.  These  resolutions* 
denominated  the  Virginia  plan,  were  debated  and  amended,  until  the  15th 
of  June,  when  Mr.  Patterson,  of  New  Jersey,  presented  a  project,  for  revis- 
ing the  articles  of  confederation.  This  was  called  the  Jersey  plan.  The 
propositions  of  this  latter  plan  having  been  the  subject  of  debate  till  the 
19th  of  June,  were  rejected  by  seven  states  against  three,  and  one  divided. 
The  resolutions  of  Mr.  Randolph  therefore  again  came  under  considera- 
tion, and  on  the  4th  of  July,  with  the  exception  of  those  relating  to  the 
executive,  were  referred  to  a  committee,  consisting  of  Mr.  Rutledge,  Mr. 
Randolph,  Mr.  Gorham,  Mr.  Ellsworth,  and  Mr.  Wilson,  for  the  purpose  of 
reducing  them  to  the  form  of  a  constitution.  On  the  26th  of  the  same  month, 
those  relating  to  the  executive  having  been  adopted,  they,  with  various  other 
propositions  submitted  by  individuals,  were  referred  to  the  same  committee, 
and  the  Convention  adjourned  to  the  6th  of  August,  when  the  committee 
reported  a  draft  of  a  constitution.  This  was  under  debate  until  the  8th  of 
September,  and  underwent  many  material  alterations.  A  committee,  con- 
sisting of  Mr.  Johnson,  Mr.  Hamilton,  G.  Morriss,  Mr.  Madison,  and  Mr. 
King  was  then  selected  "to  revise  the  style,  and  arrange  the  articles." 
The  manner  in  which  these  eminent  scholars  and  statesmen  performed  the 
duty  assigned  them,  appears  from  the  great  precision  and  accuracy  of  the 
language  of  the  Constitution,  as  well  as  the  happy  arrangement  of  its  various 
articles. 

The  report  of  this  committee  was  made  on  the  12th,  and  on  the  17th  of 
September,  after  a  session  of  about  four  months,  the  Constitution  was  finally 
adopted,  and  signed  by  all  the  members  then  present. 

During  the  progress  of  debate,  several  questions  of  interest  arose  in  the 
Convention — but  none,  perhaps,  more  exciting  than  that  which  related  to 
the  relative  weight  of  the  states,  in  the  two  branches  of  the  legislature. 
After  much  debate,  the  small  states  consented  that  the  right  of  suffrage  in 
the  house,  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  whole  number  of  white,  or  other  free 
citizens  in  each,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and 
three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.  While  they  yielded  this  point,  they  insisted 
on  an  equal  vote  in  the  senate. 

To  this  the  large  states  were  unwilling  to  assent;  and  on  this  question, 
the  states  remained,  for  a  time,  about  equally  divided.  On  the  first  trial,  in 
committee  of  the  whole,  six  states  against  five  decided  that  the  right  of  suf- 
frage in  the  senate  should  be  the  same  as  in  the  house  ;  the  states  of  Massa- 
chusetts, Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia,  being  in  the  affirmative  ;  and  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  and  Maryland,  in  the  negative. 

On  the  29th  of  June,  the  question  was  again  presented  to  the  consideration 
of  the  Convention,  in  a  motion  made  by  Mr.  Ellsworth,  "that  in  the  second 
branch,  each  state  should  have  an  equal  vote."  We  cannot  pretend  to 
give  even  an  outline  of  the  arguments  in  favor  and  against  this  motion.  The 
debate  was  warm  and  exciting.  For  several  days,  the  powers  of  mighty 
minds  were  in  animated  collision,  and  from  the  strong  ramparts  behind  which 
the  respective  parties  had  apparently  entrenched  themselves,  there  was  for  a 
time  little  prospect  of  union  on  the  question. 

On  the  2d  of  July,  the  question  was  taken  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Ellsworth, 
that  in  the  senate  each  state  should  have  one  vote,  and  five  states  were  in 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  409 

Favor  of  it,  five  against  it,  and  one  divided;  and  the  motion  was  lost.  This 
equal  division  on  a  subject  of  such  importance,  accompanied  with  so  much 
warmth  on  both  sides,  seemed  to  present  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  further 
proceedings  of  the  Convention,  without  some  compromise.  To  effect  this, 
Charles  C.  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  moved  for  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  to  take  into  consideration  the  subject  of  both  branches  of  the  le- 
gislature. This  motion  prevailed,  though  not  without  opposition.  Some  of 
the  members  were  in  favor  of  appointing  a  committee,  though  they  had  little 
expectation  of  a  favorable  result.  Mr.  Martin,  of  Maryland,  declared,  that 
each  state  must  have  an  equal  vote,  or  the  business  of  the  Convention  was 
at  an  end. 

Mr.  Sherman  said,  we  have  got  to  a  point,  that  we  cannot  move  one 
way  or  the  other;  a  committee  is  necessary  to  set  us  right.  Mr.  Gerry 
observed,  that  the  world  expected  something  from  them — if  we  do  noth- 
ing, we  must  have  war  and  confusion — the  old  confederation  would  be  at 
an  end.  Let  us  see  if  concessions  cannot  be  made — accommodation  is 
absolutely  necessary,  and  defects  may  be  amended  by  a  future  Conven- 
tion. 

Thus  the  Convention  was  at  a  stand.  Hopes  were  indeed  entertained 
that  unanimity  of  views  might  on  some  basis  prevail,  but  the  longer  con- 
tinuance of  the  debate,  in  the  then  existing  state  of  the  Convention,  it  was 
apparent,  was  engendering  no  good.  About  this  time,  the  venerable  Franklin 
rose  and  addressed  the  President : 

"  Mr.  President — The  small  progress  we  have  made  after  four  or  five 
weeks'  close  attendance  and  continual  reasonings  with  each  other,  our 
different  sentiments  on  almost  every  question,  several  of  the  last  producing 
as  many  noes  as  ayes,  is,  methinks,  a  melancholy  proof  of  the  mperfection 
of  the  human  understanding.  We  indeed  seem  to  feel  our  want  of  polit- 
ical wisdom,  since  we  have  been  running  all  about  in  search  of  it.  We 
have  gone  back  to  ancient  history  for  models  of  government,  and  exam- 
ined the  different  forms  of  those  republics  which,  having  been  originally 
formed  with  the  seeds  of  their  own  dissolution,  now  no  longer  exist ;  and 
we  have  viewed  modern  states  all  round  Europe,  but  find  none  of  their 
constitutions  suitable  to  our  circumstances.  In  this  situation  of  this 
assembly,  groping,  as  it  were,  in  the  dark,  to  find  political  truth,  and 
scarce  able  to  distinguish  it  when  presented  to  us,  how  has  it  happened, 
sir,  that  we  have  not  hitherto  once  thought  of  humbly  applying  to  the 
Father  of  Lights  to  illuminate  our  understandings?  In  the  beginning  of 
the  contest  with  Britain,  when  we  were  sensible  of  danger,  we  had  daily 

Erayers  in  this  room  for  the  divine  protection  ?  Our  prayers,  sir,  were 
eard ; — and  they  were  graciously  answered.  All  of  us,  who  were 
engaged  in  the  struggle,  must  have  observed  frequent  instances  of  a 
superintending  providence  in  our  favor.  To  that  kind  providence  we 
owe  this  happy  opportunity  of  consulting  in  peace,  on  the  means  of  estab- 
lishing our  future  national  felicity.  And  have  we  now  forgotten  that 
powerful  friend? — or  do  we  imagine  we  no  longer  need  his  assistance? 
I  have  lived,  sir,  a  long  time;  and  the  longer  I  live,  the  more  convincing 
proofs  I  see  of  this  truth— that  God  governs  in  the  affairs  of  men  !  And 
if  a  sparrow  cannot  fall  to  the  ground  without  his  notice,  is  it  probable 
that  an  empire  can  rise  without  his  aid?  We  have  'been  assured,  sir,  in 
the  sacred  writings,  that  !  except  the  Lord  build  the  house,  they  labor  in 

35 


410  BOOK    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

vain  that  build  it.'  I  firmly  believe  this ;  and  I  also  believe,  that  without 
his  concurring  aid,  we  shall  succeed  in  this  political  building  no  better 
than  the  builders  of  Babel :  we  shall  be  divided  by  our  little  partial  local 
interests,  our  projects  will  be  confounded,  and  we  ourselves  shall  become 
a  reproach  and  a  by-word  down  to  future  ages.  And  what  is  worse, 
mankind  may  hereafter,  from  this  unfortunate  instance,  despair  of  estab- 
lishing government  by  human  wisdom,  and  leave  it  to  chance,  war,  and 
conquest. 

*'  I  therefore  beg  leave  to  move,  that  henceforth  prayers,  imploring  the 
assistance  of  heaven,  and  its  blessings  on  our  deliberations,  be  held  in 
this  assembly  every  morning,  before  we  proceed  to  business ;  and  that 
one  or  more  of  the  clergy  of  this  city  be  requested  to  officiate  in  that 
service." 

This  was  a  well  timed  suggestion,  and  coming  as  it  did  from  so  vene- 
rable a  man  as  Dr.  Franklin,  was  responded  to  by  the  Convention.  It  is 
"wonderful  that  the  blessing  and  guidance  of  the  God  of  nations  had  not  been 
sought  before. 

Impressed  with  the  necessity  of  compromise,  the  convention  chose  s 
committee  by  ballot,  consisting  of  one  from  each  state,  and  then  adjourned 
for  three  days.  On  re-assembling,  it  was  found  that  greater  harmony  pre- 
vailed— a  report  was  presented  from  the  committee,  which  being  accepted, 
the  Convention  proceeded  with  a  good  degree  of  unanimity  in  their  delib- 
erations, until  at  length  a  constitution  was  agreed  upon.  Of  the  fifty-five 
members  who  attended  the  Convention,  thirty-nine  signed  this  instrument 
Of  the  remaining  sixteen,  several  who  were  in  favor  of  it  were  obliged, 
from  particular  business,  to  leave  the  Convention  before  it  was  ready  for 
signing.* 

The  Convention  recommended  that  the  constitution  should  be  submitted 
to  state  conventions,  and  that  as  soon  as  the  same  should  be  ratified  by  a 
-constitutional  majority,  congress  should  take  measures  for  the  election  of  a 
President,  and  fix  the  time  for  commencing  proceedings  under  it. 

At  the  first  session  of  the  first  congress,  the  senate  and  house  of  representa- 
tives, two  thirds  concurring,  recommended  to  the  states  the  adoption  of  twelve 
amendments  to  the  constitution,  comprising  chiefly  those  parts  of  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  states  which  we  have  already  noticed  as  having  been 
adopted.  Ten  of  these  amendments  were  adopted  by  three  fourths  of  the 
legislatures  of  the  states,  and  became  a  part  of  the  constitution.  Subsequently 
three  other  amendments  were  added. 

On  the  10th  of  January,  1791,  Vermont,  the  first  of  the  new  states,  joined 
the  Union,  and  gave  its  assent  to  the  constitution.  Since  then,  the  constitu- 
tion has  been  adopted,  assented  to  and  ratified  by  other  states,  until  there  are 
toow  in  the  Republic  twenty-six  states,  which  it  is  hoped  are  connected  by  ties 
which  will  continue  unbroken  so  long  as  time  shall  last.f 

*  Pitkin's  Civil  History.  t  Mansfield's  Political  Grammar. 


411 


CHAPTER  X.— INDIAN  TRIBES. 

The  North  American  Indians  are  of  a  red  copper  color,  with  some  di- 
versity of  shade.  The  men  are  of  the  middle  stature,  large  boned,  and 
well  made  ;  with  small  black  eyes,  lodged  in  deep  sockets,  high  cheek 
bones,  nose  more  or  less  aquiline,  mouth  large,  lips  rather  thick,  and  the 
hair  of  the  head  black,  straight,  and  coarse.  In  some  tribes,  they  carefully 
extract  the  hair  of  the  beard  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  hence  were 
long. believed  destitute  of  that  excrescence.  The  general  expression  of  the 
countenance  is  gloomy  and  severe.  Formerly,  some  tribes  flattened  the 
heads  of  their  infants  by  artificial  pressure  ;  but  at  present,  that  practice  is 
unknown  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  They  have  a  sound  under- 
standing, quick  apprehension,  and  retentive  memory,  with  an  air  of  indiffe- 
rence in  their  general  behavior. 

The  women,  or  squaws,  differ  considerably  from  the  men,  both  in  person 
and  features.  They  are  commonly  short,  with  homely,  broad  faces ;  but 
have  often  an  expression  of  mildness  and  sweetness  in  their  looks. 

Except  when  engaged  in  war,  hunting  and  fishing  are  the  sole  employ- 
ments of  the  men.  By  means  of  these,  by  the  spontaneous  productions  of 
the  earth,  and  by  a  partial  cultivation  of  the  soil,  they  procure  a  precarious 
subsistence  ;  feasting  freely  when  successful  in  the  chase,  but  capable  of 
great  abstinence,  when  provisions  are  less  plentiful.  Some  of  the  tribes, 
when  first  visited  by  Europeans,  raised  considerable  crops  ;  and  they  taught 
the  early  settlers  in  New  England  to  plant  and  dress  maize.  At  present, 
several  nations  cultivate  maize,  beans,  pumpkins,  and  water-melons  ;  and 
in  this  way  considerably  increase  their  means  of  subsistence. 

The  sight,  smell,  and  hearing  of  the  Indians,  being  frequently  and  atten- 
tively exercised,  are  all  remarkably  acute.  They  can  trace  the  footsteps 
of  man  or  beast  through  the  forest,  and  over  the  plain  and  mountain,  where 
an  inexperienced  eye  cannot  discern  the  slightest  vestige.     They  can  often 

i'udge,  with  much  accuracy,  how  many  persons  have  been  in  the  company, 
low  long  it  is  since  they  passed,  and  even,  at  times,  to  what  nation  they 
belonged.  They  can  pursue  their  course  through  the  pathless  forest,  or 
over  the  snowy  mountain,  with  undeviating  certainty,  and  are  guided  by 
marks  which  entirely  escape  the  notice  of  an  European. 

Strangers  to  letters,  and  untutored  by  learning,  their  passions,  which  are 
little  curbed  by  parental  authority,  grow  up  wild  and  unpruned,  like  the 
trees  of  their  native  forests.  They  are  fickle  and  capricious ;  irascible 
and. impetuous;  kind  to  their  friends,  vindictive  and  cruel  towards  their 
enemies  ;  and  in  order  to  execute  their  revenge,  they  readily  exercise  dis- 
simulation and  deceit,  and  shrink  from  no  toil  or  danger.  Their  distin- 
guishing qualities  are  strength,  cunning,  and  ferocity ;  and  as  war  is  their 
first  employment,  so  bravery  is  their  first  virtue. 

The  ancient  weapon  of  the  hunter  was  the  bow  and  arrow  ;  but  most  of 
them  have  now  procured  guns.     Their  dress  differs  considerably  in  diffe* 


412 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


rent  tribes.  It  consisted  originally  of  skins  ;  but  many  of  them  are  now 
provided  with  blankets  and  different  kinds  of  cloth.  The  dress  of  the 
Konzas,  a  tribe  on  the  Missouri,  may  serve  as  a  sample.  They  protect 
their  feet  with  moccasans,  or  shoes  made  of  dressed  deer,  elk,  or  buffalo 
skin :  leggins  of  deer  skin  reach  to  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  :  a  breech- 
cloth  passes  between  the  legs,  and  is  attached  to  a  girdle  fastened  round 
the  loins.  A  blanket  or  skin  covers  the  upper  part  of  the  body ;  but  in 
warm  weather  it  is  laid  aside.  In  some  tribes,  the  hair  is  allowed  to  flow 
loosely  over  the  face  and  shoulders  ;  in  others,  it  is  carefully  braided, 
knotted  and  ornamented,  and  is  always  well  greased.  In  many  cases,  the 
head  is  bare,  both  in  summer  and  winter ;  but  in  others,  both  men  and 
women  wear  a  cap  like  an  inverted  bowl.  The  men  have  also  a  war  cap, 
which  they  put  on  as  a  symbol  of  mourning,  or  when  preparing  for  battle. 
It  is  commonly  decorated  with  the  feathers  of  rare  birds,  or  with  the  claws 
ef  beavers  or  eagles,  or  other  similar  ornaments.  A  quill  or  feather  is  also 
suspended  from  it  for  every  enemy  that  the  warrior  has  slain  in  battle. 
They  often  suspend  from  their  ears  wampum  beads,  silver  and  tin  trinkets^ 
and  they  are  fond  of  bracelets  and  rings.  The  face  and  body  are  often 
besmeared  with  a  mixture  of  grease  and  coal.  They  are  very  attentive  to 
personal  decoration ;  and  vermilion  is  an  important  article  at  their  toilet. 
The  faces  of  the  men  are  painted  with  more  care  than  those  of  the  women  ; 
and  the  latter  have  more  pride  in  adorning  the  countenances  of  their  hus- 
bands than  their  own.  A  tobacco  pouch,  attached  to  the  girdle  or  carried 
in  the  hand,  is  a  usual  part  of  their  equipment.  The  women's  dress  is 
partly  like  that  of  the  men  ;  but  their  leggins  only  reach  to  the  knee ; 
they  have  sleeveless  shifts,  which  come  down  to  the  ankle,  and  a  mantle 
covers  all. 

The  wigwams,  tents,  or  lodges  of  the  Indians,  are  differently  constructed 
in  different  nations.  The  rudest  are  formed  of  branches,  resting  against 
each  other  at  the  top,  covered  with  leaves  or  grass,  and  forming  a  very 


Movable  Lodges  of  the  Kaskaias. 

imperfect  shelter  against  the  weather.     The  nations  on  the  west  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  have  houses  formed  of  a  frame  of  sticks,  covered  with 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  413 

mats  and  dried  grass.  Many  tribes  erect  long  poles,  in  a  circular  form  at 
the  bottom,  and  resting  against  each  other  at  the  top,  which  they  cover 
with  skins  ;  others  have  oblong  lodges,  consisting  of  a  wooden  frame, 
covered  with  grass  mats  and  earth.  The  light  is  admitted  by  a  small 
door,  and  by  an  aperture  in  the  top,  which  serves  also  for  the  escape  of 
the  smoke.  The  fire  is  in  the  middle  of  the  lodge,  and  the  family  sit 
round  it  on  the  bare  ground ;  but  they  spread  a  skin  for  a  stranger.  They 
readily  kindle  a  fire,  by  rapidly  turning  one  piece  of  smooth  wood  upon 
another  ;  but  in  the  vicinity  of  Europeans,  they  are  now  generally  provided 
with  flint  and  steel. 

Their  scanty  and  simple  furniture  and  culinary  utensils  are  suited  to 
their  humble  dwellings  and  homely  manner  of  life.  A  kettle,  a  wooden 
bowl,  a  couple  of  wooden  or  horn  spoons,  a  few  skins  for  beds  and  covers, 
and  a  buffalo's  stomach  for  carrying  water,  are  the  chief  articles  of  domes- 
tic accommodation.  Formerly  they  used  earthen  pots  ;  but  these  are  now 
generally  superseded  by  metallic  pots  and  kettles,  purchased  from  the 
white  traders. 

Many  of  the  tribes  are  strangers  to  bread  and  salt.  Besides  fruits  and 
roots,  they  feed  on  the  flesh  of  the  animals  they  kill,  boiled  or  roasted.  In 
travelling,  pemmican  is  their  favorite  food.  It  consists  of  flesh  cut  into 
thin  slices,  dried  in  the  sun  or  over  a  slow  fire,  beat  to  a  coarse  powder 
between  two  stones,  mixed  with  grease,  and  then  carefully  packed  up.  In 
different  nations  it  is  known  by  different  names. 

Among  the  tribes  who  practise  cultivation,  maize  is  sometimes  roasted 
in  the  ashes,  and  sometimes  bruised  and  boiled,  and  is  then  called  hominy. 
They  also  boil  and  eat  wild  rice,  which  grows  in  considerable  quantities 
in  some  parts  of  the  country.  They  have  no  fixed  time  for  meals,  but  eat 
when  they  are  hungry.  They  present  food  to  a  stranger,  at  what  time 
soever  he  enters  their  dwelling. 

Polygamy  is  very  common  among  them  ;  and  the  husband  occasionally 
finds  it  necessary  to  administer  a  little  wholesome  castigation  to  his  more 
quarrelsome  or  refractory  squaws.  But  many  are  satisfied  with  one  wife. 
The  care  of  the  tent,  and  the  whole  drudgery  of  the  family,  devolve  on  the 
women.  They  gather  fuel,  cook  the  provisions,  and  repair  every  article 
of  dress  ;  cultivate  the  ground,  where  any  is  cultivated  ;  carry  the  baggage 
on  a  journey ;  and  pitch  the  tent  when  they  halt.  In  these  and  similar 
employments,  their  lordly  fathers,  husbands,  and  brothers  think  it  degrad- 
ing to  assist  them,  and  unworthy  of  warriors  to  engage  in  such  employ- 
ments. 

The  Indians  never  chastise  their  children,  especially  the  boys  ;  thinking 
that  it  would  damp  their  spirits,  check  their  love  of  independence,  and  cool 
their  martial  ardor,  which  they  wish  above  all  things  to  encourage.  '  Rea- 
son,' say  they,  •  will  guide  our  children,  when  they  come  to  the  use  of  it ; 
and  before  that,  their  faults  cannot  be  very  great.'  They  avoid  compulsory 
measures,  and  allow  the  boys  to  act  with  uncontrolled  freedom ;  but  en- 
deavor by  example,  instruction,  and  advice,  to  train  them  to  diligence  and 
skill  in  hunting ;  to  animate  them  with  patience,  courage,  and  fortitude  in 
war  ;  and  to  inspire  them  with  contempt  of  danger,  pain  and  death, — quali- 
ties of  the  highest  order  in  the  estimation  of 'an  Indian. 

By  gentleness  and  persuasion  they  endeavor  to  imbue  the  minds  of  their 
children  with  virtuous  sentiments,  according  to  their  notions  of  virtue. 

35* 


41 4  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  aged  chiefs  are  zealous  in  this  patriotic  labor,  and  the  squaws  give 
their  cordial  co-operation. 

Ishuchenau,  an  old  Kanza  warrior,  often  admonished  the  group  of  young 
auditors  who  gathered  around  him  of  their  faults,  and  exhorted  them 
never  to  tell  a  lie,  and  never  to  steal*  except  from  an  enemy,  whom  it  is  just 
to  injure  in  every  possible  way.  '  When  you  become  men,'  said  he,  'be 
brave  and  cuning  in  war,  and  defend  your  hunting  grounds  against  all  en- 
croachments :  never  suffer  your  squaws  and  little  ones  to  want ;  protect 
them  and  strangers  from  insult.  On  no  occasion  betray  a  friend ;  be  re- 
venged on  your  enemies  ;  drink  not  the  poisonous  strong  water  of  the 
white  people,  for  it  is  sent  by  the  bad  Spirit  to  destroy  the  Indians.  Fear 
not  death ;  none  but  cowards  fear  to  die.  Obey  and  venerate  old  people, 
particularly  your  parents.  Fear  and  propitiate  the  bad  Spirit,  that  he  may 
do  you  no  harm  ;  love  and  adore  the  Good  Spirit,  who  made  us  all,  who 
supplies  our  hunting  grounds,  and  keeps  all  alive.'  After  recounting  his 
achievements,  he  was  wont  to  add,  '  Like  a  decayed  prairie  tree,  I  stand 
alone  : — the  friends  of  my  youth,  the  companions  of  my  sports,  my  toils, 
and  my  dangers,  rest  their  heads  on  the  bosom  of  our  mother.  My  sun 
is  fast  descending  behind  the  western  hills,  and  I  feel  it  will  soon  be  night 
with  me.'  Then  with  hands  and  eyes  lifted  towards  heaven,  he  thanked 
the  Great  Spirit  for  having  spared  him  so  long,  to  show  the  young  men 
the  true  path  to  glory  and  fame. 

Their  opinions,  in  many  instances,  are  false,  and  lead  to  corresponding 
errors  in  conduct.  In  some  tribes,  the  young  person  is  taught  to  pray, 
with  various  superstitious  observances,  that  he  may  be  a  great  hunter, 
horse-stealer,   and  warrior ;  so  that  thus  the  fountain  of  virtue  is  polluted. 

The  Indians  are  entirely  unacquainted  with  letters  ;  but  they  have  a 
kind  of  picture-writing,  which  they  practise  on  the  inside  of  the  bark  of 
trees,  or  on  skins  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  by  which  they  can  com- 
municate the  knowledge  of  many  facts  to  each  other. 

The  Indian  names  are  descriptive  of  the  real  or  supposed  qualities  of 
the  persons  to  whom  they  belong :  they  often  change  them  in  the  course 
of  their  lives.  The  young  warrior  is  ambitious  of  acquiring  a  new  name ; 
and  stealing  a  horse,  scalping  an  enemy,  or  killing  a  bear,  are  achievements 
which  entitle  him  to  choose  one  for  himself,  and  the  nation  confirms  it. 

The  Indian  women  are  industrious  wives  and  affectionate  mothers. 
They  are  attentive  to  the  comfort  of  their  husbands,  watch  over  their  chil- 
dren with  the  utmost  care  and  tenderness  ;  and  if  they  die,  lament  the  loss 
in  the  most  affecting  manner.  Chastity  is  not,  in  some  tribes,  reckoned  a 
virtue ;  and,  as  the  women  are  considered  the  property  of  the  men,  a  de- 
viation from  it,  with  the  consent  of  the  father,  husband,  or  brother,  is  not 
looked  on  as  an  offence.  Nay,  to  countenance  their  wives,  sisters,  or 
daughters  in  conferring  favors  on  strangers,  is  considered  a  strong  ex- 
pression of  hospitality ;  and  refusal  of  the  proffered  kindness  is  regarded 
by  the  lady  as  an  unpardonable  insult.  But  some  husbands,  on  discovering 
unauthorized  conjugal  infidelity,  punish  it  with  severity  ;  others  treat  it 
very  lightly. 

The  Indians  are  kind  and  hospitable  to  their  friends,  and  to  those  who 
are  introduced  to  them  in  that  character.  Although  they  themselves  sit 
on  the  bare  ground,  yet  they  courteously  spread  a  buffalo  skin  for  their 
visiter ;  smoke  a  pipe  with  him  in  token  of  peace  and  amity ;  and  the 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  415 

squaw  prepares  something  for  him  to  eat.  They  are  ready  to  share  their 
last  morsel  with  their  friends. 

They  are  immoderately  addicted  to  intoxicating  liquors,  which  they 
procure  from  the  white  traders,  and  which  have  been  the  means  of  destroy 
ing  multitudes  of  them.  Before  their  intercourse  with  white  men,  they 
had  no  intoxicating  beverage  ;  and,  excepting  the  liquor  which  they  pro- 
cure from  the  merchants,  their  meals  are  temperate,  and  their  habits  of  life 
active.  Their  diseases  are  few,  and  seldom  of  long  duration.  Many  of 
them  fall  in  battle,  and  multitudes  are  occasionally  swept  away  by  small- 
pox. To  the  healing  art  they  are  in  a  great  measure  strangers  ;  although, 
by  means  of  simples,  they  in  some  instances  perform  surprising  cures. 
In  general,  however,  these  pretenders  to  medical  skill  are  mere  quacks  and 
jugglers,  who  affect  to  chase  away  disease  by  howling,  blowing  on  the  pa- 
tient, and  by  various  incantations,  slight-of-hand  performances,  and  super- 
stitious rites. 

Some  of  their  medical  men  pretend  to  have  seen  the  Great  Spirit,  and 
to  have  conversed  with  him  in  some  visible  form,  as  of  a  buffalo,  beaver, 
or  other  animal,  and  to  have  received  from  him  some  medicine  of  peculiar 
efficacy.  The  animal  whose  form  had  appeared  is  considered  to  be  the 
remedy;  and  they  imitate  its  cry  in  making  "their  medical  applications. 
The  medicine  bag,  in  which  these  savage  physicians  have  a  few  herbs, 
entire  or  pulverized,  and  which  they  administer  with  a  little  warm  water, 
is  an  indispensable  requisite  in  Indian  medical  practice.  Indeed,  the  head 
of  every  family  has  his  medicine  bag,  which  is  a  place  of  sacred  deposit, 
and  to  the  sanctity  of  which  he  commits  his  most  precious  articles.  The 
value  of  its  contents  an  Indian  only  can  appreciate. 

In  every  stage  of  society,  persons  appear  who  accommodate  themselves 
to  the  state  of  the  public  mind.  Of  this  description  are  the  jugglers,  con- 
jurers, or  powahs,  among  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  Indians.  They 
are  partly  medical  quacks,  partly  religious  impostors.  Many  of  them  are 
dexterous  jugglers  and  cunning  cheats.  They  pretend  to  foretell  future 
events,  and  even  to  influence  the  weather.  It  is  likely  that  they  are  often, 
in  some  measure,  the  dupes  of  their  own  artifices. 

The  sweating  houses  of  the  Indians  are  often  employed  for  medical 
purposes,  although  they  are  places  of  social  recreation  also.  A  hole  is  dug 
in  the  ground,  an'd  over  it  is  built  a  small  close  hut,  with  an  opening  just 
large  enough  to  admit  the  patient.  A  number  of  heated  stones  are  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  The  patient  enters,  having  a  vessel  full  of  wa- 
ter along  with  him;  and  being  seated  on  .a  place  prepared  for  his  reception, 
the  entrance  is  closed.  He  sprinkles  water  on  the  heated  stones,  and  is 
soon,  by  the  steam,  thrown  into  a  state  of  profuse  perspiration.  After  this 
has  continued  for  some  time,  the  person  is  taken  out  and  plunged  into  cold 
water.  This  process  is  repeated  several  times,  always  ending  with  the 
steam-bath.  The  Indians  use  this  as  a  general  remedy  ;  but  its  salutary- 
effects  are  experienced  chiefly  in  rheumatic  diseases,  in  which  its  efficacy 
is  at  times  very  great. 

The  Indians  bear  disease  with  composure  and  resignation  ;  and,  when 
far  advanced  in  life,  often  long  for  the  hour  of  dissolution.  'It  is 
better,'  said  an  aged  sachem,  'to  sit  than  to  stand,  to  sleep  than  to  be 
awake,  to  be  dead  than  alive.'  The  dying  man  exhorts  his  children  to  be 
industrious,  kind  to  their  friends,  but'  implacable  to  their  enemies.     He 


416  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

rejoices  in  the  hope  of  immortality.  He  is  going  to  the  land  of  spirits,  that 
happy  place  where  there  is  plenty  of  game  and  no  want,  where  the  path 
is  smooth  and  the  sky  clear. 

When  the  sick  person  expires,  the  friends  assemble  round  the  body,  the 
women  weep  and  clap  their  hands,  and  bewail  their  loss  with  loud  lamen- 
tations. Different  nations  dispose  of  the  bodies  of  departed  friends,  and 
express  their  grief  in  different  ways.  Many  Indian  tribes  bury  their  dead 
soon  after  death.  They  wrap  up  the  body  carefully  in  a  buffalo  robe,  or 
dressed  skin,  and  carry  it  to  the  grave  on  the  shoulders  of  two  or  three 
men.  Along  with  the  body,  they  bury  a  pair  or  two  of  moccasons,  some 
meat,  and  other  articles,  to  be  used  in  the  land  of  spirits.  The  favorite 
weapons  and  utensils  of  the  warrior  are  also  deposited  by  his  side.  It  is 
believed  by  several  tribes  that  unless  this  be  done,  the  spirit  of  the  deceased 
appears  among  the  trees  near  his  lodge,  and  does  not  go  to  its  rest  till  the 
property  withheld  be  committed  to  the  grave.  In  some  places,  they  dis- 
charge muskets,  make  a  noise,  and  violently  strike  the  trees,  in  order  to 
drive  away  the  spirit,  which  they  imagine  fondly  lingers  near  its  old  abode. 
A  mound  is  sometimes  raised  over  the  grave,  proportioned  in  size  to  the 
dignity  of  the  deceased  ;  or  the  place  is  marked  out  and  secured  by  short 
sticks  driven  into  the  ground  over  and  around  it.  Some  of  those  graves 
are  commonly  near  each  of  their  villages. 

On  the  death  of  a  relation,  the  survivors  give  way  to  excessive  grief,  be- 
daub themselves  with  white  clay,  blacken  their  faces,  cut  off  their  hair,  and 
not  unfrequently  mangle  themselves  in  a  shocking  manner,  thrusting 
knives  or  arrows  into  the  muscular  parts  of  their  thighs  or  arms,  or  cutting 
off  a  joint  of  one  of  their  fingers.  For  a  while  they  nightly  repair  to  the 
place  of  sepulture  to  give  expression  to  their  grief;  and  may  occasionally 
be  seen  affectionately  plucking  the  grass  from  the  grave  of  a  deceased  re- 
lation or  friend. 

Among  those  tribes  where  provisions  are  scarce,  and  procured  with 
difficulty,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  an  aged  person,  who  is  unable  to  provide 
for  himself,  to  request  his  family  to  put  him  to  death  ;  and  the  request  is 
complied  with,  or  he  is  treated  with  much  neglect.  But  this  unnatural 
conduct  results  entirely  from  the  pressure  of  circumstances,  and  the  priva- 
tions and  sufferings  to  which  those  poor  people  are  exposed  ;  for  in  more 
favorable  situations,  they  behave  towards  the  aged  and  infirm  with  respect 
and  tenderness. 

Of  the  religion  of  the  Indians  we  have  no  full  and  clear  account.  In- 
deed, of  the  opinions  of  a  people  who  have  nothing  more  than  a  few  vague 
and  indefinite  notions,  no  distinct  explanation  can  be  given.  On  this  sub- 
ject, the  Indians  are  not  communicative ;  and  to  obtain  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  it  would  require  familiar,  attentive,  unsuspected,  and  unprejudiced 
observation.  But  such  observation  is  not  easily  made  ;  and  a  few  general, 
and  on  some  points  uncertain,  notices  only  can  be  given. 

On  looking  at  the  most  renowned  nations  of  the  ancient  heathen  world, 
we  see  the  people  prostrating  themselves  before  innumerable  divinities ; 
and  we  are  ready  to  conclude  that  polytheism  is  the  natural  belief  of  man, 
unenlightened  by  revelation.  But  a  survey  of  the  vast  wilds  of  America 
will  correct  this  opinion.  For  there  we  find  a  multitude  of  nations,  widely 
separated  from  each  other,  all  believing  in  one  Supreme  God,  a  great  and 
good  spirit,  the  father  and  master  of  life,  the  maker  of  heaven  and  earth 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  417 

and  of  all  other  creatures.  They  believe  themselves  entirely  dependent  on 
him,  thank  him  for  present  enjoyments,  and  pray  to  him  for  the  good 
things  they  desire  to  obtain.  They  consider  him  the  author  of  all  good ; 
and  believe  he  will  reward  or  punish  them  according  to  their  deeds. 

They  believe  in  inferior  spirits,  also,  both  good  and  bad,  whom  they  consi- 
der tutelary  spirits.  The  Indians  are  careful  observers  of  dreams,  and  think 
themselves  deserted  by  the  Master  of  life,  till  they  receive  a  revelation  in 
a  dream  ;  that  is,  till  they  dream  of  some  object,  as  a  buffalo,  or  beaver,  or 
something  else,  which  they  think  is  an  intimation  that  the  Great  Spirit 
has  given  them  that  object  as  a  charm,  or  medicine.  Then  they  are  full 
of  courage,  and  proud  of  their  powerful  ally.  To  propitiate  the  medi- 
cine, every  exertion  is  made,  and  every  personal  consideration  sacrificed. 
*  I  was  lately  the  proprietor  of  seventeen  horses,'  said  a  Mandan  ;  ■  but  I 
have  offered  them  all  to  my  medicine,  and  am  now  poor.'  He  had  turned 
all  these  horses,  which  constituted  the  whole  of  his  wealth,  loose  into  the 
plain,  committed  them  to  his  medicine,  and  abandoned  them  forever.  But, 
although  they  offer  oblations  to  the  medicines,  they  positively  deny  that 
they  pay  them  any  adoration,  and  affirm  that  they  only  worship  the  Great 
Spirit  through  them. 

They  have  no  regular  periodical  times  either  of  private  or  public  reli- 
gious worship.  They  have  neither  temples,  altars,  stated  ministers  of 
religion,  nor  regular  sacrifices  ;  for  the  jugglers  are  connected  rather  with 
the  medical  art  than  with  religious  services.  The  Indians  in  general,  like 
other  ignorant  people,  are  believers  in  witchcraft,  and  think  many  of  their 
diseases  proceed  from  the  arts  of  sorcerers.  These  arts  the  jugglers  pre- 
tend to  counteract,  as  well  as  to  cure  natural  diseases.  They  also  pretend 
to  predict  the  weather  and  to  make  rain  ;  and  much  confidence  is  placed 
in  their  prognostications  and  their  power. 

The  devotional  exercises  of  the  Indians  consist  in  singing,  dancing,  and 
performing  various  mystical  ceremonies,  which  they  believe  efficacious  in 
healing  the  sick,  frustrating  the  designs  of  their  enemies,  and  securing 
their  own  success.  They  often  offer  up  to  the  Great  Spirit  a  part  of  the 
game  first  taken  in  a  hunting  expedition,  a  part  of  the  first  produce  of  their 
fields,  and  a  part  of  their  food.  At  a  feast,  they  first  throw  some  of  the 
broth,  and  then  of  the  meat,  into  the  fire.  In  smoking,  they  generally 
testify  their  reverence  for  the  Master  of  life,  by  directing  the  first  puff 
upwards,  and  the  second  downwards,  or  the  first  to  the  rising,  and  the 
second  to  the  setting  sun ;  at  other  times,  they  turn  the  pipe  to  every  point 
of  the  compass. 

They  firmly  believe  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  a  state  of  future 
retribution;  but  their  conceptions  on  these  subjects  are  modified  and  tinged 
by  their  occupations  in  life,  and  by  their  notions  of  good  and  evil.  They 
suppose  the  spirit  retains  the  same  inclinations  as  when  in  the  body,  and 
rejoices  in  its  old  pursuits.  At  times,  an  Indian  warrior,  when  about  to 
kill  and  scalp  a  prostrate  enemy,  addresses  him  in  such  terms  as  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

'  My  name  is  Cashegra :  I  am  a  famous  warrior,  and  am  going  to  kill 
you.  When  you  reach  the  land  of  spirits,  you  will  see  the  ghost  of  my 
father  ;  tell  him  it  was  Cashegra  sent  you  there.'  The  uplifted  tomahawk 
then  descends  upon  his  victim. 

The  Mandans  expect,  when  they  die,  to  return  to  the  original  subterra- 


418  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

neous  abode  of  their  fathers :  the  good  reaching  the  ancient  village  by 
means  of  the  lake,  which  the  weight  of  the  sins  of  the  bad  will  render 
them  unable  to  pass.  They  who  have  behaved  themselves  well  in  this 
life,  and  been  brave  warriors  and  good  hunters,  will  be  received  into  the 
town  of  brave  and  generous  spirits ;  but  the  useless  and  selfish  will  be 
doomed  to  reside  in  the  town  of  poor  and  useless  spirits. 

The  belief  of  those  untutored  children  of  nature  has  an  influence  on 
their  conduct.  Among  them,  the  grand  defect  is,  an  erroneous  estimate  of 
good  and  evil,  right  and  wrong.  But  how  much  soever  we  may  lament 
their  errors  on  these  interesting  points,  we  need  not  be  surprised  at  them ; 
for  how  many,  even  in  more  enlightened  communities,  and  with  clearer 
means  of  information,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  sounder  principles  or  a 
better  practice  ?  A  reverential  and  grateful  sense  of  the  divine  perfections 
and  government,  manifesting  itself  by  a  devout  regard  to  his  institutions, 
and  obedience  to  his  will,  by  benevolence,  integrity,  candor  and  kindness 
towards  men,  and  by  sobriety  and  industry,  is  too  little  valued  and  prac- 
tised by  many  who  enjoy  the  light  of  revelation.  Hitherto  the  Indians 
have  learned  little  but  vice  by  their  intercourse  with  white  men. 

Although  they  have  no  regular  system  of  religious  worship,  yet  they 
have  many  superstitious  notions ;  some  of  them  of  a  more  general,  others 
of  a  more  local  nature.  The  Mandans  have  their  medicine  stone,  which 
is  their  great  oracle ;  and  they  believe  with  implicit  confidence  whatever  it 
announces.  Every  spring,  and  occasionally  during  summer,  a  deputation, 
accompanied  by  jugglers,  magicians,  or  conjurers,  visits  the  sacred  spot, 
where  there  is  a  large  stone,  about  twenty  feet  in  circumference,  with  a 
smooth  surface  :  there  the  deputies  smoke,  taking  a  few  whiffs  themselves, 
and  then  ceremoniously  offering  the  pipe  to  the  stone.  They  leave  their 
presents,  and  withdraw  to  some  distance  during  the  night.  Before  morning, 
the  presents  have  disappeared,  the  Great  Spirit  having,  according  to  their 
belief,  taken  them  away  ;  a*d  they  read  the  destinies  of  their  nation  in 
some  marks  on  the  stone,  which  the  jugglers,  who  have  made  them,  and 
secretly  manage  the  whole  transaction,  can  easily  decipher.  The  Minne- 
tarees  have  also  a  stone  of  the  same  kind. 

On  the  northern  bank  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Missouri,  there  is  a  singu- 
lar range  of  rocks,  rising  almost  perpendicularly  about  two  or  three  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  river.  These  rocks  the  Indians  call  Wakon,  or 
spirit,  and  on  or  near  them,  the  neighboring  nations  deposit  most  of  their 
offerings  to  the  Great  Spirit,  or  Father  of  life ;  because  they  imagine  he 
either  inhabits  or  frequently  visits  those  rocks,  and  offerings  presented  there 
will  sooner  attract  his  notice  and  gain  his  favor  than  any  where  else. 
Those  offerings  consist  of  various  articles,  among  which  eagles'  feathers 
are  held  in  highest  estimation ;  and  they  are  presented  in  order  to  obtain 
success  in  war  or  hunting. 

They  believe  also  in  the  existence  of  evil  spirits,  but  think  these  ma- 
levolent beings  gratify  their  malignity  chiefly  by  driving  away  the  game, 
preventing  the  efficacy  of  medicine,  or  similar  injuries.  But  they  do  not 
always  confine  their  operations  to  such  petty  mischiefs ;  for  Mackenzie,  in 
his  first  voyage,  was  warned  of  a  spirit,  behind  a  neighboring  island,  which 
swallowed  up  every  person  who  approached  it :  and  near  the  White  Stone 
river  of  the  Missouri,  there  is  an  oblong  mound,  about  seventy  feet  high, 
called  by   the  Indians  the  Mountain  of  Littl®  People,  or  Little  Spirits, 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  419 

which  are  supposed  to  be  malignant  beings  in  human  shape,  about  eighteen 
inches  high,  with  remarkably  large  heads.  They  are  provided  with  sharp 
arrows,  in  the  use  of  which  they  are  very  expert ;  and  they  are  always  on 
the  watch  to  kill  those  who  approach  the  mountain  of  their  residence. 
The  tradition  is,  that  many  persons  have  fallen  victims  to  their  malevolence ; 
and  such  is  the  terror  of  them  among  the  neighboring  nations,  that  on  no 
consideration  will  they  approach  the  mound. 

Among  the  Indians,  society  is  in  the  loosest  state  in  which  it  can  possi- 
bly exist.  They  have  no  regular  magistrates,  no  laws,  no  tribunals,  to 
protect  the  weak  or  punish  the  guilty.  Every  man  must  assert  his  own 
rights,  and  avenge  his  own  wrongs.  He  is  neither  restrained  nor  protect- 
ed by  any  thing  but  a  sense  of  shame  and  the  approbation  or  disapproba- 
tion of  his  tribe.  He  acknowledges  no  master,  and  submits  to  no  superior 
authority ;  so  that  an  Indian  community  seems  like  a  mound  of  sand  on 
the  sea-shore,  which  one  gale  has  accumulated,  and  which  the  next  may 
disperse. 

But,  amidst  this  apparent  disunion,  the  Indian  is  strongly  attached  to 
his  nation.  He  is  jealous  of  its  honor,  proud  of  its  success,  and  zealous 
for  its  welfare.  Guided  by  a  few  traditionary  notions,  and  by  the  opinion 
and  example  of  those  around  him,  he  is  ready  to  exert  all  his  energies,  and 
sacrifice  even  life  itself  for  his  country.  Here  sentiment  and  habit  do 
more  than  wise  laws  can  elsewhere  accomplish. 

Where  all  are  equally  poor,  the  distinctions  founded  on  wealth  cannot 
exist ;  and  among  a  people  where  experience  is  the  only  source  of  know- 
edge,  the  aged  men  are  naturally  the  sages  of  the  nation.  Surrounded  by 
enemies,  and  exposed  to  continual  peril,  the  strongest,  boldest,  and  most 
successful  warrior  is  highly  respected ;  and  the  influence  gained  in  youth 
by  courage  and  enterprise  is  often  retained  in  old  age  by  wisdom  and 
eloquence.  In  many  of  the  tribes,  the  chiefs  have  a  sort  of  hereditary 
rank ;  but,  in  order  to  maintain  it,  they  must  conciliate  the  good  will  of 
the  most  influential  persons  of  the  community.  They  have  nothing  like 
monarchical  revenues,  pomp,  or  authority,  but  maintain  their  distinction  by 
bravery,  good  conduct  and  generosity. 

The  most  important  concerns  of  the  tribe  are  discussed  in  a  council 
composed  of  the  chiefs  and  warriors,  in  which  the  principal  chief  presides. 
Every  member  delivers  his  opinion  with  freedom,  and  is  heard  with  atten- 
tion. Their  proceedings  are  considered  sacred,  and  are  kept  a  profound" 
secret,  unless  it  be  thought  the  public  good  requires  a  disclosure.  In  that 
case  the  decision,  with  the  reasons  on  which  it  is  founded,  is  published  by 
a  member  of  the  council,  who  recommends  a  compliance  with  it.  In  the 
stillness  of  the  morning  or  evening,  this  herald  marches  through  the  village, 
solemnly  communicating  the  information,  and  giving  suitable  exhortations. 
He  also  instructs  the  young  men  and  children  how  to  behave,  in  order  to 
gain  the  esteem  of  good  men,  and  the  approbation  of  the  Good  Spirit. 

The  authority  of  the  chiefs  and  warriors  is  hortatory  rather  than  coercive. 
They  have  influence  to  persuade,  but  not  power  to  compel.  They  are 
rather  respected  as  parents  and  friends,  than  feared  and  obeyed  as  superi- 
ors. The  chief  is  merely  the  most  confidential  person  among  the  warriors  ; 
neither  installed  with  any  ceremony,  nor  distinguished  by  any  badge.  He 
may  recommend,  or  advise,  or  influence  ;  but  he  has  no  power  to  enforce 
his  commands,  or  to  punish  disobedience.     In  many  of  the  tribes  he  gradu- 


420  BOOK  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ally  acquires  his  rank  by  his  own  superior  merit,  and  the  good  opinion  of 
his  companions ;  and  he  may  lose  his  authority  as  he  gained  it. 

The  people  commonly  settle  their  controversies  among  themselves,  and 
do  not  apply  to  their  chiefs,  except  for  advice.  In  some  of  the  tribes,  peace 
is  preserved  and  punishment  inflicted  in  a  very  summary  manner  by  officers 
appointed  by  the  chief  for  that  purpose.  These  officers  are  distinguished 
by  having  their  bodies  blackened,  and  by  having  two  or  three  ravens'  skins 
fixed  in  their  girdles  behind,  so  that  the  tails  project  horizontally.  They 
have  also  a  raven's  skin,  with  the  tail  projecting  from  their  forehead. 
These  officers,  of  whom  there  are  two  or  three  in  a  village,  and  who  are 
frequently  changed,  beat  any  person  whom  they  find  acting  in  a  disorderly 
manner.  Their  authority  is  held  sacred,  and  none  dares  resist  them* 
They  often  attend  the  chief,  and  consider  it  a  point  of  honor  to  execute 
his  orders  at  any  risk. 

The  eloquence  of  the  Indian  orators  occasionally  displays  itself  in  strong 
and  figurative  expressions,  accompanied  with  violent  but  not  unnatural 
gesticulations.  Many  of  their  speeches  are  on  record;  and  some,  foj 
rhetorical  effect,  would  do  credit  to  the  parliament  of  a  refined  nation. 

The  wars  of  the  Indians  most  commonly  originate  in  the  stealing  of 
horses,  or  in  the  elopement  of  squaws ;  sometimes  in  encroachments  on 
their  hunting  grounds,  or  in  the  prosecution  of  old  quarrels,  and  the  desire 
of  avenging  the  murder  of  relations.  These  wars  are  conducted  in  a 
predatory  manner. . 

A  single  warrior  sometimes  undertakes  an  expedition  against  the  enemy ; 
but,  in  cases  of  great  provocation,  the  whole  tribe  engages  in  the  enterprise, 
under  the  conduct  of  the  principal  chief.  Even  in  this  case,  however,  none 
but  volunteers  join  the  army:  no  one  is  obliged  to  march  against  his  wilL 

War  is  often  carried  on  by  a  small  predatory  party,  formed  by  the 
influence  of  some  approved  warrior.  Among  the  Omawhas,  the  warrio* 
paints  himself  with  white  clay,  and  marches  through  the  village,  crying 
aloud  to  the  Wakco?ida,  or  Father  of  life,  and  entreating  the  young  war- 
riors of  the  nation  to  have  pity  on  him,  and  to  accompany  him  in  an 
expedition  against  their  enemies.  He  gives  a  feast  to  those  who  are  willing 
to  follow  him ;  and  it  is  distinctly  understood  that  they  who  partake  of  his 
hospitality  pledge  themselves  to  be  partners  in  his  enterprise.  At  the  feast 
he  harangues  them,  and  tells  them  they  must  gain  celebrity  by  their  mar- 
tial prowess.  This  leader  of  the  party,  to  whom  the  French  gave  the  name 
of  partisan,  busies  himself,  before  setting  out,  in  making  medicine,  hanging 
out  his  medicine  bag,  fasting,  attending  to  his  dreams,  and  other  supersti- 
tious observances.  On  the  medicine  bag,  much  reliance  is  placed  for  the 
successful  termination  of  the  adventure.  It  usually  contains  the  skin  of 
a  sparrow-hawk,  and  a  number  of  small  articles,  such  as  wampum  beads 
and  tobaceo,  all  attached  to  a  belt,  neatly  enveloped  in  bark,  and  tied 
round  with  strings  of  the  same  material.  It  is  of  a  cylindrical  shape,  about 
one,  or  sometimes  two  feet  long,  and  is  suspended  on  the  back  of  the 
partisan  by  its  belt,  which  passes  round  his  neck.  The  moccasons,  leggins, 
and  arms  of  the  party  are  put  in  order,  and  each  warrior  furnishes  himself 
with  some  provisions. 

With  the  partisan  at  their  head,  the  party  set  out,  march  cautiously, 
following  each  other  in  a  line,  at  a  distance  of  two  or  three  paces,  often 
treading  in  each  others'  footsteps,  that  their  number  may  not  be  discovered , 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


421 


and  they  send  out  spies  to  explore  their  route.  They  easily  find  out 
whether  any  persons  have  lately  passed  the  same  way,  by  discerning  their 
footsteps  on  the  grass ;  and  as  they  have  to  deal  with  people  whose  organs 
of  sense  are  as  acute  as  their  own,  they  are  careful,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
conceal  their  own  tracks.  On  halting,  the  medicine  bag  is  not  allowed  to 
touch  the  ground,  but  is  suspended  on  a  forked  stick,  firmly  fixed  in  the 
earth  for  that  purpose.  They  smoke  to  it,  occasionally  turning  the  stem 
of  the  pipe  towards  it,  towards  the  heavens,  and  towards  the  earth.  The 
partisan  carefully  attends  to  his  dreams,  and,  if  he  think  them  ominous 
of  evil,  he  at  times  abandons  the  enterprise. 

When  the  spies  bring  information  that  they  are  near  the  enemy,  the  parti- 
san opens  his  medicine  bag,  removes  its  barky  envelope,  and  suspends  the 
contents  from  his  neck,  with  the  bird  skin,  wampum,  and  other  articles  hang- 


Otto  Encampment. 

ing  down  on  his  breast.  This  is  the  signal  to  prepare  for  action.  If  they 
have  time,  they  paint  themselves  and  smoke :  they  also  paint  their  shields 
with  rude  representations  of  the  objects  on  which  they  rely  for  success. 
The  partisan  gives  the  order  to  advance,  and  they  move  on  with  cautious 
steps,  as  their  great  aim  is  to  fall  upon  the  enemy  by  surprise.  If  they 
succeed  in  this,  the  attack  begins  with  the  horrible  yell  of  the  war-whoop. 
This  is  their  only  martial  music.  They  kill,  indiscriminately,  all  who  fall 
in  their  way ;  but  if  discovered,  they  either  make  a  hasty  retreat,  or  rush 
to  the  attack  with  impetuous  but  disorderly  fury.  If  in  the  forest,  they 
shelter  themselves  behind  trees  ;  if  on  open  ground,  they  leap  nimbly  from 
side  to  side,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  taking  a  steady  aim,  and  cover 
themselves  with  their  bucklers. 

It  is  not  the  mere  killing  of  an  enemy  that  confers  the  highest  honor  on 
an  Indian  warrior,  but  the  striking  the  body  of  his  fallen  foe  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  in  presence  of  his  friends,  who  are  eager  to  avenge  his  death. 
Scalping  is  an  act  of  no  small  celebrity  in  Indian  warfare;  and,  in  per- 
forming it,  the  victor  sets  one  foot  on  the  neck  of  his  dead  or  disabled 
enemy,  entwines  one  hand  in  his  hair,  and,  by  a  few  slashes  of  the  scalp- 
ing knife  in  his  other,  round  the  top  of  the  head,  is  enabled  to  pull  off  the 

36 


422  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

skin  with  the  hair.  Carrying  away  the  scalp  is  simply  a  mark  of  victory* 
the  taking  of  prisoners  is  reckoned  a  high  honor. 

The  wounded  of  the  vanquished  party  are  killed  by  the  conquerors  on 
the  field  of  battle,  and  their  bodies  shockingly  mangled ;  the  squaws  so  far 
overcoming  by  habit  the  tender  feelings  of  the  female  breast  as  to  take  an 
active  part  in  the  inhuman  scene*  Indeed,  they  are  more  cruel  than  the 
men. 

In  his  lodge,  the  Inuian  is  indolent,  sedate,  and  apparently  callous ;  but 
in  hunting,  or  in  quest  of  an  enemy,  he  is  keen,  indefatigable,  persevering : 
on  the  field  of  battle,  he  seems  an  infuriated  demon :  so  different  are  his 
appearances  in  different  circumstances.  The  victorious  party  bury  their 
dead,  or  cover  them  with  bushes  or  stones.  They  remove  their  wounded 
in  litters,  borne  on  men's  shoulders ;  or,  if  they  have  horses,  on  a  car  of 
two  shafts,  with  a  buffalo  skin  stretched  between  them.  They  return 
rapidly  to  their  village,  and  commonly  halt  on  some  elevated  ground  in  its 
vicinity.  Their  friends,  eager  to  be  informed  of  the  particulars  of  the 
expedition,  hasten  to  meet  them.  The  party  enters  the  village  with  savage 
pomp,  ostentatiously  exhibiting  the  scalps  which  they  have  taken,  raised 
on  poles.  Many  of  the  warriors  bear  the  mark  indicative  of  having  drunk 
the  blood  of  an  enemy.  This  consists  in  rubbing  the  hand  all  over  with 
vermilion,  and  then  pressing  it  on  the  face  and  mouth,  so  as  to  leave  a 
complete  impression.  On  those  occasions,  the  wives  of  the  warriors 
who  have  been  engaged  in  the  enterprise,  attire  themselves  in  the  dress 
of  their  husbands,  and,  with  rods  in  their  hands,  to  which  the  scalps 
that  have  been  taken  are  attached,  dance  round  a  large  red  post,  and,  in 
concert  with  the  young  warriors,  sing  the  war  and  scalp  songs.  This  bar- 
barous dance,  which  is  repeated  every  night  for  some  weeks,  is  charming 
to  the  squaws ;  a  circumstance  which  shows  how  far  the  human  character 
may  be  perverted  by  fashion  and  habit. 

The  Indians  dance  and  sing  at  the  same  time  :  they  have,  however,  but 
little  grace  or  variety  in  their  movements,  and  little  music  in  their  notes. 
Their  musical  instruments  are  a  sort  of  drum,  and  a  rattle,  or  skin  bag, 
with  small  shot  or  pebbles  in  it,  which  makes  a. noise  when  shaken. 

It  is  dangerous  to  meet  a  disappointed  or  defeated  war  party  on  its 
return,  as  the  warriors  are  apt  to  indemnify  themselves  for  any  disappoint- 
ment, defeat,  or  loss  they  may  have  sustained,  by  taking  the  property  and 
scalps  of  the  first  weak  or  unguarded  party  they  may  encounter. 

No  offence  against  society  is  inquired  into  by  the  chiefs  :  stealing  from 
one  of  their  own  tribe,  which  is  very  rare,  exposes  the  thief  to  contempt ; 
but  cowardice  is  marked  by  the  highest  reprobation.  When  they  go  to 
War,  they  keep  a  watchful  eye  on  such  of  the  young  men  as  are  making 
their  first  essay  in  arms.  If  they  display  the  necessary  qualifications, 
they  are  in  due  time  admitted  to  the  rank  of  warriors,  or,  as  they  express 
it,  of  brave  men.  But  if  any  give  clear  indications  of  cowardice,  on  the 
return  of  the  party,  they  are  treated  with  neglect  and  contempt.  A  coward 
is  at  times  punished  even  with  death. 

The  female  prisoners  are  made  slaves,  a  condition  scarcely  worse  than 
that  of  the  other  squaws.  The  young  male  prisoners  are  often  adopted  by 
the  families  of  the  tribe  which  have  taken  them,  and  supply  the  place  of 
the  members  that  have  fallen  in  the  expedition.  Sometimes,  on  returning 
to  their  village,  the  party  show  their  prisoner  a  painted  red  post,  distant 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  423 

from  twenty  to  forty  yards,  and  bid  him  run  and  lay  hold  of  it.  On  each 
side  of  his  course  stand  men  and  women  with  axes,  sticks,  and  other  offen- 
sive weapons,  ready  to  strike  him  as  he  passes.  If  he  instantly  spring 
forward  with  agility,  he  may  perhaps  reach  the  post  without  receiving  a 
stroke,  and  is  then  safe,  till  a  general  council  of  the  warriors  determine 
his  fate;  but  if  he  fall,  he  is  probably  despatched. 

If  the  prisoner  be  rejected  by  the  family  to  which  he  is  offered,  he  is 
then  put  to  death  with  every  circumstance  of  cruelty ;  and  the  constancy 
and  fortitude  of  the  sufferer  are  as  remarkable  as  the  barbarity  of  his 
murderers.  The  victim,  fastened  to  a  stake,  sings  his  death  song,  insults 
his  tormentors,  bears  with  unshrinking  firmness  the  most  dreadful  tortures, 
and  expires  without  a  groan.  He  triumphs  in  his  fortitude,  not  merely  as 
a  personal  virtue,  but  chiefly  as  a  national  characteristic.  We  are  to  seek 
the  cause  of  this  patient  endurance  of  the  most  excruciating  pains,  not  in 
any  nervous  insensibility,  any  constitutional  apathy,  any  muscular  rigidity 
of  the  Indian,  but  in  the  sentiments  which  he  has  imbibed  and  the  habits 
to  which  he  has  been  trained.  He  has  been  taught,  from  infancy,  to 
consider  courage  and  fortitude  as  the  glory  of  man ;  to  endure  privations 
and  pain  without  a  murmur,  and  with  an  unsubdued  heart,  and  to  despise 
tortures  and  death  ;  and,  in  his  last  moments,  he  proves  the  efficacy  of  the 
education  which  he  has  received.  In  these  tragical  scenes,  the  women 
always  take  an  active  part ;  and  their  inhumanity,  like  the  fortitude  of  the 
men,  springs  from  education. 

Previous  to  their  intercourse  with  Europeans,  the  arms  of  the  Indians 
were  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  tomahawks,  scalping  knives,  and  war  clubs. 
Most  of  them,  however,  are  now  provided  with  fire  arms  ;  and,  being  eager 
to  procure  them,  their  quantity  is  continually  increasing.  But  the  use  of 
these  original  weapons  is  far  from  being  entirely  superseded. 

At  times,  the  bow  is  formed  of  pieces  of  horn  neatly  spliced;  but  it  is 
more  commonly  made  of  wood.  Formerly,  the  arrow  was  pointed  with 
flint  or  bone,  but  now  generally  with  iron  :  the  spear  is  pointed  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  tomahawk  is  a  hatchet  or  war  axe.  The  scalping  knife  is 
used  to  cut  and  tear  off  the  scalp,  or  integuments  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
skull  with  the  hair,  of  their  fallen  enemies,  which  the  Indians  display  as 
trophies  of  their  victory,  with  as  much  exultation  as  ancient  heroes  mani- 
fested in  showing  the  arms  of  their  vanquished  foes.  The  head  of  the 
war  club  is  globular,  and  at  times  hollow,  inclosing  pieces  of  metal,  which 
make  a  gingling  noise  when  a  stroke  is  given.  Occasionally,  the 
blade  of  a  knife,  or  some  other  sharp  instrument,  is  fastened  to  the  end 
of  it  at  right  angles.  The  tribes  who  dwell  in  the  depth  of  the 
forest  have  no  bucklers,  but  shelter  themselves  behind  trees :  those,  how- 
ever, who  live  in  an  open  country,  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Missouri,  use 
bucklers  or  shields  of  a  circular  form,  about  two  feet  and  a  half  in  dia- 
meter, and  composed  of  three  or  four  folds  of  buffalo's  skin,  dried  in  the 
sun  and  hardened.  These  shields  are  proof  against  arrows,  but  not 
against  ball. 

In  all  their  acts  of  devotion,  and  on  all  occasions  where  their  confidence 
is  to  be  won  or  their  friendship  secured,  smoking  is  regarded  as  an  invio- 
lable token  of  sincerity. 

The  pipe  or  calumet,  as  some  have  called  it,  is  the  symbol  of  peace  and 
th«  pledge  of  friendship.     Among  the  rude  dwellers  of  the  desert,  it  serves 


424  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  same  purposes  as  a  flag  of  truce  in  the  armies  of  more  civilized  com- 
munities. The  pipe  is  about  four  feet  long ;  the  bowl  made  of  stone  or 
clay,  and  the  stem  of  a  light  wood.  It  is  differently  ornamented  in  dif- 
ferent nations.  The  bearer  of  this  sacred  symbol  of  friendship  is  seldom 
treated  with  disrespect,  because  they  believe  the  Great  Spirit  would  not 
allow  such  an  iniquity  to  escape  with  impunity. 

Peace  is  concluded,  and  treaties  ratified,  by  smoking.  Wampum,  and 
wampum  belts,  are  also  commonly  used  on  such  occasions.  Wampum, 
formerly,  and  now  among  some  tribes,  the  current  coin  of  the  Indians,  is 
formed  of  shells  found  on  the  coasts  of  New  England  and  Virginia  :  some 
of  those  shells  are  of  a  purple  color,  others  white  ;  but  the  former  are 
reckoned  most  valuable.  They  are  cut  into  the  shape  of  oblong  beads, 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  perforated,  and  strung  on  a  small  leathern 
thong:  several  of  these  strings,  neatly  sewed  together  by  fine  sinewy  threads, 
form  a  belt,  consisting  of  ten,  twelve,  or  more  strings.  The  value  of  each 
bead,  and,  consequently,  of  each  string  or  belt,  is  exactly  known.  The 
size  of  the  belt,  which  is  often  about  two  feet  long,  and  three  or  four 
inches  broad,  is  proportioned  to  the  solemnity  and  importance  of  the  oc- 
casion on  which  it  is  given.  The  chiefs  occasionally  give  strings  to  each 
other  as  tokens  of  friendship ;  but  belts  are  reserved  for  the  ratification  of 
national  treaties,  every  stipulation  of  which  is  recorded  to  posterity  by 
the  hieroglyphics  on  the  belt. 

Tribes  in  amity  occasionally  apply  to  each  other  for  a  supply  of  their 
wants.  When  one  tribe  is  in  need  of  any  commodity  with  which  another 
is  well  provided,  the  needy  tribe  send  a  deputation  of  their  number  to 
smoke  with  their  wealthier  neighbors,  and  to  inform  them  of  their  wants  7 
and  it  would  be  a  breach  of  Indian  courtesy  to  send  them  away  without 
the  expected  supply.  What  they  smoke  is  tobacco  mixed  with  the  inner 
bark  of  the  willow. 

The  Shoshonees,  a  band  on  the  Rocky  mountains,  before  smoking" 
with  strangers,  pull  off  their  moccasons,  in  token  of  the  sacred  sincerity 
of  their  professions ;  and  by  this  act  they  not  only  testify  their  sincerity, 
but  also  imprecate  on  themselves  the  misery  of  going  barefooted  forever, 
if  they  prove  unfaithful  to  their  word. 

A  number  of  different  languages  are  spoken  by  the  Indians  ;  and,  in 
some  cases,  different  dialects  of  the  same  language  are  found  among 
different  tribes. 

The  original  languages,  beside  that  of  the  Esquimaux,  are  said  to  be 
principally  three, — the  Iroquois,  the  Lenni  Lenape,  or  Delaware,  and  the 
Floridian.  These  languages  are  so  distinct,  as  to  have  no  perceivable 
affinity.  The  Iroquois  was  spoken  by  the  Iroquois  or  Six  Nations,  and 
several  other  tribes.  The  Iroquois,  or  Six  Confederated  Nations,  so 
famous  in  Indian  history,  and  once  so  formidable  by  their  numbers,  laws, 
and  military  prowess,  are  the  Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Senecas,  Cayugas, 
Onondagoes,  and  Tuscaroras.  The  Delaware  language  was  spoken  by 
many  nations  in  the  middle  provinces  ;  and  the  Floridian  by  the  Creeks, 
Choctaws,  Cherokees,  Chickasaws,  and  other  tribes  in  the  southern  states. 
Those  languages  are  said  to  be  copious  and  expressive :  they  often  consist 
of  long  compounds,  and  comprise  many  ideas  in  one  word. 

The  following  observations  on  this  interesting  race  of  men  are  furnish- 
ed by  a  person  who  has  spent  many  years  in  intimate  contact  with  several 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  425 

tribes  of  the  north-west,  and  may,  therefore,  be  considered  good  authority. 
He  writes  expressly  for  this  work. 

'  There  are  few  topics  on  which  so  much  has  been  written,  and  to  so 
little  purpose,  as  the  character,  manners,  habits  and  origin  of  the  aborigi- 
nes of  North  America.  Novelists,  poets,  travellers  and  philosophers  have 
all  failed  to  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  them.  This  arises,  in  our  opin- 
ion, in  a  great  measure,  from  the  modern  propensity  to  generalization. 
A  writer  who  has  been  present  at  an  Indian  council,  has  seen  the  noncha- 
lant demeanor  of  the  chiefs,  and  has  heard  the  tropes  and  metaphors  with 
which  they  garnish  their  discourse,  gravely  states  that  the  self-possession 
of  all  Indians  can  never  be  disturbed  by  any  circumstances,  and  that  the 
refinements  of  poetry  and  oratory  are  as  familiar  in  their  mouths  as  house- 
hold words.  Another,  who  sees  the  women  performing  the  hard  labor  of 
their  families,  while  the  men  stand  idly  by,  pronounces  that  squaws  are 
regarded  as  slaves.  Now  our  experience  assures  us  that  the  premises,  on 
which  such  general  conclusions  are  based,  are  almost  always  fallacious. 

'  Little  need  be  said  concerning  the  origin  of  the  American  natives. 
The  most  probable  conclusion  is,  that  they  immigrated  into  the  new  conti- 
nent via  Behring's  strait ;  but  whether  they  came  by  that  route,  or  crossed 
the  Atlantic  from  Wales,  or  the  Pacific,  from  Japan,  certain  it  is  that  their 
physical  peculiarities  plainly  distinguish  them  from  all  the  races  of  the  old 
world.  We  judge  it  safe  to  entertain  an  opinion  once  expressed  in  our 
presence  by  an  old  Indian.  '  Why  must  we  have  descended  from  your 
fathers  ?'  said  he.  '  Is  it  not  as  reasonable  to  suppose  that  God  created  the 
Indian  where  he  now  is,  as  that  he  made  the  white  man  in  the  garden 
you  have  been  talking  about  V  This  idea,  if  not  sanctioned  by  the  Mosaic 
account  of  the  creation  is,  at  least,  not  contradicted  by  it.  We  count  the 
resemblances,  which  exist  between  the  customs  and  traditions  of  certain 
tribes  in  both  continents,  as  of  very  little  importance.  People  living  in 
different  countries  by  similar  pursuits,  most  necessarily  fall  into  similar 
observances.  Every  tribe  that  lives  on  the  banks  of  a  stream  or  the 
ocean,  must  have  witnessed  a  high  tide  or  an  overflow,  and  hence  the 
almost  universal  tradition  of  a  deluge.  In  our  opinion,  no  importance 
ought  to  be  attached  to  the  accounts  of  Indians  of  their  own  origin.  Some 
septs,  like  the  Pawnees  and  Choctaws,  say  they  sprang  from  the  earth, 
the  Incas  descended  from  the  sun,  the  Osages  are  contented  with  such 
progenitors  as  a  snail  and  a  beaver. 

'  The  idea  that  the  present  race  of  aborigines  dispossessed  a  race  more 
advanced  in  civilization  and  less  warlike  than  themselves,  seems  to  us  to 
rest  on  no  real  foundation.  The  articles  found  with  skeletons  exhumed 
from  barrows,  are  still  in  use  among  the  more  remote  tribes.  Indians  still, 
occasionally,  construct  rude  fortifications.  The  pottery,  on  which  antiqua- 
rians rely  as  illustrative  of  this  favorite  theory,  is  made  and  used  to  this 
day  by  the  remote  Dahcotahs  and  Assinneboins.  ,  If  the  field  works  found 
in  different  parts  of  the  country  be  adduced  as  proofs  of  the  civilization  of 
the  supposed  former  race,  we  answer  that  they  do  not  betoken  the  tenth 
part  of  the  ingenuity  displayed  in  the  construction  of  a  birch  canoe. 

•  The  aborigines  of  America  have  generally  been  esteemed  to  be  divided 

into  two  distinct  races,  viz.  the   Esquimaux  and  the  red  Indians.     We 

doubt  that  the  races  are  distinct.     The  Esquimaux  are,  indeed,  milder  in 

character,  and  less  perfect  in  physical  conformation  than  their  southern 

54  36* 


426  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

neighbors  ;  but  is  not  the  difference  owing  to  climate  and  mode  of  life  ? 
Fishermen,  and  especially  such  fishermen  as  the  Esquimaux,  whose  whole 
time  and  care  is  requisite  to  preserve  life,  cannot  be  warriors.  People  who, 
i'ke  the  Esquimaux,  live  upon  scanty  food  in  an  inhospitable  clime,  must 
necessarily  be  dwarfish.  Bear  witness  tribes  who  live  in  the  same  manner 
on  the  old  continent.  Besides,  captain  Franklin  informs  us  that  those  of 
this  people  who  inhabit  a  less  inhospitable  coast  than  their  brethren  (those 
east  of  the  Coppermine  river)  are  of  the  ordinary  stature  of  mankind. 

'  Turning  round  Icy  cape,  we  find  the  tribes  along  the  north-west  coast 
gradually  losing  the  characteristics  of  Esquimaux,  and  assuming  those  of 
the  red  Indians.  We  are  at  a  loss  to  divine,  from  the  accounts  of  Cook, 
Kotzebue  and  Jewett,  which  of  the  two  races  the  tribes  of  that  region  most 
resemble.  At  Nootka  Sound,  the  savages  are  fishermen  like  the  Esqui- 
maux, and  hunters  and  warriors  like  the  tribes  of  the  Mississippi.  Wher- 
ever we  find  a  tribe  relying  upon  fisheries  as  a  principal  means  of  subsis- 
tence, we  find  the  moral  and  physical  character  approximating  toward  that 
of  the  Esquimaux.  In  short,  we  see  no  difference  between  the  two  races 
which  may  not  have  been  produced  by  something  less  than  the  will  of 
the  Almighty. 

'  The  physical  appearance  of  the  Indians  has  been  too  often  described 
to  need  notice  here.  It  is  impossible  even  to  conjecture  what  their  num- 
ber may  be.  Some  idea  of  this  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  the 
Dahcotahs,  who  are  able  to  muster  six  or  seven  thousand  fighting  men, 
scarcely  support  themselves  on  a  tract  of  land  eight  hundred  miles  long 
and  as  many  in  breadth.  Other  tribes,  who  rely  in  some  degree  upon 
agriculture  and  fishing,  are  more  thickly  settled.  Others,  who  occupy  less 
favored  regions,  are  less  so. 

'  Two  great  families  of  Indians  seem,  from  time  immemorial,  to  have 
occupied  the  country  between  the  Rocky  mountains  and  the  Atlantic,  viz. 
the  Dahcotahs,  and  the  Chippeway,  or  Algonquin  race.  The  former  are 
divided  into  a  great  number  of  independent  tribes,  whose  origin  may  be 
traced  by  similarity  of  language,  habits  and  manners.  The  parent  stock 
is  divided  into  several  septs,  which  are  again  subdivided  into  a  great  many 
minor  hordes.  The  principal  divisions  are  these  :  Munday  Wawkantons, 
Sussetons,  Wakhpaytons,  Wawkhpaykootays,  Yanktows  and  Tetons. 
These  last  live  high  upon  the  Missouri,  and  have  little  intercourse  with 
the  rest.  The  Assinneboins,  a  numerous  and  powerful  tribe,  who  roam 
over  the  prairies  between  the  Missouri  and  the  Saskatchawayn,  seceded 
from  the  Dahcotahs  little  more  than  a  century  ago,  and  a  bloody  war  was 
long  waged  between  them  and  the  parent  race.  A  woman  was  the  cause 
of  quarrel.  The  Winnebagoes  and  Otoes,  renowned  for  desperate  bravery, 
the  Ioways,  the  Osages,  the  Omahaws  and  many  other  western  tribes,  claim 
affinity  with  the  Dahcotahs,  and  speak  dialects  of  their  tongue.  The  tradi- 
tion concerning  their  origin,  to  which  we  give  most  credit,  says,  that  they 
all  came  from  Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Cortez.  The  Winne- 
bagoes hold  the  Spaniards  in  abhorrence  to  this  day.  Such  of  these  tribes 
as  inhabit  the  prairie  region  are  vagrant,  and  live  mainly  by  hunting  the 
buffalo.  A  description  of  one  will  be  a  description  of  all  of  them.  They 
are,  generally,  of  the  middle  stature  of  mankind,  and  it  is  rare  to  see  a 
Dahcotah  who  much  exceeds  or  falls  short  of  it,  or  who  is  in  any  wise 
deformed.     They  are  beautifully  formed :  it  is  as  rare  to  see  an  ill-made 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  427 

Dahcotah  as  a  well-made  white  man.  They  are  not  muscular,  nor  are 
they  so  agile  as  whites  commonly  are ;  but  in  recompense,  their  powers  of 
endurance  are  very  great.  They  seem  utterly  insensible  of  fatigue,  and 
patient  of  hunger,  pain,  and  all  other  hardships. 

1  Neither  these,  nor  any  other  Indians  with  whom  we  are  acquainted,  are 
at  all  remarkable  for  gravity  in  their  social  intercourse.  They  are  more 
taciturn,  indeed,  than  the  whites  ;  but  this  is  the  result  rather  of  circum- 
stance than  of  education.  Spending  much  time  alone,  they  acquire  a  habit 
of  silence ;  having  fewer  ideas  than  civilized  men,  they  have  fewer  in- 
ducements to  discourse.  The  conversation  that  does  take  place  among 
them,  however,  is  by  no  means  characterized  by  reserve  or  by  the  absence 
of  hilarity.  In  councils  and  on  solemn  occasions,  it  is  judged  decorous  and 
proper  to  give  no  indication  of  feeling,  and  hence  an  apathetic  gravity  has 
long  been  thought  a  distinguishing  attribute  of  the  Indian  character.  Even 
were  the  assumption  just,  the  aborigines  would  be  no  more  remarkable 
in  this  respect  than  most  modern  Asiatic  nations. 

\  The  character  of  Indians  in  general  seems  to  have  been  viewed  by 
most  writers  through  a  false  medium,  and  their  qualities  have  been  inferred 
from  the  nature  of  their  intercourse  with  white  men.  This  is  a  false  stand- 
ard ;  to  know  them,  one  should  live  long  among  them  and  watch  their  social 
relations.  Thus  seen,  they  appear  to  much  greater  advantage  than  when 
hanging  upon  the  frontiers  doing  or  suffering  wrong,  and  debasing  them- 
selves by  theft,  beggary  and  intemperance. 

1  It  will  not  be  denied  by  any  who  know  them,  that  those  Indians  who 
have  not  been  corrupted  by  the  whites  are  sincerely  pious.  They  univer- 
sally believe  in  one  all-wise,  benevolent  and  powerful  God,  to  whom,  how- 
ever, they  never  pray ;  for,  they  say,  he  knows  better  what  is  good  for 
them  than  they  do  themselves.  Nothing  shocks  them  more  than  to  hear 
his  name  mentioned  with  irreverence  by  the  whites.  They  also  believe 
in  an  evil  principle,  whom  they  pray  to  do  them  no  harm.  They  people  all 
animated  nature  with  inferior  spirits,  and  to  these  they  offer  prayers  and 
sacrifices.  Their  superstitions  are  numberless.  They  believe  in  a  future 
state,  and  the  world  of  spirits  is,  in  their  opinion,  a  fine  hunting-ground, 
where  the  vexations  and  sufferings  of  this  life  will  be  unknown.  Each 
man  has  what  he  calls  his  medicine ;  that  is,  he  thinks  fit  to  consider  his 
fate  and  fortunes  dependent  on  some  animal,  and  that  animal  he  will 
neither  kill,  eat,  or  treat  with  disrespect.  In  short,  they  have  an  infinite 
variety  of  such  observances,  and  there  is  little  uniformity  in  the  belief 
of  individuals. 

'  Their  priests  are  mere  jugglers,  who  practise  various  mummeries,  and 
are  also,  as  is  common  among  savages,  physicians  and  surgeons,  and,  in- 
deed, they  mix  medicine  and  religion  together.  A  cure  is  effected  by 
songs  and  superstitious  rites  as  well  as  by  the  use  of  simples.  The  jug- 
gler's voice  and  rattle  are  seldom  still  near  the  couch  of  a  sick  man.  We 
are  yet  to  learn  that  these  quacks  are  much  respected  in  their  sacerdotal 
character,  or  that  any  great  importance  is  attached  to  their  ceremonies 
by  the  majority  of  the  laity.  One  merit  they  have,  and  that  is  their  skill 
in  rough  surgery.  We  have  seen  them  effect  astonishing  cures.  It  may 
not  be  amiss  to  mention  one,  by  way  of  example.  A  hunter  was  grappled 
by  a  bear,  that  he  had  wounded,  and  dreadfully  lacerated.  His  arm  was 
broken  in  several  places,  and  all  who  saw  it  thought  he  must  die  or  sub- 


428  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

mit  to  amputation.  An  Indian  surgeon,  however,  undertook  the  cure  and 
effected  it.  It  is  true  that  he  was  three  years  about  it,  and  perhaps  the 
abstemious  habits  of  the  patient  were  a  main  cause  of  his  recovery. 

*  As  to  government,  the  Dahcotah  race  have  no  king,  and  every  man 
does  what  seems  right  in  his  own  eyes.  They  have  chiefs,  indeed,  who 
have,  by  tacit  consent,  the  power  of  making  treaties,  and  of  transacting 
the  business  of  their  followers.  Sometimes  they  lead  in  war,  but,  save  on 
such  occasions,  authority  they  have  none.  They  may  advise,  but  cannot 
command.  They  receive  no  reward  for  their  services,  nor  do  they  wear 
any  badge  of  their  rank.  Indeed  they  are  usually  worse  dressed  and  pro- 
vided than  other  individuals,  because  it  is  considered  peculiarly  the  duty 
of  chiefs  to  be  generous.  The  office  is  hereditary  in  families,  but  not 
in  the  direct  line  of  descent.  If  the  heir  apparent  be  notoriously  ineligible, 
he  is  set  aside,  and  a  more  worthy  kinsman  takes  his  place.  Highly  distin- 
guished warriors  become  war  chiefs  through  the  respect  paid  to  their  valor. 
Each  village  has  one  of  these,  who  is  called  the  war  chief,  to  distinguish 
him  from  the  hereditary  leader.  He  rules  in  war,  but  not  in  civil  affairs. 
Sometimes  a  chief  acquires  absolute  power,  but  of  that  kind  which  strong 
minds  gain  over  weak  ones,  and  it  behoves  every  leader  to  bear  his  facul- 
ties meekly. 

1  Laws  the  Dahcotahs  have  none ;  but  they  have  customs  which  have 
the  force  of  laws,  and  which  are  seldom  broken.  Thus  a  man  may  have 
as  many  wives  as  he  can  maintain.  Adultery  is  punished  by  cutting  off 
the  nose  of  the  offending  wife ;  the  wife  cuts  the  clothes  of  the  offending 
husband  to  pieces.  Life  is  taken  for  life,  unless  the  homicide  can  appease 
the  friends  of  the  dead  by  the  payment  of  a  ransom.  The  murderer  in- 
variably gives  himself  up  to  punishment,  for  to  fear  death  is  considered 
the  acme  of  dishonor.  When  minor  offences  are  committed,  the  injured 
party  kills  the  dogs  and  horses  of  his  enemy,  or  destroys  his  tent  before  his 
eyes,  and  in  such  cases  no  resistance  is  offered.  Divorces  are  at  the  op- 
tion of  the  husband.  Theft  is  not  regarded  as  a  crime  ;  indeed,  property 
is  nearly  in  common  among  them,  so  that  no  theft  can  be  committed. 
They  apply  this  standard  of  morals  to  the  whites,  and  so  get  the  reputa- 
tion of  thieves,  while  themselves  are  unconscious  of  wrong  doing.  It  is, 
in  our  opinion,  this  very  community  of  goods  that  is  the  principal  obstacle 
to  their  civilization  and  improvement ;  for  it  cannot  be  expected  that  one 
man  will  sow  for  all  the  world  to  reap,  or  that  he  will  weary  his  limbs  in 
the  chase  to  obtain  what  will  not  belong  to  him  or  his  family.  Those 
tribes  who  hold  the  right  of  property  in  most  esteem,  as,  for  example,  the 
Saques  and  Foxes,  have  made  the  greatest  advances  in  civilization. 

1  Another  obstacle  to  the  civilization  of  our  aborigines  is  their  unconquer- 
able indolence.  The  savage  is  content  with  the  bare  necessaries  of  life;  he 
neither  knows  nor  cares  for  its  luxuries  and  superfluities.  Necessity  only 
will  compel  him  to  exertion.  Tribes,  whose  limits  have  been  so  circum- 
scribed by  the  whites  that  they  cannot  live  by  the  chase,  have  resorted  to 
labor  for  subsistence ;  but  we  think  no  other  force  of  reason  or  circum- 
stance will  bring  about  such  a  result. 

i  However  strange  such  an  assertion  may  appear,  we  confidently  affirm 
that  Indians  are  not  more  revengeful  than  other  people.  They  have  the  same 
feelings  and  passions  as  other  men,  neither  stronger  nor  weaker.  They  are 
kind  to  each  other.     Every  offence  but  murder  is  readily  forgiven,  and  even 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  429 

that  crime  seldom  finds  its  due  punishment.  Nine  murderers  out  of  ten 
among  them  go  down  to  the  grave  in  peace.  An  Indian  rarely  goes  much 
out  of  his  way  for  revenge.  Time  and  opportunity  being  ministered,  an 
individual  will  wreak  a  long-smothered  resentment,  and  so,  we  presume, 
would  any  other  man,  if  freed  from  the  restraints  of  law.  We  take  it  upon 
us  to  say  that  murders  are  not  so  frequent  among  them  as  with  ourselves, 
and  that  these,  as  well  as  all  minor  injuries,  are  not  so  often  or  so  fearfully 
avenged  by  Indians  as  by  white  men.  As  it  regards  wrongs  committed 
by  enemies  of  the  tribe,  the  case  is  different.  These,  the  savage  is  taught, 
it  is  his  duty  to  requite  upon  any  member  of  the  hostile  nation.  Such 
vengeance  it  is  his  glory  to  take,  and  it  is  one  of  the  first  requisitions  of 
his  moral  code. 

'  The  courage  of  Indians  is  not  to  be  measured  by  our  standard.  In  a 
mere  clan,  the  loss  of  an  individual  is  severely  felt.  It  subtracts  largely 
from  the  strength  of  the  band  and  the  happiness  of  his  family.  Discretion, 
therefore,  is  considered  the  better  part  of  valor.  The  war  chief  who  con- 
quers the  enemy  does  well ;  but  he  who  conquers  without  loss  to  himself 
does  infinitely  better.  It  is  thought  honorable  to  avoid  risk  as  much  as 
possible,  and  the  decision  of  quarrels  by  single  combat  is  called  folly  and 
madness.  But  when  they  have  resolved  on  battle,  no  people  strive  more 
valiantly.  Our  history  bears  witness  of  the  furious  energy  of  their  valor. 
Their  ideas  of  moral  courage  might  be  adopted  with  advantage  by  all  who 
call  them  savages.  They  think  it  weak  and  cowardly  to  yield  to  grief  or 
anger;  misfortune  and  pain  they  scorn,  and  death  they  endure  not  only 
without  a  murmur,  but  with  cheerfulness.  Suicide  under  any  circumstances 
they  brand  as  the  strongest  evidence  of  lack  of  courage. 

1  Of  the  cruelty  of  Indians  to  conquered  enemies,  this  only  can  be  said, 
that  it  is  the  vice  of  all  barbarians,  that  they  know  not  what  they  do,  that 
it  is  only  exercised  on  their  avowed  foes,  and  that  it  is  almost  always  per- 
petrated in  the  heat  of  blood.  Captives,  once  spared,  fare  no  worse  than 
their  conquerors.  The  sense  of  honor  among  Indians  is,  in  some  respects, 
very  strong  ;  in  others,  not  so.  It  will  not  prevent  an  individual  from  false- 
hood-, treachery,  promise-breaking,  flattery,  beggary  and  a  multitude  of  other 
offences.  It  will  deter  him  from  labor,  which  he  considers  the  exclusive 
business  of  women,  it  forbids  him  to  shun  death,  it  commands  him  to  re- 
quite a  disgraceful  blow  with  a  stab,  it  forbids  him  to  boast  of  deeds  he 
never  achieved,  it  commands  him  to  sacrifice  himself  for  the  good  of  his 
tribe.  Its  scope  is  not  very  extensive ;  but  where  it  operates,  it  operates 
effectually. 

1  In  their  domestic  relations,  they  are  essentially,  but  not  ostensibly  kind. 
They  provide  for  their  families,  they  love  their  wives  and  children  ;  but 
thinking  it  womanish  to  manifest  the  affections,  they  are  not  fond  husbands 
or  fathers.  Tatunkah  Nazhee,  the  best  hunter  of  the  Dahcotahs,  lost  his 
wife  and  five  children  by  the  hands  of  the  Chippeways.  The  only  sign 
of  grief  he  displayed  was  painting  his  face  black.  Yet  he  abandoned  his 
usual  occupations,  and  pursued  the  enemy  till  he  had  taken  life  for  life. 
"  This,  "  said  he,  "  is  the  best  way  of  mourning  for  the  dead." 

'  Indian  hospitality  and  charity  have  no  limit.  No  stranger  enters  their 
tents  to  whom  they  do  not  give  meat :  no  person  goes  to  them  in  need 
whom  they  do  not  relieve  to  the  extent  of  their  ability,  and  often  to  their 
great  inconvenience.     They  will  not  look  upon  an  execution,  they  will  not 


430  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

suffer  a  person  who  has  wronged  them  to  be  whipped  for  it,  and  the  idea  of 
imprisoning  a  man  for  debt,  or  for  a  petty  violation  of  the  rights  of  pro- 
perty, fills  them  with  horror. 

1  Some  years  ago,  the  old  chief  of  a  Dahcotah  band  was  robbed  by  a 
drunken  soldier  of  eighteen  ducks,  which  he  had  killed  for  the  use  of  his 
family.  The  offender  was  detected,  compelled  to  make  restitution,  and 
fastened  to  the  whipping-post.  When  the  old  man  comprehended  the  na- 
ture of  the  punishment  about  to  be  inflicted,  he  burst  into  tears,  and  threw 
down  half  his  game  before  the  commanding  officer.  "  I  will  give  you 
these,"  said  he,  "  if  you  will  spare  this  man.  Of  what  consequence  are  a 
few  ducks  ?"  The  man  had  committed  violence  on  the  chief's  person. 
Which  of  the  two  best  deserved  to  be  called  a  savage  ? 

'  In  short,  to  end  our  remarks  on  the  Dahcotah  character,  which  is,  with 
some  trivia]  alterations,  the  character  of  most  Indian  tribes,  we  may  say 
that  their  moral  code  is  grievously  defective,  but  that,  such  as  it  is,  they 
adhere  rigidly  to  it.  Considering  their  ignorance,  their  extreme  necessities 
and  their  wrongs,  it  is  wonderful  that  their  moral  degradation  is  not  deeper 
than  it  is.  Their  code  is  adapted  to  their  mode  of  life,  and  it  is  only  by 
applying  it  to  others,  who  have  more  to  lose  and  less  to  gain  than  them- 
selves, that  they  become  disagreeable  and  dangerous  neighbors  to  the 
whites.  An  incessant  irritation  is  the  consequence,  hatred  succeeds,  mu- 
tual wrong  follows,  and  war  consummates  the  drama. 

'  Those  of  the  tribes  of  Dahcotah  origin  who  live  on  the  Mississippi,  and 
other  wooded  countries,  live  on  the  deer  and  other  game  of  the  forest. 
By  entrapping  the  fur-clad  animals,  they  get  the  means  of  buying  guns, 
cloth  and  other  articles,  which  have  become  indispensably  necessary  to 
them.  In  the  summer,  they  live  in  permanent  villages,  and  cultivate  a 
little  corn.  The  women  perform  this,  as  well  as  all  other  labors,  and  do 
not  consider  themselves  aggrieved  thereby.  It  is  said  that,  as  the  men 
encounter  the  fatigues  and  perils  of  the  chase,  the  dangers  of  war  and  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  seasons,  they  have  their  full  share  of  domestic  duties. 
The  women  being  unfit  for  these  occupations,  must  fill  the  station  which 
God  has  allotted  to  them,  and  neither  party  thinks  the  distribution  of  offices 
unjust  or  unreasonable.  The  women  are  sold,  like  the  daughters  of  the 
patriarchs,  by  their  parents  to  their  husbands,  and  they  are  chastised  or 
commended  according  to  the  degree  of  their  industry  or  good  conduct. 
Judging  from  their  general  cheerfulness,  they  see  no  hardship  in  their  lot. 
Jealousy  seems  to  be  their  chief  annoyance,  and  often  causes  them  to 
hang  themselves. 

'  In  winter,  the  hunters  leave  their  villages,  and  encamp  in  leathern  tents 
on  their  hunting-grounds,  removing  from  place  to  place  as  the  game  is 
more  or  less  abundant.  They  are  plentifully  supplied  by  the  traders  with 
ammunition  on  credit,  and  pay  their  debts  as  they  best  can  in  the  spring. 
This  system  is  highly  injurious  to  the  Indians,  and  vexatious  to  the  traders. 
As  not  more  than  half  of  the  hunters  pay  their  debts,  the  trader  is  obliged 
to  charge  a  double  price  for  his  goods,  in  his  own  defence,  and  thus  the  ho- 
nest and  industrious  Indians  pay  for  the  idle  and  vicious.  Still  this  is  the 
fashion  of  their  fathers,  and  no  persuasion  will  induce  them  to  depart 
from  it. 

'  It  only  remains  to  be  said  of  this  portion  of  the  race,  that  they  lire 
from  hand  to  mouth,  hunting  and  fishing  when  they  feel  so  inclined,  and 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  431 

fasting  when  the  chances  of  the  chase  are  against  them.  Few  of  them 
perish  by  starvation.  The  only  circumstance  that  varies  the  monotony 
of  their  lives  is  war,  and  that  they  practise  on  so  limited  a  scale  that  it  has 
no  perceptible  effect  on  their  population  or  happiness. 

1  The  roving  tribes,  who  live  in  the  great  plains  of  the  west,  differ  little 
in  language  or  character  from  their  more  stationary  brethren.  They  en- 
camp near  the  vast  herds  of  buffaloes,  kill  as  many  as  they  want,  eat  the 
flesh,  dress  in  the  skins,  and  sell  as  many  robes  to  the  traders  as  will  pro- 
cure them  cloth  and  guns.  They  are  wilder  and  more  primitive  than  their 
neighbors,  and  more  addicted  to  plunder  and  massacre  those  who  are  not 
of  their  blood.  They  are  generally  well  mounted  and  armed  with  guns, 
bows  and  arrows,  spears  and  shields.  They  kill  the  buffalo  at  full  speed. 
If  the  drove  removes,  they  pluck  up  their  tents  and  follow.  If  any  man 
frightens  the  cattle,  certain  police  officers,  called  soldiers,  punish  him  by 
stripes  and  the  destruction  of  his  horses  and  property.  Their  persons  are 
held  sacred,  and  no  one  thinks  of  resisting  them.  Some  of  these  wanderers 
are  like  the  children  of  Ishmael  in  that  every  man's  hand  is  against  them, 
and  their  hand  is  against  every  man.  The  Assinneboins  are  an  example. 
Their  time  is  spent  in  indolence,  war  and  the  chase. 

•  The  wars  of  Indians  among  themselves  are  seldom  very  destructive. 
The  war  chief  dreams  or  pretends  to  dream  that  the  enemy  will  be  delivered 
into  his  hands,  and  sets  out  for  the  field  of  strife  with,  perhaps,  twenty 
followers.  The  greatest  caution  is  observed,  and  if  the  party  find  reason 
to  think  that  the  enemy  is  apprised  of  their  intention,  they  turn  back.  If, 
however,  their  plans  succeed,  a  small  number  of  the  enemy  are  surprised 
and  butchered.  Few  are  ever  spared.  Within  a  few  months,  this  paltry 
onslaught  is  repaid  in  kind,  and  the  account  is  balanced.  These  wars 
have  been  from  time  immemorial,  and  will  probably  continue  till  time  shall 
be  no  more.  Such  is  the  modern  state  of  Indian  warfare  ;  but  tradition  tells 
of  more  serious  hostilities.  Hundreds  of  Dahcotahs  and  Mandans  perished 
less  than  a  century  ago  in  a  battle  between  the  two  tribes.  The  Assinne- 
boins were  once  nearly  exterminated  by  the  former  tribe.  Those  times 
are  gone,  and  a  mightier  influence  is  sweeping  the  red  men  from  the  face 
of  the  earth. 

1  The  Algonquin  or  Chippeway  race  is  even  more  widely  extended  than 
the  Dahcotahs.  Judging  from  the  remains  of  the  languages  which  have 
descended  to  our  times,  the  entire  aboriginal  population  of  New  England 
sprung  from  this  stock.  Their  manners  and  habits  corroborate  this  sup- 
position. The  Dela wares  are  supposed  to  have  had  the  same  origin.  The 
language  of  the  powerful  and  chivalrous  Iroquois  is  said  to  be  allied  to  the 
Chippeway.  The  Saque  and  Fox  tribes  are  evidently  branches  of  the 
same  tree.  The  Ottawas  and  Pottawattamies  claim  the  same  descent.  It 
is  thought  that  the  Menomenies  share  the  same  blood.  The  Kinisteneaux 
speak  a  dialect  of  the  same  tongue,  and  many  other  tribes  may  be  traced 
to  the  same  origin.  All  these  tribes  are  and  have  ever  been  dwellers  in  the 
woods,  and  save  that  they  now  dress  in  articles  made  by  the  whites  and 
that  they  love  rum,  they  are  now  very  nearly  what  they  were  two  hundred 
years  ago.  They  have  proved  themselves  possessed  of  some  mechanical 
ingenuity  by  inventing  the  birch  canoe,  a  vehicle  which  has  been  the  ad- 
miration of  all  travellers. 

1  The  Chippeway  race  differ  little  from  other  tribes  living  in  the  woods, 


432  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

whose  manners  and  habits  are  too  well  known  to  need  comment  here.  They 
are  a  nation  of  hunters  and  warriors,  skilful  in  the  chase,  bold  in  battle, 
eloquent  in  council,  and,  in  a  word,  possessing  all  the  half-formed  virtues, 
all  the  vices,  all  the  ignorance  and  all  the  barbarism  already  ascribed  to 
the  Dahcotahs.  Those  of  them  who  live  in  high  northern  latitudes,  are 
more  needy,  and  consequently  more  industrious,  than  those  who  dwell  in 
more  favored  climes.  Between  this  great  nation  and  the  Dahcotahs,  a  war 
has  been  waged  so  long  that  tradition  itself  conveys  no  knowledge  of  its 
cause  or  the  date  of  its  commencement.  The  deadly  feud  has  been  trans- 
mitted from  father  to  son  with  such  inveteracy,  that  all  efforts  to  staunch 
it  have  proved  abortive.  A  great  deal  of  inherited  hatred,  and  the  strong 
thirst  for  martial  renown,  which  is  an  inherent  part  of  Indian  character, 
have  co-operated  to  perpetuate  this  state  of  things. 

'  The  language  of  these  two  great  races  are  like  no  forms  of  speech 
known  in  the  old  world.  They  are  wonderfully  expressive,  both  defective 
and  redundant,  and  said  to  be  difficult  of  acquisition.  The  verbs  of  the 
Dahcotah  language  appear  to  have  no  roots,  and  to  be  entirely  irregular 
in  their  modifications.  The  nominative  case  neither  precedes  nor  follows 
the  verb,  as  in  the  languages  of  the  old  world,  but  is  incorporated  with  it, 
sometimes  at  the  end  of  the  word,  sometimes  in  the  middle,  sometimes  ab- 
breviated, and  sometimes  entire.  We  have  known  traders  to  fail  to  acquire 
it  during  a  trial  of  thirty  years.  From  the  little  acquaintance  we  were 
able  to  gain,  we  thought  it  a  collection  of  phrases,  with  scarce  the  resem- 
blance of  rule  or  order,  and  conclude  that,  to  be  learned  at  all,  it  must  be 
learned  by  rote. 

1  We  can  give  but  brief  notices  of  other  tribes.  The  Creeks,  Cherokees, 
Chickasaws  and  Choctaws  are  known  to  us  by  their  wrongs,  and  by  the 
advances  they  have  made  in  civilization.  The  measures  taken  to  remove 
them  beyond  the  Mississippi,  already  partially  successful,  will  probally  ere 
long  be  fully  so.  It  would  be  an  ungrateful  as  well  as  a  useless  task  to 
enter  into  a  discussion  of  a  subject  so  generally  understood  ;  nevertheless, 
it  may  not  be  impertinent  to  offer  a  few  remarks  on  the  probable  future 
fate  of  these  unfortunate  tribes. 

'  We  have  already  expressed  our  views  respecting  what  we  think  the 
only  sure  mode  of  civilizing  Indians.  That  mode,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
necessity  of  a  change  of  manners,  was  in  successful  operation  upon  the 
four  southern  nations.  By  transferring  them  to  an  unlimited  range  of  ter- 
ritory, that  necessity  has  been  removed,  and  if  they  do  not  relapse  into 
their  primitive  barbarism, -they  are  radically  unlike  any  other  Indians  with 
whom  we  are  acquainted,  or  farther  advanced  in  civilization  than  we  are 
prepared  to  believe.  The  influences  which  make  and  continue  the  hunter 
state  of  the  Indians,  operate  on  the  whites  also.  For  every  Indian  who 
has  voluntarily  relinquished  the  life  of  his  fathers,  ten  whites  may  be  found 
who  have  become  hunters. 

'  It  is  proposed,  by  placing  these  tribes  west  of  the  Mississippi,  to  protect 
them  from  the  encroachments  of  the  whites,  an  intention  which  is  certainly 
not  founded  on  precedent  or  analogy.  If  the  most  solemn  treaties,  if  re- 
peated retrocessions  have  not  hitherto  been  adequate  to  protect  the  savage 
from  the  overpowering  tide  of  white  population,  howcan  it  be  supposed  that 
his  new  abode  in  Arkansas  will  be  respected  when  he  shall  have  made  it 
valuable,  if  indeed,  he  ever  should  make  it  valuable  ?  There,  he  is  thrown 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  433 

m  contact  with  other  tribes,  as  warlike,  and  more  barbarous  than  his  own, 
\nd  much  misery  and  bloodshed  has  already  been  the  consequence. 

1  Moreover,  it  is  proposed,  by  casting  the  lot  of  several  distinct  tribes 
together,  to  amalgamate  them,  and  thereby  preserve  them  from  decay.  If 
the  experience  of  past  times  is  to  be  trusted,  this  measure  is  much  more 
likely  to  produce  division  than  to  prevent  it.  Who  ever  saw  two  Indian 
tribes  amalgamate,  unless  when  one,  reduced  to  a  mere  handful,  sought 
the  protection  of  the  other?  Thus  the  remnant  of  the  Saques  sought  pro- 
tection of  the  Foxes,  the  Stockbridge  Indians  of  the  Six  Nations.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  have  only  to  refer  to  the  Dahcotah  and  Algonquin  races, 
severally  derived  from  two  great  roots,  but  now  divided  into  an  almost 
infinite  number  of  petty  hordes.  If  people,  thus  connected  by  the  bonds 
of  common  origin  and  language,  have  so  divided,  what  is  to  be  expected 
from  others,  who  have  no  basis  of  union,  and  who,  in  some  instances,  en- 
tertain hostile  feelings  toward  each  other?  We  hope  the  best;  but  to  us 
the  future  prospect  of  the  expatriated  tribes  appears  overshadowed  with 
clouds  and  darkness. 

1  Beside  the  two  great  divisions  already  noticed,  there  are  many  other 
tribes,  of  whose  origin  and  languages  little  is  known,  save  that  they  are 
wholly  distinct  from  each  other.  Such  are  the  natives  of  the  Columbia 
river,  for  an  account  of  whom  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  travels  of 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  of  Roos  Coxe.  M'Kenzie  and  Franklin  tell  all  that 
is  known  of  the  Dog-rib  and  Coppermine  Indians,  two  feeble  and  misera- 
ble tribes  which  inhabit  the  frozen  regions  north  of  the  Great  Slave  lake. 
The  Flat-heads,  who  live  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Columbia,  muster 
five  hundred  determined  warriors,  and  derive  their  name  from  their  custom 
of  compressing  the  head,  in  infancy,  into  a  hideously  unseemly  shape  ;  a 
practice  common  to  most  of  the  tribes  of  Oregon,  and  formerly  in  use 
among  the  Caraibs.  They  war  upon  their  eastern  neighbors,  the  buffalo- 
following  Blackfeet,  a  desperate  and  ferocious  tribe,  who  are  friendly  to 
the  English,  and  abhor  the  very  name  of  an  American.  This  animosity 
arose  from  the  fact  that  one  or  two  of  them  were  killed,  more  than  thirty 
years  ago,  by  Lewis  and  Clarke.  The  Mandans  and  Minnetarees  dwell 
in  permanent  villages  on  the  Missouri,  speak  distinct  languages  from  each 
other,  and  from  all  other  tribes,  and  claim  consanguinity  with  none.  The 
Crows  are  a  separate  and  powerful  race  of  vagrant  horsemen,  and  so  are 
the  Shiannes,  who  were  formerly  expelled  by  the  Dahcotahs  from  the 
lands  which  the  latter  now  occupy.  The  Pawnees  and  Arikarees  compose 
three  tribes  who  speak  one  language ;  the  Pawnee  \\rolves  are  in  no  wise 
connected  with  them.  The  Shoshonees  live  and  starve  among  the  Rocky 
mountains.  Among  other  distinct  races  may  be  numbered  the  Wyandots, 
or  Hurons,  the  Comanches,  the  Appaches,  and  many  others.  All  of 
these  tribes,  excepting  the  Wyandots,  are  more  or  less  in  the  vagabond 
state,  and  ride  over  the  boundless  prairies,  chasing  the  buffalo,  and  warring 
upon  all  whom  they  dare  attack.  All  are  bold  warriors,  skilful  hunters, 
and  inveterate  horse-stealers,  in  all  of  which  characters  they  glory.  The 
manners  of  all  are  nearly  alike  ;  all  practise  the  same  indiscriminate  hos- 
pitality ;  all  have  the  same  code  of  morals,  religion,  and  policy  ;  almost 
all  detest  the  people  of  the  United  States,  for  what  reasons  it  is  unnecessary 
nere  to  inquire.  By  classing  all  these  hordes  together,  we  do  not  mean 
e  imply  that  there  is  no  difference  whatever  in  their  habits,  ideas,  and 
55  37 


434  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

characters  \  but  that  there  is  a  very  strong  general  resemblance  between 
them  all. 

1  The  Caraibs  and  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies  have  passed 
away,  thanks  to  the  cruelties  of  their  Spanish  invaders.  Nothing  can  be 
said  of  them  which  is,  probably,  not  already  known  to  the  mass  of  our 
readers.  For  an  account  of  the  Mexicans,  and  the  Indians  of  South 
America,  we  must  refer  to  the  pages  of  Humboldt,  Robertson,  and  other 
Writers.  Nor  can  it  be  expected  that  we  should  enter  into  such  details  as 
may  have  come  to  oar  knowledge,  respecting  the  tribes  already  mentioned. 
Many  volumes  larger  than  this  would  be  requisite  for  such  purpose.  It  is 
our  duty,  however,  to  caution  our  readers  against  trusting  the  statements 
of  such  travellers  as  Carver,  who  have  galloped  over  the  countries  they 
describe  with  the  speed  of  race-horses,  without  understanding  a  syllable  of 
the  languages  of  the  Indians  with  whom  they  sojourned,  and  relying  for 
information  on  the  hearsay  testimony  of  ignorant  trappers  and  boatmen. 
There  are  but  too  many  of  this  stamp.  If  we  may  say  what  authorities 
We  consider  unquestionable,  we  will  mention  M'Kenzie,  Henry,  Franklin, 
Tanner,  and  the  English  Long.  These  all  sojourned  long  among  the 
people  they  pretend  to  describe,  and  enjoyed  the  best  opportunities  for 
personal  observation. 

1  One  topic  connected  with  the  aborigines  only  remains,  which  we  must 
discuss  briefly.  It  relates  to  their  ultimate  destiny,  and  the  prospect  of 
christianizing  and  civilizing  them.  Many  obstacles  to  this  desideratum 
exist,  and  we  are  sorry  to  add  that  they  appear  to  us  insuperable.  To 
convert  the  adults  must  be  excessively  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  Firstly, 
their  languages  are  so  difficult  of  acquisition,  and  so  barren  of  words  ex- 
pressing abstract  ideas,  that  the  greater  part  of  a  life  is  spent  in  learning 
them,  and  when  acquired,  they  are  scarcely  adequate  to  convey  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.  Secondly,  the  Indians  are  so  constantly  roaming 
about,  and  so  scattered,  that,  to  instruct  them,  a  missionary  would  be 
needed  for  every  family,  who  should  accompany  them  in  their  peregrina- 
tions, avail  himself  of  such  opportunities  as  their  caprice  might  allow,  and, 
above  all,  maintain  himself;  for,  though  no  Indian  would  tell  him  so,  the 
burthen  of  his  support  would,  at  times,  be  severely  felt.  He  must  then 
overcome  that  apathy  and  laziness  which  is  the  characteristic  of  savage 
life,  break  up  the  whole  of  his  pupil's  long-revered  rules  of  thought  and 
action,  and  substitute  others  in  their  stead.  A  new  ambition  must  be 
awakened,  and  the  whole  frame  of  Indian  society  must  be  changed  entirely, 
for  the  ethics  of  our  Savior  will  not  apply  to  the  present  one.  For  ex- 
ample, it  will  be  difficult  to  persuade  the  savage  to  meekness  and  long- 
suffering,  while  all  his  arts  and  exertions  will  scarce  protect  his  wives  and 
children  from  the  knives  of  his  neighbors,  while  all  his  companions  tell 
him  that  revenge  on  the  enemies  of  his  tribe  is  a  sacred  duty,  and  that 
martial  renown  ought  to  be  to  him  as  the  breath  of  his  nostrils. 

'  The  missionary  should  not  too  much  rely  on  the  apparent  impression  he 
may  have  produced  on  his  auditors.  Indians  seldom  contradict,  and,  by 
an  intuitive  politeness,  always  receive  what  is  addressed  to  them  by  one. 
\vhom  they  respect,  with  approbation  and  assent.  Therefore,  when  an 
Indian  auditory  may  have  listened  to  a  discourse  with  marked  attention 
and  expressed  approbation,  the  speaker  is  not  to  suppose  that  they  believe 
&  word  of  it.     They  only  mean  that  he  is  entitled  to  respect.     An  Indian 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  435 

once  agreed  that  man's  first  disobedience  was  improper,  and,  being  farther 
questioned,  gave  his  reasons.  "  It  was  very  foolish,"  he  said,  "  to  eat  ap- 
ples :  it  was  much  better  to  make  cider  of  them  all." 

'  Some  few  adults  have,  indeed,  become  Christians ;  but  where  such  con- 
versions have  taken  place,  the  converts  have  either  made  some  previous 
progress  in  civilization,  or  the  change  has  been  nominal.  We  never  yet 
saw  a  savage  hunter  who  had  a  rational  idea  of  Christianity.  The  exam- 
ple of  the  Cherokees  alone  shows  that  the  ground  must  be  prepared  to  re- 
ceive the  seed.  The  missionaries  have  undoubtedly  done  them  great 
good  ;  but  they  made  little  or  no  progress  before  the  tribe  had  turned  to 
agriculture,  framed  laws  and  a  regular  government,  and  acknowledged  a 
distinction  of  property.     They  are  now  fitted  to  receive  the  Word. 

'  Indians  taken  from  their  tribe  young,  educated,  and  sent  back,  do  not 
appear  better  qualified  to  teach  than  white  missionaries.  They  are,  in 
every  thing  but  complexion,  as  much  aliens  among  their  people  as  the 
whites,  and  command  no  more  sympathy,  and  rather  less  respect. 

1  We  believe  there  is  no  example  on  record  of  a  tribe  who  have  changed 
from  hunters  to  farmers  on  any  other  consideration  than  compulsion  of 
some  kind  or  other.  We  constantly  see  them  recede  rather  than  labor. 
But  when  prevented  from  receding,  they  learn  the  value  of  time  and  labor, 
and  a  distinction  of  property  necessarily  takes  place.  Laws  are  then 
necessary  to  guard  this  distinction.  Prodigality  is  no  longer  a  principal 
virtue  ;  war  is  no  longer  the  chief  pursuit  of  life  ;  the  mind  acquires  new 
ideas  and  new  habits  of  exercise,  and  thus  the  way  to  entire  civilization 
and  Christianity  is  prepared.  Could  we  see  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  settled 
by  white  men,  who  should  advance  into  the  interior,  driving  the  western 
Indians  before  them  as  we  have  done  the  eastern,  till  the  entire  race  should 
be  hemmed  within  limits  too  narrow  for  their  existence  as  hunters,  we 
should  entertain  a  hope  of  seeing  a  remnant  of  them  saved  and  civilized. 
The  same  result  must  be  brought  about  by  driving  them  to  the  Pacific  ; 
bnt  the  operation  will  be  so  tardy,  that  most  of  the  expatriated  tribes  will 
probably  be  destroyed  by  their  intercourse  with  the  whites,  or  by  the  tribes 
on  whom  they  will  be  forced  to  intrude.  How  small  a  remnant  remains 
of  the  millions  who  once  dwelt  in  peace  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mississippi ! 

'  The  children  of  Indians  may  be  christianized,  but  only  when  they  can 
be  separated  from  their  parents.  The  missionaries  of  Michilimacinac 
seem  aware  of  this  fact ;  for  they  have  chiefly  confined  their  instructions 
to  the  half-breed  children  of  white  men,  who  are  at  the  disposal  of  their 
fathers.  It  was  a  wise  policy,  and  their  ministry  has  produced  the  most 
blessed  results. 

'  Consider  this  subject  in  what  light  we  may,  so  many  difficulties  present 
themselves,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  hope  that  any  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  aboriginal  race  will  be  in  existence  three  centuries  hence.  The 
fate  of  individual  tribes  is  beyond  the  reach  of  conjecture,  and  we  have 
only  to  pray  that  the  God  alike  of  white  and  red  men  will  preserve  them 
from  utter  extermination.' 


436 


CHAPTER  XL— AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES* 

Indian  Mounds.  The  old  Mexican  villages,  it  is  said,  were  built  of 
unbaked  bricks,  fourteen  inches  square,  and  covered  with  limbs  of  trees 
and  turf,  which,  when  they  mouldered  away,  formed  a  mound,  similar  in 
shape  to  those  which  meet  the  traveller's  eye  from1  the  Red  river  of  Hud- 
son's bay  to  the  state  of  Missouri,  and  probably  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  number  of  these  barrows  has,  however,  been  greatly  exaggerated. 
We  have  seen  it  stated,  on  grave  authority,  that  for  a  length  of  five  hun- 
dred miles,  and  a  breadth  of  from  eighty  to  two  hundred,  the  mounds  are 
seldom  an  acre  apart,  and  on  this  enormous  blunder  was  founded  a  con- 
clusion that  the  population  was  once  immense.  We,  who  speak  from 
knowledge,  affirm  that,  judging  from  such  data,  the  former  population  was 
not  so  great  as  the  present.  We  have  seen  mounds  on  the  tributaries  of 
Hudson's  bay,  and  on  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  and  their  numbers  war- 
rant no  such  speculations.  They  are  common  enough,  indeed,  but  by  no 
means  so  common,  or  of  such  magnitude,  as  to  ma  e  it  certain  that  the 
ancestors  of  the  present  race  of  aborigines  were  very  numerous.  We  draw 
this  inference  from  several  facts. 

Travelling  some  years  ago  near  the  St.  Peter's  river,  we  saw,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  a  mile,  an  erection  which  looked  like  one  of  the  conical  tents 
of  the  Indians.  A  distinguished  individual  had  lately  died,  and  our  guide 
informed  us  that  the  object  above  mentioned  was  an  earthen  lodge  which 
his  relatives  had  raised  over  him.  Being  pressed  for  time,  we  did  not 
approach  it  nigher.  Supposing  it  to  have  been,  which  we  see  no  reason 
to  doubt,  what  the  guide  stated,  it  must,  when  the  top  crumbled  down, 
have  assumed  the  shape  of  a  mound. 

The  Indians  of  those  regions  do,  to  this  day,  bury  at  least  half  of  their 
dead.  They  respect  the  dead  highly,  and  to  protect  their  remains  from 
wolves  and  dogs,  erect  over  them  an  edifice  of  stakes,  which,  as  they  pos- 
sess axes,  they  can  easily  cut.  Now  is  it  not  probable,  that  before  they  had 
the  means  to  cut  stakes  without  excessive  toil,  they  raised  a  mound  of 
earth  in  its  stead  ?  What  corroborates  this  supposition  is,  that  many,  and 
indeed  the  greater  number,  of  the  mounds  are  not  larger  than  would  be 
required  for  such  purpose.  That  they  were  ever  intended  for  dwellings  is 
out  of  the  question  ;  for  we  are  to  learn  that  any  traces  of  bricks,  timbers, 
or  masonry,  have  ever  been  found  in  any  of  them.  We  have  already  said 
that  the  fragments  of  pottery  found  in  them  are  precisely  similar  to  the 
earthen  pots  still  in  use  among  the  modern  Assinneboins.  Again,  frag- 
ments of  bone  are  found  in  most  of  them ;  but  could  bones  have  remained 
any  great  length  of  time  in  damp  earth  undecayed  ?  We  think  not — at 
least,  we  have  known  instances  where  the  human  frame  has  been  utterly 
resolved  into  its  native  elements  within  the  lapse  of  a  century.     But  some 

*  This  article  has  been  furnished  by  the  intelligent  writer  to  whom  we  have  beea 
indebted  for  a  portion  of  the  chapter  on  the  Indians. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  437 

of  the  mounds,  and  especially  those  near  St.  Louis,  are  so  large  as  to  be 
esteemed  beyond  the  powers  and  industry  of  the  present  race  of  Indians. 
Before  we  adopt  this  conclusion,  we  should  remember  that,  as  late  as  the 
discovery  of  the  Mississippi,  several  tribes  kept  the  bones  of  their  friends 
for  years,  and  then  buried  them  together,  a  practice,  the  remains  of  which 
are  still  distinctly  visible  among  the  Dahcotahs.  On  such  occasions,  a  large 
mound  must  have  been  raised,  by  the  united  efforts  of  a  tribe.  If  we  sup- 
pose that  successive  layers  were  from  time  to  time  deposited  on  the  national 
burial  heap,  which  is,  surely,  no  extravagant  theory,  the  objection  that  the 
red  men  had  neither  power,  inclination,  nor  motive  to  raise  such  tumuli, 
vanishes. 

'  On  the  banks  of  White  river,'  says  a  writer  in  Silliman's  Journal, 
*  where  the  earth  had  caved  in,  I  found  part  of  an  earthen  coffin,  in  which 
the  neck  bones  and  the  skull  were  yet  remaining ;  and  on  the  top  of  the 
neck  bone,  as  I  dug  to  see  what  bone  could  be  inserted  thus  in  part  of  an 
earthen  box,  I  found  a  parcel  of  pieces  of  bones  cut  round,  and  remaining 
On  the  neck  in  the  exact  position  in  which  they  had  been  used  as  a  neck- 
lace. They  were  pierced,  but  the  string  had  entirely  disappeared ;  they 
were  the  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  three  fifths  in  diameter  ;  and 
the  bones  of  which  they  were  made  were  much  better  preserved  than  those 
of  the  skeleton.  This,  I  was  confident,  did  not  belong  to  the  modern 
tribes  of  Indians  which  inhabit  some  parts  of  that  country.*  I  found,  among 
.he  clay  which  rolled  down  from  the  same  mound,  several  pieces  of  lead 
ore,  (common  galena,)  which  had  been  carried  there.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  this  ore  amongst  human  bones,  throughout  the  whole  country ; 
probably  they  used  trinkets  made  of  lead,  and  this  was  a  provision  for 
them  to  dress  in  the  other  world.' 

On  the  plantation  of  Mr.  John  Kain,  of  Knox  county,  near  the  north 
bank  of  Holston  river,  five  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  French  Broad, 
is  a  curious  collection  of  mounds  of  earth,  evidently  the  work  of  art,  but 
of  an  almost  antediluvian  antiquity,  if  we  may  form  any  conjecture  of  their 
age  from  that  of  the  forest  which  grows  around  and  upon  them.  They 
are  about  half  a  dozen  in  number,  and  arise  on  about  half  an  acre  of  level 
ground,  without  any  seeming  regularity.  They  are  pyramidal  in  their 
shape,  or  rather  sections  of  pyramids,  whose  bases  are  from  ten  to  thirty 
paces  in  diameter.  The  largest  one  in  this  group  rises  about  ten  feet 
above  the  level  ground,  and  is  remarkably  regular  in  its  figure.  A  per- 
pendicular section  of  this  mound  was  made  about  a  year  since,  but  no  im- 
portant discovery  was  made.  It  was  found  to  consist  of  the  surface  thrown 
up,  and  contained  a  good  deal  of  ashes  and  charcoal. 

This  group  of  mounds  is  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  which  can  be  distinctly 
traced  on  three  sides,  and  inclosing,  besides  the  mounds,  several  acres  of 
ground.  It  is,  like  the  mounds,  covered  with  trees,  which  grow  in  it  and 
about  it.  At  every  angle  of  this  ditch,  it  sweeps  out  into  a  semicircle,  and 
it  appears  in  many  respects  well  calculated  for  defence. 

There  are  many  other  mounds  of  the  same  form  in  Tennessee.     At  the 

*  The  learned  writer  is  at  fault  here.  We  have  seen  similar  beads  dug  from  another 
mound.  They  were  made  of  some  shell,  which  is  a  more  durable  material  than  the 
human  bone.  In  point  of  finish,  and  the  labor  and  ingenuity  required  to  make  them, 
they  were  much  inferior  to  the  wampum  beads  which  the  Indians  were  wont  to  make 
«f  marine  shells. 

37* 


438  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

junction  of  the  French  Broad  with  the  Holston,  there  is  one  in  which 
human  bones  are  said  to  have  been  found.  Farther  up  French  Broad, 
near  Newport,  is  a  very  large  mound.  It  reposes  on  a  very  level  and 
extensive  plain,  and  is  itself  the  largest  I  ever  saw.  It  is  thirty  feet  high, 
and  its  base  covers  half  an  acre  of  ground.  As  it  ascends  from  its  base, 
there  is  a  slight  inclination  from  a  perpendicular  on  all  sides,  and  the  upper 
surface  is  as  level  as  the  rest  is  regular.  From  the  great  size  of  this 
mound,  its  commanding  situation,  and  the  mystery  which  veils  its  history, 
it  is  a  most  interesting  spot  of  ground.  There  are  many  other  mounds  of 
this  description  in  the  state  of  Tennessee. 

A  mound  of  large  dimensions  is  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  Cherokee 
nation,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Etowee,  vulgarly  called  the  Hightower 
river,  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Coosa.  It  stands  upon  a  strip  of  alluvial 
land,  called  River  Bottom.  It  is  described  by  the  Rev.  Elias  Cornelius, 
who  visited  it  in  company  with  eight  Indian  chiefs.  The  first  object  which 
excited  attention  was  an  excavation,  about  twenty  feet  wide,  and  in  some 
parts  ten  feet  deep.  Its  course  is  nearly  that  of  a  semicircle  ;  the  extremi- 
ties extending  towards  the  river,  which  forms  a  small  elbow.  '  I  had  not 
time,'  says  this  writer,  '  to  examine  it  minutely.  An  Indian  said  it  ex- 
tended each  way  to  the  river,  and  had  several  unexcavated  parts,  which 
served  for  passages  to  the  area  which  it  incloses.  To  my  surprise,  I 
found  no  embankment  on  either  side  of  it.  But  I  did  not  long  doubt  to 
what  place  the  earth  had  been  removed ;  for  I  had  scarcely  proceeded  two 
hundred  yards,  when,  through  the  thick  forest  trees,  a  stupendous  pile  met 
the  eye,  whose  dimensions  were  in  full  proportion  to  the  intrenchment.  I 
had  at  the  time  no  means  of  taking  an  accurate  admeasurement.  To  sup- 
ply my  deficiency,  I  cut  a  long  vine,  which  was  preserved  until  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  ascertaining  its  exact  length.  In  this  manner  I  found  the 
distance  from  the  margin  of  the  summit  to  the  base  to  be  one  hundred  and 
eleven  feet  ;  and  judging  from  the  degree  of  its  declivity,  the  perpendicu- 
lar height  cannot  be  less  than  seventy-five  feet.  The  circumference  of 
the  base,  including  the  feet  of  three  parapets,  measured  one  thousand,  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  feet.  One  of  these  parapets  extends  from  the  base 
to  the  summit,  and  can  be  ascended,  though  with  difficulty,  on  horseback. 
The  other  two,  after  rising  thirty  or  forty  feet,  terminate  in  a  kind  of  tri- 
angular platform.  Its  top  is  level,  and,  at  the  time  I  visited  it,  was  sc 
completely  covered  with  weeds,  bushes,  and  trees  of  a  most  luxuriant 
growth,  that  I  could  not  examine  it  as  well  as  I  wished.  Its  diameter,  I 
judged, must  be  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  On  its  sides  and  summit  are 
many  large  trees,  of  the  same  description  and  of  equal  dimensions  with 
those  around  it.  One  beech  tree,  near  the  top,  measured  ten  feet  and  nine 
inches  in  circumference.  The  earth  on  one  side  of  the  tree  was  three  and 
a  half  feet  lower  than  on  the  opposite  side.  This  fact  will  give  a  good 
idea  of  the  mound's  declivity.  An  oak,  which  was  lying  down  on  one  of 
the  parapets,  measured  at  the  distance  of  six  feet  from  the  but,  without 
the  bark,  twelve  feet  four  inches  in  circumference.  At  a  short  distance  to 
the  south-east  is  another  mound,  in  ascending  which  I  took  thirty  steps. 
Its  top  is  encircled  by  a  breastwork  three  feet  high,  intersected  through  the 
middle  with  another  elevation  of  a  similar  kind.  A  little  further  is  another 
mound,  which  I  had  not  time  to  examine. 

•  On  these  great  works  of  art,  the  Indians  gazed  with  as  much  curiosity 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  439 

as  any  white  man.  I  inquired  of  the  oUest  chief  if  the  natives  had  any 
tradition  respecting  them,  to.  which  he  answered  in  the  negative.  I  then 
requested  each  to  say  what  he  supposed  was  their  origin.  Neither  could 
tell ;  though  all  agreed  in  saying,  "  they  were  never  put  up  by  our  people." 
It  seems  probable  they  were  erected  by  another  race,  who  once  inhabited 
the  country.  That  such  a  race  existed,  is  now  generally  admitted.  Who 
they  were,  and  what  were  the  causes  of  their  degeneracy,  or  of  their  ex- 
termination, no  circumstances  have  yet  explained.  But  this  is  no  reason 
why  we  should  not,  as  in  a  hundred  other  instances,  infer  the  existence  of 
the  cause  from  its  effects,  without  any  previous  knowledge  of  its  history. 

;  In  regard  to  the  objects  which  these  mounds  were  designed  to  answer, 
it  is  obvious  they  were  not  always  the  same.  Some  were  intended  as 
receptacles  for  the  dead.  These  are  small,  and  are  distinguished  by  con- 
taining human  bones.  Some  may  have  been  designed  as  sites  for  public 
buildings,  whether  of  a  civil  or  religious  kind  ;  and  others,  no  doubt,  were 
constructed  for  the  purposes  of  war.  Of  this  last  description  is  the  Etowee 
mound.  In  proof  of  its  suitableness  for  such  a  purpose,  I  need  only  men- 
tion that  the  Cherokees,  in  their  late  war  with  the  Creeks,  secured  its 
summit  by  pickets,  and  occupied  it  as  a  place  of  protection  for  hundreds 
of  their  women  and  children.  Gladly  would  I  have  spent  a  day  in  ex- 
amining it  more  minutely  ;  but  my  companions,  unable  to  appreciate  my 
motives,  grew  impatient,  and  I  was  obliged  to  withdraw,  and  leave  a  more 
perfect  observation  and  description  to  some  one  else.' 

With  all  the  respect  due  to  the  authorities  above  quoted,  we  beg  leave 
to  doubt  their  conclusions.  That  the  Cherokees  had  no  tradition  respect- 
ing the  origin  of  their  great  mound,  proves  nothing.  Indian  tradition 
reaches  not  far.  Different  tribes  are  constantly  driving  each  other  from 
their  possessions,  and  the  tumulus  in  question  may  have  been  the  work  of 
a  clan  dispossessed  by  the  Cherokees.  The  trees  growing  on  such  mounds 
prove  as  little.  In  1825,  we  discovered  two  skeletons  under  the  roots  of 
a  very  large  elm,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi.  They  were  at  once 
pronounced  relics  of  the  supposed  former  race,  and  that  opinion  was  cur- 
rent until  the  iron  parts  of  the  handle  of  a  clasp  knife  were  found  in  the 
earth  from  which  they  were  exhumed.  The  Indians  of  the  vicinity  won- 
dered, like  the  Cherokees  at  their  mound,  and  the  tree  appeared  more  than 
a  century  old.  The  skulls  were  discovered  to  be  those  of  Dahcotahs,  by  a 
peculiar  formation  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  as  the  tribe  to  which  they  belong- 
ed are  not  agreed  about  their  own  former  dwelling-place,  though  they  left 
it  not  more  than  two  centuries  ago,  we  cannot  attach  much  weight  to  Indian 
tradition. 

In  a  stone  quarry  at  St.  Peter's,  a  copper  wedge,  weighing  three  pounds, 
was  found,  about  ten  years  since,  fifteen  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
It  was  perfectly  formed,  and  still  bore  marks  of  the  hammer  which  fashion- 
ed it.  This,  and  the  exsiccated  body  (it  is  no  mummy)  which  was  found 
in  the  great  cavern  in  Kentucky,  are  the  only  things  we  have  seen  which 
in  our  opinion  justify  even  a  conjecture  that  there  was  formerly  another 
race  of  inhabitants  on  this  continent.  It  will  not,  we  suppose,  be  disputed, 
that  the  Mexicans  were  unable  to  rear  the  pyramid  of  Cholula,  or  that 
they  are  not  of  the  'same  stock  with  our  aborigines. 

We  are  unable  to  decide  for  what  purpose  the  erections  scattered  over 
our  country,  and  commonly  called  forts,  were  intended.     They  were  pro* 


440  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

bably  fortifications,  and  very  sufficient  ones  they  must  have  been,  before 
the  natives  were  acquainted  with  fire  arms.  Whoever  has  seen  with  what 
incredible  despatch  a  modern  Indian  throws  up  a  work  sufficient  for  the 
protection  of  his  own  body,  with  no  better  implement  than  his  knife,  will 
readily  admit  that  a  tribe  were  fully  competent  to  erect  these  works  of  an 
antediluvian  people. 

The  great  work  which  the  impostor  Carver  pretends  to  have  seen  on 
the  Mississippi,  never  had  existence,  save  in  the  pages  of  his  deceitful 
book.  We  have  often  sought  without  finding  it,  and  the  Indians  of  the 
neighborhood  know  nothing  about  it. 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  lake  Pepin,  about  three  miles  from  its  debouchure, 
is  an  extensive  prairie,  and  on  its  edge,  commanding  the  lake  and  the 
plain,  are  the  ruins  of  a  regular  four-bastioned  fort.  The  curtain  and  the 
two  western  bastions  have  crumbled  away,  and  fallen  into  the  lake  ;  but  the 
two  other  bastions  and  three  curtains,  with  the  corresponding  ditches, 
scarps  and  counterscarps,  are  perfectly  distinct,  and  might  be  repaired  with 
little  trouble.  From  its  commanding  situation,  and  its  regularity,  it  is 
plain  that  cannon  were  mounted  upon  it,  and  that  it  was  built  by  the  early 
French  traders  or  travellers.  This  assumption  is  confirmed  by  the  fact, 
that  asparagus  still  grows  wild  among  the  ruins,  though  it  is  found  in  no 
other  part  of  the  country.  Yet  Indian  tradition  knows  nothing  of  the 
origin  of  the  fort,  or  its  uses. 

Old  Forts.  Among  what  may  be  called  the  antiquities  of  America,  there 
are  few  things  which  excite  more  interest  than  the  fortifications  of  the 
Highlands  of  the  Hudson.  It  will  readily  be  remembered  that  this  river 
was  a  pass  of  vast  importance  to  the  contending  parties,  inasmuch  as  it 
was,  during  the  revolution,  the  only  channel  of  communication  between 
the  British  armies  in  Canada  and  those  on  the  sea  board.  To  prevent  a 
junction,  which  would  have  been  ruinous  to  the  cause  of  freedom,  general 
Washington  occupied  the  Highlands,  and  made  every  height  bristle  with 
cannon.  The  remains  of  many  of  the  fortifications  are  still  distinctly  visi- 
ble to  the  traveller,  as  he  passes  up  and  down  the  river;  but  it  is  in  vain, 
excepting  in  a  few  instances,  that  he  inquires  their  history,  or  even  their 
names.  Those  at  and  about  West  Point,  however,  are  better  known-  It 
is  needless  to  tell  here  how  this  post  was  well  nigh  betrayed  by  the  traitor 
Arnold — the  story  is  still  fresh  in  the  memory  of  all  men,  and  it  is  our 
business  to  say  what  may  be  said  of  the  works  his  treason  would  have 
surrendered. 

West  Point  is  situated  at  a  bend,  and  the  only  abrupt  one  in  the  whole 
course  of  the  Hudson  from  New  York  to  Albany.  It  is  a  large  plain, 
elevated  several  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river.  Directly 
opposite  is  a  large  island,  called  Constitution  island,  on  which  are  many 
eminences  commanding  the  river,  which  were  crowned  with  fortifications. 
Fort  Constitution,  the  principal  of  these,  is  still  entire. 

On  a  height  below  West  Point  may  be  observed  the  remains  of  fort 
Montgomery,  the  guns  of  which,  it  is  believed,  compelled  the  Vulture  sloop 
of  war  to  retire  farther  down  the  river,  and  was  thus  the  cause  of  the  land 
excursion  and  capture  of  Andre,  and  consequently  of  the  safety  of  the  post. 
The  extremity  of  the  Point  is  occupied  by  the  ruins  of  fort  Clinton,  which 
commanded  two  ranges  on  the  river,  and  was  an  extensive  as  well  as  a 
very  strong  and  important  work.     It  was  just  opposite  this  fort  that  an 


POLITICAL  GEOGKAPHtf, 


441 


enormous  iron  chain  was  stretched  across  the  river  to  obstruct  the  passage. 
It  was  broken  by  an  English  man  of  war  under  full  sail ;  but  the  vessel 
was  so  injured  in  the  attempt,  as  to  be  obliged  to  put  back.  There  are 
many  other  fortifications  of  minor  importance  on  and  about  the  Point, 
which,  as  well  as  those  already  mentioned,  are  undergoing  a  rapid  process 
of  decay,  and  will  probably  disappear  in  less  than  a  century. 

But  what  strikes  the  eye  of  the  traveller  with  most  imposing  effect,  are 
the  hoary  ruins  of  fort  Putnam,  familiarly  called  Old  Fort  Put.     They 


Fort  Putnam. 

stand  five  hundred  feet  immediately  above  the  plain  of  "West  Point,  and 
once  commanded  all  the  batteries  on  and  about  it.  They  have  very  much 
the  appearance  of  a  dilapidated  castle.  The  work  is  of  small  extent,  but 
very  strong.  It  stands  on  the  apex  of  a  steep  hill,  and  the  wall  on  the 
northern  side  hangs  upon  the  edge  of  a  perpendicular  precipice.  On  the 
other  sides,  the  walls  are  so  high  and  steep,  as  to  render  escalade  impracti- 
cable. The  walls  are  solid  and  very  thick,  and  contain  within  their  mass 
apartments  for  the  garrison,  and  furnaces  for  heating  shot.  There  was 
once  an  excellent  well  within  the  area  ;  but  it  is  now  choked  and  rendered 
useless  by  fragments  of  the  crumbling  masonry.  One  of  the  angles  con- 
tains two  cells,  probably  designed  for  prisoners,  and  for  black  holes.  Tra- 
dition erroneously  says  that  major  Andre  was  confined  in  one  of  them. 
Altogether,  the  whole  ruin  has  an  imposing  appearance,  for  it  is  in  strict 
keeping  with  the  grandeur  and  wildness  of  the  surrounding  scenery,  and 
serves  to  awaken  many  pleasing  historical  recollections  in  the  American 
spectator.  In  the  midst  of  embattled  heights  it  stands,  '  the  key-stone  of 
the  arch.'  Of  its  strength  we  may  say,  that  an  enemy  could  not  have 
taken  it  without  overwhelming  numbers,  and  loss  proportionate,  or  without 
bombarding  it.  In  short,  it  is,  in  many  respects,  like  what  we  read  of  the 
hill  forts  of  India.  We  hope  the  proverbial  economy  of  our  government 
will  not  suffer  so  interesting  a  historical  monument  to  fall  into  utter  decay, 
and  the  rather,  that  a  very  small  expense  would  restore  it  to  its  original 
condition. 

The  remains  of  fort  William  Henry,  at  the  head  of  lake  George,  are 
66 


442  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

traced  with  much  interest  by  every  traveller.  It  was  merely  a  sand  fort, 
but  of  great  extent.  The  exterior  redoubt,  which  may  still  be  traced, 
comprehends  the  whole  plain  between  the  mountain  and  the  lake,  and  the 
inner  works,  commanding  the  water,  are  in  some  places  very  distinct. 
The  plain  pointed  out  as  the  parade  ground,  is  extensive  and  beautiful. 
This  was  the  scene  of  the  most  wanton  and  perfidious  massacre  which 
ever  disgraced  the  annals  of  warfare.  Not  all  the  consecrated  water  which 
the  French  carried  home  from  the  '  Sacremer,''  as  they  beautifully  termed 
the  crystal  lake,  could  wash  out  the  foul  stain  which  this  transaction  left 
on  the  French  arms  and  French  faith.  The  garrison,  consisting  of  three 
thousand  English  and  provincials,  under  colonel  Munro,  surrendered,  after 
a  long  and  desperate  resistance,  to  the  French  army  of  ten  thousand  men, 
commanded  by  the  marquis  de  Montcalm,  in  1757.  By  the  terms  of  the 
capitulation,  the  garrison  were  to  receive  a  safe  escort  to  fort  Edward. 
They  accordingly  marched  out  to  the  parade  ground,  stacked  their  arms, 
and  awaited  the  escort.  The  Indians,  to  the  number  of  several  thousand, 
armed  with  tomahawks  and  knives,  immediately  surrounded  them,  and 
began  to  strip  them  by  force  of  their  clothing.  Colonel  Munro,  who  was 
in  the  French,  camp,  anxiously  demanded  the  escort ;  but  Montcalm  delayed 
it  upon  frivolous  pretences,  and  finally  refused  it.  The  French  stood  with 
folded  arms,  and  beheld  the  massacre  within  pistol  shot  of  their  camp. 
Some  few  of  the  devoted  and  defenceless  soldiers  wrested  weapons  from 
the  hands  of  their  murderers,  and  dearly  sold  their  lives  ;  but  of  the  whole 
number,  only  two  or  three  escaped.  A  young  man  by  the  name  of  Carver, 
from  New  England,  of  great  strength  and  agility,  grappled  with  and  over- 
threw several  Indians,  broke  through  their  ranks,  fled  into  the  swamp  in 
the  rear  of  the  fort,  and  escaped.  Strong  representations  of  this  affair 
were  made  to  the  government  of  France,  and  Montcalm  was  called  to  a 
formal  account,  but  was  not  punished.  In  his  defence,  he  stated  that,  by 
interfering  to  prevent  the  massacre,  he  would  have  lost  the  confidence  of 
his  Indian  allies,  and  incurred  their  hostility.  Musket  balls,  grape  and 
chain  shot,  buttons,  hatchets,  and  human  bones,  are  frequently  ploughed 
up  on  this  ground.  These  relics  are  sometimes  left  for  sale  at  the  Lake 
House. 

In  the  rear  of  fort  William  Henry,  on  a  commanding  eminence,  stands 
fort  George,  a  small,  but,  for  the  time  when  it  was  erected,  a  strong  fortress. 
The  walls  are  of  limestone,  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  thick,  and  thirty  or  forty 
feet  high.  The  magazine  and  arches  are  of  brick  work ;  a  part  of  the 
magazine  is  entire,  but  the  entrance  to  it  is  filled  up.  The  walls  have  been 
pulled  down  in  many  places  by  those  who  had  use  for  the  stone,  and  all 
the  bricks  which  could  be  got  at  have  been  carried  off.  Several  wells, 
now  filled  up,  may  be  discovered  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  ruins  of  the  hos- 
pital, arsenal,  and  other  buildings.  Fort  George  is  completely  commanded 
by  the  neighboring  heights,  and  of  Gage's  hill  it  is  within  fair  musket-shot. 
On  this  hill,  however,  the  English  kept  a  fort,  the  remains  of  the  redoubt 
being  still  visible.  It  is  remarkable  that  every  old  fort  from  the  Canada 
line  to  Albany  is  commanded  by  highlands  in  its  vicinity.  When  they 
were  built,  there  was  but  little  apprehension  of  artillery.  Even  the  strong 
and  important  fort  of  Ticonderoga  was  effectually  commanded  by  mount 
Defiance,  a  circumstance  which  proved  disastrous  to  the  American  arms. 
The  prospect   from  fort  George  is  extensive  and  diversified,  embracing 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  443 

the  village,  the  mountains,  the  islands,  and  the  lake,  for  a  great  dis- 
tance. 

•  Passing  Plattsburg,'  says  a  recent  English  traveller,  '  the  scene  of  our 
defeat  last  war,  we  reached  Crown  Point,  and  then  the  lake  contracted 
from  four  or  five  miles  in  breadth  to  a  river  channel.  The  point  was 
green  and  elevated,  and  on  it  were  the  ruins  of  military  works,  principally 
erected  by  the  Canadian  French,  when  they  meditated  and  attempted  the 
utter  expulsion  of  the  English  colonists  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic. 
Stories  are  told  of  vaults  and  dungeons  at  Crown  Point,  where  plots  were 
hatched,  in  conjunction  with  the  Indians,  for  burning  the  dwellings  and 
massacring  the  families  of  the  settlers ;  and  here  were  displayed  "  long 
rows  of  scalps,  white  in  one  place  with  the  venerable  locks  of  age,  and 
glistening  in  another  with  the  ringlets  of  childhood  and  of  youth." 

1  Next,  at  the  entrance  to  lake  George,  with  its  clear  waters,  its  pictu- 
resque isiets,  and  steep  shores,  were  the  remains  of  the  celebrated  fort 


Old  Fort  Ticonderoga, 

Ticonderoga,  situated  on  a  point  of  land,  surrounded  on  three  sides  with 
water,  and  on  the  fourth,  deep  trenches  cut  into  the  morass,  with  high 
breastworks.  It  presented  one  of  the  most  likely  posts  to  make  a  gallant 
defence,  that  could  well  be  conceived.  The  ruin  of  a  barrack,  like  a 
"  donjon  keep,"  was  the  most  conspicuous  object  on  the  point. 

'  It  is  impossible,  as  an  officer  of  the  black  watch,  to  think  of  Ticonderoga 
without  strong  emotion,  for  here,  in  1758,  the  forty-second,  after  cutting 
their  way  with  their  claymores  through  a  broad  abattis  of  prostrate  trees, 
under  a  heavy  fire  from  the  French  garrison,  made  desperate  efforts,  for 
four  hours,  to  scale  a  high  work  without  scaling-ladders,  by  mounting  on 
one  another's  shoulders,  and  by  making  holes  in  it  with  their  bayonets. 
They  were  so  exasperated  at*being  so  unexpectedly  checked,  and  by  the 
heavy  loss  which  they  had  sustained,  that  they  refused  to  withdraw  till 
ordered  a  third  time  to  do  so  by  their  general ;  their  loss  on  this  occasion 
was  more  than  half  the  men,  and  two  thirds  of  the  officers,  killed  or 
severely  wounded ;  that  is,  twenty-five  officers,  nineteen  sergeants,  and 
six  hundred  and  three  privates.  About  this  time,  the  regiment  received 
the  honorary  distinction  of  royal.' 


444  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  remains  of  the  fortifications  at  Pittsburg  occupy  a  very  interesting 
position,  on  the  delta  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  at  that  place. 
Of  fort  Du  Quesne,  but  a  small  mound  of  earth  remains.  Fort  Pitt  may 
be  more  easily  traced  ;  part  of  three  bastions,  about  breast  high,  stand 
within  different  private  inclosures,  and  a  piece  of  the  curtain,  which,  within 
a  few  years,  was  in  complete  preservation,  may  still  be  discovered.  '  I 
expected,'  says  an  intelligent  correspondent  of  the  New  York  American, 
*  to  have  seen  the  magazine  of  the  fort,  which  I  was  told  was  an  admirable 
piece  of  masonry,  and  still  endured  in  the  shape  of  a  porter  cellar ;  but 
upon  arriving  at  the  spot  where  it  had  stood  but  a  few  weeks  before,  a  pile 
of  rough  stones  was  all  that  we  could  discover.  In  a  country  like  ours, 
where  so  few  antiquities  meet  the  eye,  it  is  melancholy  to  see  these  inte- 
resting remnants  thus  destroyed,  and  the  very  landmarks  where  they 
stood  effaced  forever.  Occasionally,  too,  the  works  of  which  every  vestige 
is  thus  painfully  obliterated,  were,  especially  when  erected  by  the  French, 
of  a  peculiarly  striking  character.  The  French  engineers,  who  1  u  intro- 
duced the  art  of  fortification  into  this  country,  were  of  the  school  o:  Vau- 
ban,  and  the  enduring  monuments  they  raised  were  not  less  xioMc  proofs 
of  their  skill,  than  were  the  sites  selected  of  their  high  military  discern- 
ment.' In  the  vicinity  are  the  remains  of  a  mill-dam,  constructed  by  the 
officers  of  fort  Du  Quesne,  according  to  the  most  approved  rules  of  the 
time,  like  a  perfect  fortification ;  a  part  of  the  curtain,  with  traces  of  some 
of  the  bastions,  still  rewards  the  search  of  the  inquisitive. 

An  old  fort  on  the  island  Canonicut,  which  formerly  defended  the  pas- 


Fort  Canonicut. 


9 

sage  up  Narragansett  bay,  presents  an  interesting  relic  of  past  times,     ft 
is  built  in  a  circular  form,  and  is  well  represented  in  the  accompanying 


sketch. 


CHAPTER  XII— RELIGION.* 

There  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt,  that  among  all  the  political  and  social 
relations  of  a  people,  there  is  none  of  such  primary  and  vital  importance 
as  their  religion  ;  and  if  this  be  true  of  nations  generally,  it  is  peculiarly 
so  of  the  United  States  of  America.  These  states  present,  in  this  point 
of  view,  a  novel  spectacle  ;  that  of  an  experiment,  conducted  on  a  scale 
commensurate  with  its  importance.  We  have  not  here  to  describe  the 
influence  of  religion  upon  savages,  nor  upon  a  race  fettered  with  the 
shackles  of  superstition,  and  of  a  predominant  church  government.  We 
find  a  civilized  and  intelligent  community  in  a  situation  to  which  history 
shows  no  parallel.  Save  the  effect  of  knowledge  and  principle,  there  is 
nothing  to  influence  the  faith  of  the  American  citizen,  no  form  of  worship 
prescribed  by  law,  no  predominance  of  sects,  no  physical  intolerance,  no 
advantage  or  disadvantage  to  hope  or  fear  from  difference  of  opinion.  The 
experiment  has  been  fully  successful ;  it  has  proved  that  a  nation  may  be 
moral  and  religious  without  any  external  agency  to  direct  or  control  the 
mind.  It  may  safely  be  considered  to  have  demonstrated  the  inexpediency 
of  a  union  between  church  and  state. 

The  constitution  expressly  forbids  the  general  government  to  make  any 
laws  with  regard  to  religion,  and  though  the  several  states  have  reserved 
the  right,  they  seem  resolved  never  to  use  it.  They  do,  indeed,  some- 
times allot  portions  of  new  land  for  the  support  of  public  worship,  but  the 
use  of  the  grant  is  always  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  inhabitants.  Such 
state  laws  as  relate  to  religious  qualifications  for  office,  &c.  are  almost  a 
dead  letter,  if  we  except  those  which,  in  some  states,  render  the  clergy 
ineligible  to  the  legislature,  probably  on  the  principle  that  civil  and  reli- 
gious duties  are  incompatible  with  each  other. 

We  find  religion  in  the  United  States  free  from  legal  support  or  restriction, 
and,  if  the  experience  of  fifty  years  is  to  be  trusted,  this  non-interference 
is  favorable  to  good  morals  and  rational  piety.  There  is  no  intolerance, 
no  persecution,  little  controversy ;  yet  the  people  are  as  religiously  given 
as  those  of  any  other  country,  though  not  scrupulous  wiiii  regard  to  forms. 
It  has  lately  been  demonstrated  by  statistical  facts,  that  religious  institu- 
tions exist  in  a  much  larger  proportion  to  the  population  in  this  country 
than  in  any  other  ;  and  in  no  country  is  the  spirit  of  Christianity  manifested 
more  than  in  this.  Benevolent  societies  for  meliorating  the  condition  of 
our  race  in  this  and  other  lands  are  numerous  and  increasing,  and  they 
display  all  the  characteristic  energy  and  enterprise  of  the  Americans.  The 

*  As  our  limits  allow  nothing  but  a  brief  notice  of  the  different  denominations  of 
Christians  in  this  country,  we  refer  those  of  our  readers  who  wish  for  fuller  information 
on  this  subject  to  "  The  Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge  ;"  a  beautiful  royal 
octavo  volume  of  1250  pages,  with  maps  and  engravings  ;  which  ought  to  have  a  place 
in  every  family  library.  It  is  strictly  impartial,  the  account  of  each  denomination  be- 
ing written  by  some  leading  man  belonging  to  it.  It  is  designed  for  a  complete  book  of 
reference  on  all  religious  subjects. 

38 


446 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


American  missionary  is  now  seen  bending  his  course  to  the  ■  islands  of 
the  sea,'  that  '  they  may  rejoice  in  the  salvation  of  God,'  and  to  the 
c  utmost  parts  of  the  earth,'  that  they  too  may  know  the  way  of  life.  The 
Bible  society,  having  supplied  so  far  as  possible  every  family  in  this  land 
with  the  word  of  life,  is  now  sending  it  through  the  missionaries  to  the 
heathen  world ;  while  the  Tract  society  is  despatching  its  little  messengers 
of  '  glad  tidings'  through  the  earth.  Home  Missionary,  for  the  supplying 
destitute  places  in  the  United  States  with  the  ordinances  of  the  gospel, 
Sabbath  School,  Prison  Discipline,  and  numerous  kindred  societies  are  also 
lending  their  aid ;  and  there  seems  to  be  a  spirit  of  philanthropy  pervading 
all  denominations  of  evangelical  Christians,  which  knows  no  bounds  but 
the  ends  of  the  earth.     May  this  spirit  be  increased  a  thousand  fold  ! 

1  Shall  we,  whose  souls  are  lighted 
With  wisdom  from  on  high, 
Shall  we  to  men  benighted 
The  lamp  of  life  deny  V — Heber. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say,  the  religious  aspect  of  different  parts  of 
the  great  confederacy  is  far  from  uniform.  This  would  be  the  natural 
result  of  the  freedom  of  religious  opinions,  and  the  circumstances  of  the 
early  settlement  of  the  country.  New  England,  settled  by  the  Puritans, 
retains  much  of  the  strong  impress  of  the  character  of  her  fathers.  Mary- 
land was  settled  by  Eoman  Catholics,  Pennsylvania  by  Quakers,  and  other 
states  by  Episcopalians,  while  colonies  of  Swedes,  French,  and  Dutchmen 
formed  the  starting  points  of  others.  Some  persons  are  disposed  to  mourn 
over  the  fact,  that  Christians  are  divided  into  such  a  number  of  denomina- 
tions, which  they  conceive  to  be  an  evil,  and  they  earnestly  long  for  the 
time  to  come  when  all  these  things  shall  be  done  away.  It  is  indeed  to  be 
regretted  that  a  greater  degree  of  harmony  and  charity  does  not  prevail 
among  the  great  denominations  which  compose  the  mass  of  Christians,  and 
that  the  time  should  come  speedily  when  all  shall  '  love  one  another  with 
a  pure  heart  fervently,'  is  'most  devoutly  to  be  wished.'  Still  these 
differences  of  opinion  are  the  inevitable  consequences  of  freedom  of  opi- 
nion on  any  subject;  and  as  the  Bible  has  not  clearly  marked  out  any 
form  of  church  order  and  discipline,  in  which  the  chief  difference  consists 
among  evangelical  Christians,  it  can  never  be  expected  that  all  will  agree 
upon  this  subject  any  more  than  upon  any  other.  And  on  the  whole  it  is 
best  they  should  not ;  and  it  was  wise  in  the  great  Head  of  the  church  to 
leave  these  things,  non-essential,  as  he  has,  that  different  denominations  may 
by  a  holy  rivalry  'stir  each  other  up  to  good  works.'  What  a  safeguard 
against  intolerance,  and  the  evils  of  bigotry  and  oppression,  when  several 
large  and  balancing  sects  exist  in  a  community  at  the  same  time — a  mutual 
check,  and  mutually  operating  on  each  other  to  prevent  corruption.  We 
should  fear  the  result  in  our  own  land  of  the  great  predominance  of  any 
sect,  but  most  of  all  that  which,  owning  allegiance  to  a  foreign  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  potentate,  is  even  now  seeking  to  gain  possession  of  our  fair 
inheritance-— we  mean  the  Roman  Catholic.  While  their  right  to  propa- 
gate their  opinions  by  all  fair  and  constitutional  means  equally  with  others 
is  freely  admitted,  the  influence  of  their  principles  on  our  institutions, 
should  they  finally  prevail,  cannot  but  be  dreaded.     What  popery  has  been 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  447 

it  ever  must  be,  the  very  foundation-stone  being  the  infallibility  of  the 
church,  which  of  course  can  never  have  done  wrong,  and  can  never  change 
in  any  of  its  great  characteristics.  Let  us  beware  how  we  cherish  this 
viper  which  is  insidiously  creeping  into  the  bosom,  and  which  will  ere  we 
are  aware  of  it  sting  the  vitals  of  our  republic.  ( See  note  at  the  end  of 
this  article.) 

We  will  now  proceed  to  notice  the  principal  sects  existing  in  this  coon* 

try- 

Methodists.  The  Methodists  are  the  most  numerous  denomination  in 
the  United  States,  being  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Union  in  considerable 
numbers.  They  count  more  than  six  hundred  thousand  members  of  their 
churches.  There  are  two  principal  classes  of  Methodists  : — the  Wesleyan, 
who  are  Arminians,  and  the  most  numerous.  They  are  named  from  John 
Wesley,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  sect.  The  other  class,  to  which  Whit- 
field belonged,  are  Calvinistic  in  their  doctrines.  They  are  also  divided 
into  two  bodies  on  the  question  of  church  order  and  discipline, — the 
Methodist  Episcopal  and  the  Protestant  Methodist ; — the  latter  are  seceders 
from  the  former  body.  Attached  to  the  forner  there  were,  in  1833,  five 
bishops,  twenty-two  hundred  and  thirty  travelling  preachers,  and  nearly 
five  hundred  thousand  members  of  the  churches ;  to  the  latter,  four  hun- 
dred ministers  and  fifty  thousand  communicants. 

Baptists.  This  denomination  is  second  in  the  United  States  as  to 
numbers.  They  estimate  from  four  to  five  hundred  thousand  members  of 
their  churches.  They  are  chiefly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  and  indepen- 
dent or  congregational  in  their  form  of  church  government,  differing  little 
in  any  respect  from  the  latter  denomination,  except  that  they  administer 
baptism  by  immersion,  and  only  to  adult  believers.^ 

Presbyterians.  This  is  the  third  numerically  of  the  religious  sects  of 
this  country.  It  is  the  offspring  of  the  church  of  Scotland.  Their  doc- 
trines are  strictly  Calvinistic.  At  the  first  meeting  of  the  general  assem- 
bly, in  1789,  there  were  but  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  or  ninety 
ministers  belonging  to  the  whole  body,  in  four  synods  and  seventeen 
presbyteries.  In  1834  it  embraced  twenty-three  synods,  one  hundred  and 
eighteen  presbyteries,  two  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty-eight  congrega- 
tions, one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  fourteen  ordained  ministers,  and  two 
hundred  and  fifty  licentiates,  and  more  than  two  hundred  and  forty-seven 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty  four  communicants.  Of  these  ministers, 
about  one-third  reside  in  the  state  of  New  York,  the  next  largest  number 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  next  largest  in  Ohio ;  some  are  found  in  every 
state. 

Congregationalists.  This  denomination,  differing  from  the  Presby- 
terian only  in  regard  to  church  order  and  government,  abounds  chiefly  in 
New  England,  where  they  are  the  most  numerous  sect,  although  there 
are  churches  of  this  order  in  other  states.     According  to  their  principles, 

*  There  are  several  small  sects  denominated  Baptists,  but  differing  from  the  maia 
body  which  is  known  under  that  designation.  Among  them  are  Seventh  Day  Baptists, 
or  Sabbatarians,  observing  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath ;  Open  Commu- 
nion Baptists,  only  differing  from  the  main  body  in  uniting  with  Pedobaptists  at  the 
6acrament  of  the  Lord's  supper;  Free- Will  Baptists;  Tunkers  or  Bunkers,  who  believe 
in  universal  salvation,  and  are  a  very  singular  sect ;  Mennonites,  &c.  &c.  See  the 
Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge  above  referred  to. 


448  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

each  congregation  of  Christians  is  a  complete  church,  which  may  com- 
mune with  other  churches  if  it  pleases,  and  may  appoint  its  own  officers, 
to  exercise  discipline  within  itself.  These  Christians  have  sometimes  been 
called  Independents,  from  whom,  however,  they  differ  in  some  respects. 
Congregationalist  and  Independent  are  synonymous  terms  in  England. 
They  have  pastors  and  deacons,  the  latter  having  the  care  of  the  secular 
concerns  of  the  church,  and  not  being  allowed  to  preach.  Their  doctrines 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Presbyterians,  with  whom  they  are  united 
in  all  the  great  benevolent  societies  and  movements  of  the  day.  Number 
of  members,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 

Episcopalians.  The  organization  of  the  American  Episcopal  church 
took  place  during  the  war  of  the  revolution,  and  (to  secure  the  uninter- 
rupted apostolic  succession,  as  they  say)  the  first  bishop  procured  ordination 
from  the  Scottish  bishops  at  Aberdeen,  and  two  others  were  soon  after- 
wards consecrated  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  England,  and  thus 
the  succession  was  preserved  unbroken.  They  have  ten  bishops,  fifteen 
dioceses,  and  five  hundred  and  twenty-eight  clergy,  priests,  and  deacons. 
The  highest  dignitary  recognised  is  the  Bishop.  Priests  and  Deacons  are 
the  only  other  clergy  known.  The  supreme  authority  is  vested  in  a 
general  convention,  composed  of  a  house  of  bishops  and  a  house  of  lay 
delegates.  Each  diocese  has  a  convention  for  the  regulation  of  its  own 
affairs.  The  state  conventions  consist  of  the  clergy  of  the  diocese,  and  a 
lay  delegation  from  each  church.  No  salary  is  given  to  bishops,  as  such  ; 
they  are  supported  as  rectors  of  churches. 

The  influence  of  republican  principles  is  thus  strikingly  manifest  in  many 
of  the  features  of  American  Episcopacy.  The  people  always  choose  their 
own  ministers,  the  bishops  are  elected  by  a  procedure,  according  to  which 
the  laity  have  a  vote  through  their  delegates,  and  no  salaries  are  indepen- 
dent of  a  similar  vote.  In  all  these  particulars,  the  American  church 
differs  from  that  of  England,  but  in  doctrine  and  principles  they  are  the 
same. 

Unitarians  ;  a  small  body  chiefly  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  and 
mostly  in  and  around  Boston.  They  are  Independents  in  church  govern- 
ment. In  doctrines  they  are  mostly  either  ultra  Universalists,  or  hold  the 
belief  of  the  final  restoration  of  all  men.  They  reject  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  and  the  doctrines  called  Calvinistic  altogether.  The  congregation 
of  the  King's  Chapel,  in  Boston,  was  probably  the  first  which  cherished 
these  principles.  It  was  originally  an  Episcopalian  society,  and  they  now 
use  the  liturgy,  altered  in  some  points  to  adapt  it  to  their  views. 

Universalists  are  a  considerably  numerous  body.  They  are  divided 
into  two  classes — Ultra,  or  those  who  reject  altogether  the  idea  of  future 
punishments,  and  Restorationists,  or  those  who  believe  in  a  punishment 
after  death,  but  which  is  not  eternal. 

Quakers.  Pennsylvania  is  the  strong-hold  of  the  Quakers,  although 
there  are  considerable  numbers  in  New  Jersey,  the  city  of  New  York,  &c. 
There  are  two  sects,  the  one  orthodox,  the  other  followers  of  Elias  Hicks, 
or  Hicksites.  They  dispute  between  themselves  which  has  seceded  from 
the  original  principles  of  the  denomination.  The  Quakers  of  England  sent 
forth  an  epistle  in  1S29,  containing  a  confession  of  faith,  which  acknow- 
ledged the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  the  divinity  of  the  Savior,  his 
atonement,  &c.     The  Hicksites  are  generally  considered  the  seceders. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  449 

The  Dutch  Reformed  was  the  established  church  in  New  York  until 
its  surrender  to  England.  Its  first  classis  was  formed  in  America  in  1757. 
Its  government  is  vested  in  consistories,  classes,  and  synods.  Members 
of  the  German  Reformed  church  are  found  principally  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  also  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  Ohio,  and  other  states.  There  are  more 
than  five  hundred  congregations  of  them.  The  American  Lutheran  church 
has  eight  hundred  congregations.  The  United  Brethren,  or  Shakers,  a 
singular,  harmless,  inoffensive  and  industrious  race,  are  found  in  Penn- 
sylvania, North  Carolina,  New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  other  states. 
There  may  be  about  six  thousand  of  them.  The  Swedenborgians  also  hold 
an  annual  convention. 

Infidels.  It  is  proper  to  mention  under  the  head  of  religion,  in  order 
to  give  a  correct  view  of  the  religious  state  of  the  country,  a  class  of  per- 
sons, divided  into  several  subdivisions,  and  generally  looked  upon  with  pity 
by  professing  Christians  of  all  denominations,  and  viewed  with  concern  by 
all  the  rational  friends  of  liberty.  We  speak  of  the  Owenites,  Fanny 
Wrightites,  Harmonites,  Deists,  or,  according  to  a  very  common  form  of 
parlance,  Freethinkers,  Infidels,  or  Atheists.  All  of  them,  we  believe, 
affirm  that  a  community  of  property,  labor,  and  education,  is  necessary  to 
the  well-being  of  mankind,  and  hold  that  a  belief  in  divine  revelation  is 
unnecessary  and  absurd-  They  hold,  too,  that  the  marriage  covenant  is 
binding  only  during  the  pleasure  of  the  contracting  parties.  Rapp,  who 
brought  a  colony  of  foreigners  of  this  faith  to  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  ac- 
quired an  almost  unlimited  authority  over  them.  He  forbade  the  inter- 
course of  the  sexes  for  a  year  or  more,  and  was  obeyed.  He  divided  the 
lands  among  his  followers,  instituted  regulations  for  manual  labor,  and  the 
products  of  the  common  exertion  was  thrown  into  a  common  stock.  Mr. 
Owen's  settlement,  called  Harmony,  was  conducted  on  nearly  the  same 
principles  of  equality.  This  gentleman  possessed  a  large  property  in 
Scotland,  which  he  abandoned  to  found  a  colony,  and  disseminate  the 
doctrines  of  Voltaire  and  Paine,  in  America,  in  which  he  was  very  efficiently 
aided  by  the  celebrated  Miss  Frances  Wright.  Both  of  them  went  about 
the  country  several  years,  lecturing  against  Christianity  and  revelation ; 
but  with  no  very  great  success.  They  finally  showed  that  practice  does 
not  always  conform  to  principle,  by  marrying  one  another.  Mr.  Owen's 
settlement  has  long  been  abandoned,  his  followers  not  having  attained  that 
degree  of  moral  and  social  perfection  requisite  for  its  success  ! 

Such  principles  as  those  of  Mr.  Owen,  striking,  as  they  do,  at  the  very 
root  of  society,  will  never,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  prevail  to  any  great  extent  in 
any  part  of  the  world. *     The  Freethinkers  are  at  present  but  a  small  body, 

*  On  the  demoralizing  effects  of  infidelity,  and  to  show  what  would  be  the  result  of 
throwing  off  the  salutary  restraints  of  religion  in  this  country,  we  quote  a  few  para- 
graphs from  <  Dick  on  the  Improvement  of  Society,'  a  cheap  and  valuable  work,  worthy 
of  universal  perusal.  Without  revealed  religion  'the  present  world  would  be  consider- 
ed as  the  only  scene  of  action  and  enjoyment ;  the  hope  of  immortality,  which  supports 
and  gladdens  the  pious  mind,  would  be  exterminated,  and  every  thing  beyond  the 
shadow  of  death  involved  in  gloom  and  uncertainty.  The  only  true  principles  of  moral 
action,  which  revealed  religion  inculcates,  being  overlooked  or  discarded,  every  one 
would  consider  himself  as  at  liberty  to  act  according  as  his  humor  and  passions  might 
dictate  ;  and  in  such  a  case,  a  scene  of  selfishness,  rapacity,  and  horror  would  quickly 
ensue,  which  would  sap  the  foundations  of  social  order,  and  banish  happiness  from  the 
abodes  of  men. 

1  That  these  are  not  imaginary  forebodings  might  be  illustrated  from  the  scenes  which 
57  3B* 


450  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

without  order  or  government  as  a  party,  and  little  respectable  as  individu- 
als They  are  probably  not  more  than  five  or  six  thousand.  They  have 
newspapers  and  places  of  meeting,  in  New  York,  Boston,  and  elsewhere. 
Many  of  them  are  avowed  atheists.  Had  they  been  persecuted,  molested, 
or  opposed  in  any  degree,  it  is  probable  they  would  have  multiplied  much 
faster  than  they  have. 

were  lately  exhibited  in  a  neighboring  nation.  The  first  revolution  in  France,  in  1789, 
was  a  revolution  not  merely  in  politics  and  government,  but  in  religion,  in  manners,  in 
moral  principle,  and  in  the  common  feelings  of  human  nature.  Revelation  was  not  only 
impugned,  but  entirely  set  aside  ;  the  Deity  was  banished  from  the  universe,  and  ar. 
imaginary  phantom,  under  the  name  of  the  Goddess  of  Reason,  substituted  in  his  place. 
Every  thing  was  reduced  to  a  system  of  pure  materialism  ;  the  celestial  spark  of  intel- 
ligence within  us  was  assimilated  to  a  piece  of  rude  matter,  and  the  fair  prospects  of 
immortality  which  Christianity  presents  transformed  into  the  gloom  of  an  eternal  night. 
Every  previous  standard  of  morals  was  discarded  ;  every  one  was  left  to  act  as  selfish- 
ness, avarice,  and  revenge  might  dictate ;  religion  of  every  description  fled  from  the 
torch  of  the  prevailing  philosophy  ;  while  "justice  and  morality"  were  proclaimed  as 
"  the  order  of  the  day,"  every  moral  principle  and  every  humane  feeling  was  trampled 
under  foot.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority,  that  a  little  before  the  revolution,  a  numer- 
ous assembly  of  French  literati,  being  asked,  in  turn,  at  one  of  their  meetings,  by  the 
president,  "  whether  there  was  any  such  thing  as  moral  obligation,"  answered,  in  every 
instance,  that  there  was  not.  Soon  after  that  revolution,  the  great  body  of  French  infi- 
dels, who  then  ruled  the  nation,  not  only  denied  all  the  obligations  which  bind  us  to 
truth,  justice,  and  kindness,  but  pitied  and  despised,  as  a  contemptible  wretch,  the  man 
who  believed  in  their  existence.  Atheism  was  publicly  preached,  and  its  monstrous 
doctrines  disseminated  among  the  mass  of  the  people,  an  occurrence  altogether  novel 
hi  the  history  of  man.  A  professor  was  even  named  by  Chaumette,  to  instruct  the 
children  of  the  state  in  the  mysteries  of  atheism.  De  la  Metherie,  the  author  of  a 
philosophical  journal,  when  discussing  the  doctrine  of  crystallization,  made  the  wild  and 
hideous  assertion, "  that  the  highest  and  most  perfect  form  of  crystallization  is  that  which 
is  vulgarly  called  God."  In  the  national  convention,  Gobet,  archbishop  of  Paris,  the 
rector  Vangirard,  and  several  other  priests,  abjured  the  Christian  religion  ;  and  for  this 
abjuration  they  received  applauses  and  the  fraternal  kiss.  A  priest  from  Melun  stated,  that 
there  is  no  true  religion  but  that  of  nature,  and  that  all  the  mummery  with  which  they 
had  hitherto  been  amused  is  only  old  wives'  fables  ;  and  he  was  heard  with  loud  applause. 
The  convention  decreed,  that  "  all  the  churches  and  temples  of  religious  worship  known 
to  be  in  Paris  should  be  instantly  shut  up,  and  that  every  person  requiring  the  opening 
of  a  church  or  temple  should  be  put  under  arrest,  as  a  suspected  person,  and  an  enemy 
to  the  state."  The  carved  work  of  all  religious  belief  and  moral  practice  was  boldly 
cut  down  by  Carnot,  Robespierre,  and  their  atheistical  associates,  and  the  following  in- 
scription was  ordered  to  be  displayed  in  all  the  public  burying-grounds — "  Death  is  only 
an  eternal  sleep  ;"  so  that  the  dying  need  no  longer  be  afraid  to  step  out  of  existence. 
Nature  was  investigated  by  these  pretended  philosophers  only  with  a  view  to  darken 
the  mind,  to  prevent  mankind  from  considering  any  thing  as  real  but  what  the  hand 
could  grasp  or  the  corporeal  eye  perceive,  and  to  subvert  the  established  order  of  so- 
ciety. 

'The  consequence  of  the  operation  of  such  principles  were  such  as  might  have  been 
expected.  They  are  written  in  characters  of  blood,  and  in  crimes  almost  unparalleled 
in  the  history  of  nations.  A  scene  of  inhumanity,  cruelty,  cold-blooded  malignity, 
daring  impiety,  and  insatiable  rapacity  was  presented  to  the  world,  which  excited  in  the 
mind  of  every  virtuous  spectator  amazement  and  horror.  Savage  atrocities  were  per- 
petrated which  would  have  been  shocking  in  the  most  barbarous  and  unenlightened 
age ;  and,  perhaps,  at  no  era  has  there  been  more  wretchedness  occasioned  by  licentious 
principles  and  moral  degeneracy.  The  ties  of  friendship  were  cut  asunder,  the  claims 
of  consanguinity  disregarded,  and  a  cold-blooded  selfishness  pervaded  the  great  mass 
of  society.  "  The  kingdom  appeared  to  be  changed  into  one  great  prison,  the  inhabi- 
tants converted  into  felons,  and  the  common  doom  of  man  commuted  for  the  violence 
of  the  sword,  and  the  bayonet,  and  the  stroke  of  the  guillotine."  Such  was  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  work  of  destruction  was  carried  on,  that  within  the  short  space  of  ten 
years,  not  less  than  three  millions  of  human  beings  (one-half  more  than  the  whole 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  451 

Papists  or  Roman  Catholics.  This  sect  is  rapidly  increasing  in  the 
United  States  ;  a  fact  which  ought  to  alarm  all  the  friends  of  liberty  and 
true  religion.* 

population  of  Scotland)  are  supposed  to  have  perished  in  that  country  alone,  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  immoral  principles,  and  the  seductions  of  a  false  philosophy. 
The  following  is  a  brief  sketch  of  some  of  the  scenes  to  which  we  allude,  drawn  by  one 
who  was  an  eye-witness  of  the  whole,  and  an  actor  in  several  parts  of  that  horrid  drama. 
"There  were,"  says  the  writer,  ''multiplied  cases  of  suicide;  prisons  crowded  with 
innocent  persons  ;  permanent  guillotines  ;  perjuries  of  all  classes  ;  parental  authority 
set  at  naught;  debauchery  encouraged  by  an  allowance  to  those  called  unmarried 
mothers  ;  nearly  six  thousand  divorces  in  the  city  of  Paris  within  a  little  more  than  two 
years  ;  in  a  word,  whatever  is  most  obscene  in  vice  and  most  dreadful  in  ferocity." 

<  Notwithstanding  the  incessant  shouts  of  "  Liberty  and  equality,"  and  the  boasted  il- 
luminations of  philosophy,  the  most  barbarous  persecutions  were  carried  on  against  those 
whose  religious  opinions  differed  from  the  system  adopted  by  the  state.  While  infidelity 
was  enthroned  in  power,  it  wielded  the  sword  of  power  with  infernal  ferocity  against 
the  priests  of  the  Romish  church,  who  were  butchered  wherever  found,  hunted  as  wild 
beasts,  frequently  roasted  alive,  or  drowned  in  hundreds  together,  without  either  ac- 
cusation or  trial.  At  Nantes,  no  less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty  priests  were  Shot, 
and  four  hundred  and  sixty  drowned.  In  one  night,  fifty-eight  were  shut  up  in  a  barge, 
and  drowned  in  the  Loire.  Two  hundred  and  ninety-two  priests  were  massacred  during 
the  bloody  scenes  of  the  10th  of  August  and  2d  September,  1792  ;  and  eleven  hundred 
and  thirty-five  were  guillotined  under  the  government  of  the  national  convention,  from 
the  month  of  September,  1792,  till  the  end  of  1795,  besides  vast  numbers,  hunted  by  the 
infidel  republicans,  like  owls  and  partridges,  who  perished  in  different  ways,  throughout 
the  provinces  of  France. 

•  Such  were  some  of  the  dismal  effects  which  flowed  from  the  attempt  to  banish  reli- 
gion from  science,  from  government,  and  from  the  intercourses  and  employments  of 
society.  Were  such  principles  universally  to  prevail,  the  world  would  soon  become  one 
vast  theatre  of  mischief  and  of  misery — an  immense  den  of  thieves  and  robbers, — a 
sink  of  moral  pollution — a  scene  of  impiety,  injustice,  rapine,  and  devastation  ;  a  Gol- 
gotha, strewed  with  carcasses  and  "  dead  men's  bones."  All  confidence  and  friendship 
between  intelligent  beings  would  be  destroyed ;  the  dearest  and  most  venerable  relations 
would  be  violated  by  incestuous  pollutions  ;  appetite  would  change  every  man  into  a 
swine,  and  passion  into  a  tiger ;  jealousy,  distrust,  revenge,  murder,  war,  and  rapine 
would  overspread  the  earth,  and  a  picture  of  hell  would  be  presented  wherever  the  eye 
roamed  over  the  haunts  of  men." 

*  That  there  is  reason  for  alarm  is  evident  to  all  who  have  paid  particular  attention 
to  the  subject.  It  has  lately  been  proved,  that  there  exists  in  Austria  an  organized 
society  sustained  by  all  the  wealth  and  influence  of  that  popish  empire,  and  seconded 
by  the  whole  popish  influence  of  Europe,  whose  object  is  the  conversion  of  this  nation 
to  popery,  and  the  consequent  overthrow  of  our  free  institutions.  We  quote  the  follow- 
ing from  the  New  York  Observer,  of  Jan.  1835.  It  contains  a  statement  of  facts  which 
exhibit  with  clearness  the  nature  of  popery,  its  tendency  to  subvert  our  political  insti- 
tutions, and  to  transfer  the  power  delegated  to  magistrates  for  the  preservation  of  order  in  the 
community  to  Romish  priests,  who  owe  allegiance  to  a  foreign  prince.  Facts, — things 
already  done  and  threatened — proclaim  the  existence  of  a  power  in  this  country  hostile 
to  its  liberties  and  the  dearest  rights  of  the  people. 

POPISH  POWER  AND  THREATS — Last  summer,  our  readers  will  recollect,  there  were  dreadful  riots  and  murders  among 
the  Iriah  laborers  on  a  rail-road  in  Maryland.  The  civil  authority  eadeavored  to  put  a  stop  to  them,  but  in  rain.  A  considerable 
military  force  was  then  sent  from  Baltimore,  and  succeeded,  while  they  were  actually  present,  in  restoring  peace  and  order; 
but  the  moment  their  backs  were  turned,  the  rioters  renewed  their  outrages,  and  the  military  companies  were  compelled  to  re- 
turn, and  that  repeatedly,  until,  at  length,  wearied  with  the  harassing  duly,  a  popish  priest  was  called  upon  to  visit  the  con- 
tending parties,  and  through  his  influence  a  reconciliation  was  effected  and  peace  restored.  The  editors  of  some  of  our  daily 
papers  were  full  of  thanks  and  expressions  of  obligation  to  this  priest;  but  we  confess  that  we  had  no  heart  for  any  thing  but 
mourning  for  the  humiliation  of  our  country.  We  ask  ourselves,  Is  it  indeed  so  7  Has  it  come  to  this  7  Is  the  government  of 
this  country  already  surrendered  into  the  hands  of  popish  priests  7  Are  the  civil  and  military  authorities  under  our  free  institu- 
tions incapable  of  preserving  public  order,  and  must  we  beg  the  interference  of  ecclesiastics,  and  especially  of  ecclesiastics  under 
the  control  of  a  foreign  head,  and  that  head  the  mere  tool  of  the  Holy  Alliance! 

This  case  mighl  have  passed  without  remark,  if  it  had  been  a  solitary  one  :  but,  soon  after,  at  the  burning  of  the  convent  In 
Charlestown,  the  Boston  editors,  without  one  sigh  for  the  virtual  extinction  of  popular  government,  announced,  in  terms  of 
onmingled  commendation,  that  bishop  Fenwick  and  a  popish  priest  in  Charlestown  had  promised  to  use  their  iufluence  to  re- 
atra-n  the  Irish,  and  that,  thtrefore,  no  retaliation  need  be  apprehended !  It  was  stated,  too,  in  one  of  our  daily  papers,  some 
time  sinee,  that  it  was  seriously  contemplated,  during  the  election  rioU  in  this  city,  to  call  in  the  aid  of  the  Catholic  priests  U> 
testore  order. 

Here  are  three  distinct  cases,  all  occurring  within  a  few  months,  in  three  different  sections  of  our  country,  in  which  oof 
editors  admit  that  there  is  a  class  ot  our  population  which  cannot  be  governed  by  the  laws  and  institutions  under  which  tha  reat 
tf  our  people  hav«  lived  so  happily  for  more  than  two  c*nturiei.    It  is  admitted  that  Uiia  population  can  be  governed  only  aa  the 


452  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  1632,  a  priest  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  accompanied  the  early  setters 
to  Maryland,  and  since  that  time  the  Catholic  population  have  been  supplied 
with  instructers  of  their  own  persuasion  from  England.  A  see  was  con- 
stituted, and  a  bishop  consecrated,  in  1790.  In  1810,  it  became  an  archi- 
episcopal  see,  and  four  new  suffragan  dioceses  were  established,  viz :  in 
Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Bardstown,  in  Kentucky,  to  which 
some  more  have  since  been  added,  in  New  Orleans,  Charleston,  Richmond, 
and  Cincinnati,  &c.  Regular  missions  are  also  established  all  over  the 
country,  and  it  would  seem,  from  the  zeal  of  the  missionaries,  as  well  as 
by  the  language  of  the  pope,  that  very  great  importance  is  attached  to  the 
future  religious  faith  of  America  by  the  court  of  Rome.  Nor  have  the 
devoted  exertions  of  the  priests  failed  of  much  success,  for  it  has  been 
computed  that  half  a  million  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  Roman 
Catholics,  of  which  not  less  than  ten  thousand  are  in  the  city  of  Boston, 
being  one  sixth  of  its  population.  It  is  stated  that  bishop  England,  of 
Baltimore,  is  an  officer  of  the  Inquisition  ! 

Europeans  govern  it,  by  calling  in  the  aid  of  a  standing  army,  or  by  going  on,  as  we  have  begun,  taking  off  our  hats  to  popish 
priests,  and  saying  to  these  minions  of  his  holiness,  'Please,  gentlemen,  do  not  let  your  people  cut  our  throats.'  Wc  confess 
that  our  American  blood  boils  at  the  thought  of  such  humiliation. 

And  who  are  these  miserable  creatures,  that  set  our  laws  at  defiance,  and  how  came  they  here  7  They  are  the  most  ignorant 
and  turbulent  people  of  Europe,  whom  we  have  imported  to  dig  our  canals  and  make  our  rail-roads,  to  hew  our  wood  and  to 
draw  our  water.  They  have  nearly  all  come  over  within  the  last  twenty  years.  In  1775  there  were  but  five  Catholic  families  in 
Boston.  In  New  York,  within  the  memory  of  men  now  living,  all  the  male  heads  of  Catholic  families  were  collected  at  ono 
time  in  one  small  parlor  ;  and  in  Philadelphia,  at  no  remote  period,  their  number,  we  presume,  was  equally  small.  They  began 
to  come  over  in  large  numbers  in  1617,  and  since  that  time  the  torrent  has  been  continually  swelling,  until  now  it  is  pouring  in 
upon  us  at  the  rate  of  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  thousand  annually.  Already  they  constitute  nearly  one-fourth  part  of  the 
population  of  our  five  largest  cities,  and  they  are  scattering  themselves  in  immense  numbers  over  all  our  interior. 

We  shall  soon  have  more  papists  in  the  north  than  they  have  slaves  in  the  south.  And  who  would  not  prefer  two  million  of 
slaves,  under  the  control  of  two  million  of  masters,  owners  of  the  soil,  and  prompted  by  every  consideration  of  duty  and  interest  to 
promote  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  our  country,  to  two  million  of  papists,  under  the  control  of  two  thousand  priests,  educated  in 
the  schools  of  Austria  and  Ireland — two  thousand  bachelors,  bound  to  the  country  by  no  tie  of  interest  or  affection — two  thousand 
emissaries  of  a  foreign  prince,  whose  supremacy  they  acknowledge,  and  who  is  our  natural  enemy,  because  our  prosperity  is 
working  the  ruin  of  his  despotism  7  Is  it  probable  that  we  shall  long  continue  to  enjoy  tranquillity  with  such  a  population  re- 
maining among  us  in  all  the  ignorance  to  which  their  masters  would  doom  them  7  Will  the  Holy  Alliance  of  despotic  sovereigns 
in  Europe  consent  that  the  examples  of  peace  and  prosperity  in  this  free  republic  should  continually  endanger  the  stability  of 
their  thrones,  when  one  word  from  the  pope  would  give  them  security,  by  carrying  riot  and  uproar  through  all  our  borders  7 

We  are  happy  to  find  that  the  friends  of  liberty  in  all  parts  of  the  north  and  west  are  opening  their  eyes  to  the  dangers  that 
menace  us  from  the  progress  of  popery.  The  following  remarks  of  the  Boston  Recorder  on  the  threat  of  the  superior  of  the 
convent  at  Charlestown,  in  relation  to  the  ten  thousand  Irishmen,  are  very  pointed  and  forcible. 

THE  '  BISHOP  OF  BOSTON.'—'  Mr.  Cutter  told  me  he  was  afraid  the  mob  would  destroy  the  convent,  and  then  I  told  him 
that  if  they  did,  "  the  right  reverend  bishop's  influence  over  ten  thousand  brave  Irishmen  might  lead  to  the  destruction  of  his  (Mr. 
Cutter's)  property,  and  that  of  others  also."  ' 

Such  is  the  testimony,  given  under  oath,  in  open  court,  by  Mary  Anne  Ursula  Moffat,  alias  Mary  Edmond  St.  George,  superi- 
or of  the  Ursuline  community  at  Charlestown.  In  all  important  particulars  it  agrees  with  Mr.  Cutter's  statements.  It  tully 
sustains  the  most  important  points — the  bishop's  influence  over  the  '  ten  thousand  brave  Irishmen,'  and  the  reasonableness  of  ex- 
pecting that  he  will  use  that  influence  in  a  certain  way.  She  adds,  '  I  said  this  without  much  thought.'  It  was  no  story,  de- 
liberately made  up  for  the  occasion,  for  the  purpose  of  frightening  Mr.  Cutter  with  imaginary  dangers.  It  was  the  real  truth, 
well  known  to  her,  and  uttered  without  premeditation.  It  is  true,  he  did  not  wield  this  power  for  the  destruction  of  Mr.  Cutter's 
property.     He  told  his  '  ten  thousand  brave  Irishmen'  to  keep  still,  and  they  obeyed  him  ;  and  he  and  they  were  praised  for  it. 

Here  we  have  a  government,  wielding  a  physical  force  according  to  its  pleasure,  for  the  protection  of  its  subjects.  The  superior 
wished  Mr.  Cutler  to  be  in  fear  of  it.  She  placed  some  reliance  on  its  existetice,  and  on  the  terror  it  mieht  inspire,  for  her  own 
safety,  and  the  safety  of  her  community.  It  is  a  government  which  may  operate  for  the  defence  of  its  subjects,  or  for  the  punish- 
ment of  those  who  injure  them  by  the  destruction  of  the  property  of  ->ur  citizens.  The  officer  who  wields  this  power  is  not  known 
to  our  constitution.  He  is  not  elected  by  our  freemen.  He  is  not  officially  responsible  to  the  United  States,  or  to  the  common- 
wealth of  Massachusetts.  He  is  not  even  elected  by  those  whom  he  governs.  He  is  appointed  by  a  foreign  state,  to  which  hs 
still  retains  his  allegiance,  and  by  which  he  is  liable  to  be  removed  from  office,  whenever  his  official  acts  shall  not  be  such  as  the 
rulers  of  that  state  approve.  One  of  hi3  predecessors  has  been  removed  from  this  office  to  another  by  that  foreign  power.  His 
conduct  had  pleased  his  superiors,  and  lie  was  promoted.  Bishop  Fenwick  is  equally  liable  to  be  promoted,  if  his  conduct  pleases, 
or  deposed,  if  it  displeases.  We  invite  attention  to  the  fact,  that  we  have  among  us  a  body  of  '  ten  thousand  brave  Irishmen,' 
ready  to  destroy  our  property  at  the  bidding  of  an  officer  who  holds  his  office  at  the  will  of  a  foreign  government.  On  the 
destruction  of  the  convent,  many  of  them  came  together  to  receive  his  orders.  He  told  them  not  to  destroy  the  property  of  out 
citizens,  and  they  obeyed.  But  whether  this  was  any  thing  more  than  an  adjournment  of  vengeance,  is  doubtful.  The  superior, 
who  has  better  means  of  knowing  the  bishop's  intentions  than  any  Protestant,  '  cannot  answer'  that  Mr.  Cutter's  property  W 
yet  safe  from  those  under  the  '  right  reverend  bishop's  influence.'    It  does  not  become  us  to  be  confident  while  she  is  in  doubt. 

In  reference  to  the  testimony  quoted  above,  and  to  documents  which  have  been  published  in  the  Boston  papers,  the  Recorder  re 
marks  : 

What,  then,  is  the  amount  of  her  testimony  7    We  think  it  establishes  the  following  points :  viz. 

1.  That  there  is,  within  the  limits  of  bishop  Fenwick's  diocese,  a  large  Roman  Catholic  force  which  he  can  command. 

2.  That,  if  he  signifies  his  pleasure,  this  Roman  Catholic  force  will  destroy  the  property  of  our  citizens. 

3.  That  he  may  be  expected  to  use  this  Roman  Catholic  force  in  this  manner,  whenever  it  shall  seem  expodient,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  Roman  Catholic  interests. 

4.  That  some  well-informed  Roman  Catholics  do  rely  upon  him  to  protect  them  and  theirs  in  that  way.     And, 

5.  That  the  danger  of  a  Roman  Catholic  mob,  which  shall  destroy  the  property  of  Protestants,  at  the  bishop's  bidding,  ll» 
«  retaliation'  for  the  burning  of  the  convent,  is  not  yet  over.  The  superior,  at  the  dale  of  her  Utter  published  last  week,  '  could 
not  answer,  that  Mr.  Cutter's  property  would  not  be  destroyed.' 

That  these  things  are  so,  is  proved,  be  it  remembered,  by  the  testimony  of  the  superior,  who  from  her  situation  must  be  pra» 
sumed  to  know. 

Now,  if  there  is  a  power  established  among  us,  having  its  regular  government,  to  which  government  its  subjects  look  for  pro- 
tection of  personal  property,  and  which  may  be  expected  to  issue  orders  for  their  protection  by  physical  force,  which  orders  will 
be  obeyed,— if  this  be  a  fact,  does  it  not  deserve  the  attention  of  all  our  citizens  7  Does  it  deserve  attention  any  the  less  because 
that  power  pretends  to  be  spiritual  7  If  it  really  exists  as  a  civil  government  for  the  protection  of  the  persons  and  property  of  its 
•objects,  armed,  or  able  to  arm  itself  at  will,  with  a  military  force,  whether  in  the  shape  of  a  militia  or  a  mob,  do  its  spiritual 
claims  render  it  an  affair  of  no  consequence  ?  And  if  it  is  known  to  aTOw,  as  a  fundamental  principle  oPits  existence,  a  spiritual 
allegiance  to  a  foreigu  power,  which  foreign  power  is  known  to  be  civil  and  military  as  well  as  spiritual,  does  not  this  fact  alio 
deserve  notice? 


453 


CHAPTER  XIII.— MANNERS  AND  AMUSEMENTS. 

The  dispositions  and  feelings  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  portions 
of  the  United  States  have  been  modified  by  a  great  variety  of  circum- 
stances. Difference  of  descent  has  operated  with  its  usual  power.  The 
stern  Puritan,  the  open-hearted  and  honest  Dutchman,  the  light-hearted 
and  easy  Frenchman,  the  German,  the  Spaniard,  the  Catholic,  the  Hugue- 
not, all  have  their  representatives  in  various  portions  of  the  country.  The 
distinctive  national  peculiarities  have  in  some  measure  been  worn  off,  and 
the  varying  elements  have  been  amalgamated  by  constant  intercourse, 
intermarriage,  removals  from  one  part  to  another,  and  the  gradual  effects 
of  time.  Still  the  national  character  is  very  distinct  in  distinct  sections  of 
the  country,  and  in  the  following  account  of  the  various  manners  and  cus- 
toms, we  have  uniformly  followed  what  we  consider  the  best  authority. 

The  people  of  New  England  are  grave,  though  they  are  not  without 
humor  ;  many  of  their  amusements  are  of  a  reflecting  kind,  and  their  con- 
versation tends  rather  to  useful  than  to  light  or  gay  subjects.  They  are 
moral  and  pious,  and  the  descendants  of  the  Puritans  retain  much  of  the 
strictness  of  their  fathers.  If  not  ardent,  they  are  to  a  great  degree  perse- 
vering, and  though  inquisitive,  they  are  equally  communicative.  They 
are  shrewd  and  calculating,  yet  not  deceitful.  They  are  no  '  granters  of 
propositions ;'  with  them  almost  all  things  are  subjects  for  discussion,  in 
which  they  manifest  much  ingenuity.  They  have  a  caution  that  prevails 
in  all  things,  and  they  seldom  answer  directly  an  abrupt  question,  without 
knowing  why  it  is  asked.  They  have  the  impress  of  Franklin ;  Poor 
Richard's  maxims  of  thrift  fall  upon  a  congenial  soil,  and  no  proverbs  are 
oftener  quoted,  or  more  followed.  They  are  like  Franklin,  to  a  great  de- 
gree inventive  in  practical  things,  and  far  the  greater  number  of  inventions 
in  the  patent  office  are  from  New  England.  It  is  peculiar  to  these  people, 
that  they  are  seldom  found  without  a  pocket  knife,  which  they  use  with 
dexterity  ;  and  boys  at  school  are  frequently  seen  whittling,  or  cutting 
wood  into  some  shape,  for  a  wind-mill  or  other  toy.  It  is  a  universal  trait, 
and  it  is  said  that  a  gentleman  in  Havana,  who  invited  a  large  company 
to  dine,  gave  each  man  from  New  England  a  shingle  to  cut,  that  they 
might  not  carve  his  furniture.  • 

One  of  the  first  traits  developed  in  the  New  England  character  is,  if  not 
a  love  of  gain,  at  least  a  disposition  to  traffic.  It  commences  at  an  early 
age,  and  children  at  school  not  only  exchange  or  '  swap'  knives,  and  other 
things,  but  make  lotteries,  in  which  the  prizes  are  paid  in  gingerbread  and 
raisins,  and  which  leave  a  little  profit  to  the  manager  and  proprietor.  The 
farmers  too,  though  not  the  most  industrious  kind,  sometimes  bring  up 
horses  and  cattle  for  a  '  swap'  to  the  village  inn  ;  and  the  tin  pedlars,  whose 
wheels  are  in  every  road  in  the  United  States,  are  to  a  man  from  New 
England. 

Another  trai*  of  character  is  the  readiness  with  which  the  people  of  New 


454  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

England  admit  the  equality  of  all  men  with  themselves,  and  the  steadiness 
with  which  they  deny,  both  in  theory  and  practice,  that  any  are  superior. 
It  would  raise  a  tempest  in  the  breast  even  of  a  female  domestic,  to  ask  for 
her  mistress,  nor  would  she  be  satisfied  to  be  called  a  servant,  or  even  a 
domestic.  Help  is  the  word  by  which  servants  reconcile  their  pride  with 
their  interest  or  employment,  as  it  denotes,  that  though  the  assistants,  they 
are  the  equals  of  their  employers.  A  foreigner  probably  finds  some  ground 
for  dissatisfaction  on  the  score  of  domestics,  for  among  house-wives  it  is  a 
subject  of  universal  complaint  at  home  ;  the  best  servants  are  English,  who 
have  been  more  familiar  with  the  distinction  of  classes. 

The  people  of  New  England  are  distinguished  for  their  celebrations. 
They  are  interlocked  with  each  other  by  innumerable  societies  and  associa- 
tions, and  one  man  is  a  member  of  many.  These  have  their  anniversaries, 
which,  with  the  national  and  other  holidays,  make  a  great  many  proces- 
sions, public  dinners,  and  addresses.  It  is  also  usual  to  offer  public  dinners 
to  those  who  have  done  acceptable  services  in  high  public  stations. 

A  town  meeting  is  perhaps  the  best  place  wherein  to  see  the  self-control 
of  the  people,  when  highly  excited  on  questions  of  general  or  local  interest 
Every  town  is  within  certain  limits  a  pure  democracy,  and  its  doings  are 
attended  with  perfect  decorum  under  the  moderator,  who  is  chosen,  as  the 
word  implies,  to  mollify  any  over-zealous  excitement.  If,  on  these  occa- 
sions, any  citizen  becomes  turbulent,  or  abusive  in  language,  the  sense  of 
the  assembly  is  so  strongly  expressed  against  him,  that  he  is  at  once  re- 
duced to  order.  Generally  speaking,  there  are  no  mobs  or  riotous  assem- 
blies. The  interference  of  a  few  constables,  or  the  reading  of  the  '  riot  act' 
by  a  magistrate,  is  sufficient  to  disperse  any  tumultuous  throng.  A  tumult 
at  a  town  meeting  or  election,  is  a  thing  unheard  of  among  us. 

Some  of  the  most  peculiar  manners  and  customs  of  New  England  are 
found  in  the  island  of  Nantucket,  and  the  neighboring  part  of  the  continent. 
Nantucket  is  a  happy  settlement ;  not  that  it  has  precious  metals  in  its 
bosom,  or  fertility  in  its  soil,  but  because  the  people  are  simple,  innocent, 
and  contented.  The  sea  is  their  patrimony,  and  they  gather  its  bounties 
in  the  most  distant  ports.  The  whale  fishery  in  New  England  was  com- 
menced by  six  persons  in  Nantucket ;  one  watched  on  an  eminence  for  the 
spouting  of  the  whale,  and  when  he  discovered  it,  all  would  pursue  in  a 
small  boat,  and  they  seldom  failed  to  tow  the  leviathan  ashore.  Gains  ex- 
tended the  adventure,  ships  were  fitted  out,  and  the  whale  was  chased  from 
the  temperate  regions  to  the  arctic  seas,  and  followed  to  the  remotest  shores 
of  the  Pacific  ocean. 

Among  the  people,  there  are  none  idle,  and  few  destitute.  The  vices 
of  commercial  places  are  hardly  known,  and  it  is  admitted  all  over  New 
England  to  be  a  great  presumption  in  favor  of  a  man's  honesty,  that  he 
comes  from  Nantucket.  The  Friends  or  Quakers  give  to  the  language  a 
simplicity  of  diction  truly  Doric,  and  though  they  take  some  liberties  with 
the  commonwealth's  English,  yet  in  a  person  brought  up  with  them,  to 
speak  in  a  more  classic  manner  would  be  held  to  savor  of  affectation  and 
pretension.  The  various  relationships,  and  the  kindly  feelings,  have  intro- 
duced the  custom  of  calling  elderly  people  uncle  or  aunt,  and  the  younger, 
cousin.  Even  a  stranger  soon  falls  into  this  habit.  The  people  generally 
marry  young,  and  few  live  in  celibacy.  They  are  social  to  a  great  degree, 
and  are  eminently  distinguished  for  their  frequent  visitings,  to  sup  at  each 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  455 

other's  houses.  They  live  more  as  though  they  made  a  large  family,  than 
a  small  community. 

The  following  tribute  to  the  New  England  character  is  from  Captain 
Hall,  whom  no  one  can  accuse  of  a  desire  to  overpraise  what  he  saw  in 
this  country.  '  I  had,  however,  many  sharp  amicable  discussions  with  my 
friends  at  Boston,  on  the  thousand  and  one  topics  that  arose  between  us, 
but  I  must  do  them  the  justice  to  say,  that  I  never  met  a  more  good-natured, 
or  perhaps  I  should  say,  good-tempered  people ;  for,  during  the  whole 
course  of  my  journey,  though  I  never  disguised  my  sentiments,  even  when 
opposed  to  the  avowed  favorite  opinions  of  the  company,  I  never  yet  saw 
an  American  out  of  temper.  I  fear  I  cannot  say  half  so  much  for  myself, 
for  I  was  often  a  good  deal  harassed  by  these  national  discussions,  when 
the  company  and  I  took  our  station  on  the  opposite  poles  of  the  question. 
But  it  is  pleasant  to  have  it  in  my  power  to  say  that  I  cannot  recall  a  sin- 
gle instance  in  which  any  thing  captious,  or  personally  uncivil,  was  ever 
said  to  me,  though  I  repeated  openly,  and  in  all  companies,  every  thing  I 
have  written  in  these  volumes,  and  a  great  deal  more  than  upon  cool  re- 
flection I  choose  to  say  again.' 

In  general,  the  amusements  are  of  a  thoughtful  rather  than  a  gay  cha- 
racter, and  games  of  skill  are  preferred  to  those  of  chance.  The  character 
of  the  Puritans  has  given  some  tone  to  the  amusements  and  holidays. 
Theatres  are  seldom  even  fashionably  attended,  and  there  are  many  who 
hold  it  unlawful  to  enter  them.  There  are  places,  too,  in  the  coun- 
try, where  dancing  is  considered  to  be  a  '  vain,  idle,  and  sinful  amuse- 
ment.' 

The  active  sports  are  principally  games  of  ball,  and  sometimes  running 
and  wrestling  ;  formerly,  different  towns  and  parishes  had  their  champions 
in  wrestling,  to  try  their  superiority  by  matches,  in  which  several  fatal 
accidents  occurred  ;  but  the  sport  is  now  almost  entirely  disused.  Box- 
ing, which  is  so  universal  in  England,  is  almost  unknown,  and  horse- 
racing  and  cock-fighting  are  seldom  seen.  In  winter,  when  there  are  de- 
lightful moonlight  nights,  sleigh-rides  are  a  favorite  amusement.  Parties 
of  both  sexes  sit  in  large  sleighs,  as  closely  as  they  can  be  packed,  and 
sometimes  in  each  others'  laps,  scour  over  several  miles  at  a  rapid  rate, 
and  at  some  hotel,  find  not  only  a  supper  but  a  fiddler  in  attendance,  whose 
gains  are  much  enhanced  in  the  season  of  sleighing.  There  are  several 
holidays,  but  none  that  are  observed  in  England.  Election  day  is  that  on 
which  the  governor  is  declared  to  be  elected,  and  has  heretofore  been  one 
of  the  most  '  time-honored'  days  in  the  calendar.  On  this  day,  the  young 
men  often  take  sides,  in  what  is  called  a  '  bird  shoot,'  to  destroy  the  birds 
most  mischievous  to  crops,  and  the  party  bringing  in  the  least  number  of 
heads  is  vanquished,  and  gives  a  dinner  to  the  other. 

Fast  day  is  an  observance  that  has  descended  from  the  pilgrims,  and  is 
kept  with  a  decent  solemnity.  The  governors  appoint  one  day  in  the 
year,  in  all  the  New  England  states,  for  '  fasting,  humiliation,  and  prayer  ;' 
there  is  little  business  transacted,  and  the  people  generally  attend  in  the 
churches,  which  are  called  more  generally,  from  an  old  dislike  to  Episco- 
pacy, meeting-houses.  Thanksgiving  is  also  a  day  appointed  by  the  same 
authorities,  and  the  intent  of  the  edict  or  proclamation  is  carried  into  full 
effect  by  the  disposition  of  the  people.     It  is  always  appointed  in  the  fall 


456  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

or  autumn,  after  the  harvests,  when  the  garners  are  full ;  and  poor  indeed 
is  the  inmate  of  the  hovel  that  has  not  on  that  day  plenty  and  luxury  on 
his  board.  The  preparations  for  thanksgiving  continue  several  days,  and 
for  many  more  the  prepared  viands  are  not  exhausted.  It  is  the  day  for 
family  meetings,  and  it  is  then  that  members  of  the  same  family  often 
come  hundreds  of  miles  to  meet  again,  to  renew  the  bands  of  affinity  and 
affection  under  the  paternal  roof.  It  is  at  this  feast  that  the  simplicity  and 
patriarchal  character  of  a  New  England  grandsire  is  pre-eminent. 

Before  and  after  thanksgiving,  there  are  held  all  over  the  country  'shoot- 
ing matches,'  which  are  announced  by  printed  placards,  headed  '  sportsmen 
attend,'  and  which  set  forth  that  geese,  turkeys,  and  fowls,  will  be  set  up 
for  marksmen.  They  are  shot  at,  generally  after  they  are  killed,  with 
rifles,  at  certain  distances,  and  rates  are  paid  for  every  shot.  If  they  are 
hit,  the  marksman  has  the  game.  These  sports  are  commonly  held  in 
some  retired  spot,  or  at  some  deserted  house,  by  which  there  is  little  pass- 
ing, and  where  a  day  or  two  is  spent  as  in  an  encampment.  A  bear  or 
deer  is  sometimes  shot  at  in  the  same  way. 

Autumn  also  brings  other  holiday  observances,  one  of  which  is  *  husk- 
ing,' when  the  men  of  a  neighborhood  meet  to  husk  the  Indian  corn  of  one 
of  the  number,  that  is,  to  separate  it  from  the  sheaf.  A  good  supper,  and 
sometimes  a  dance,  ensues.  The  females  have  also  similar  meetings,  call- 
ed '  quilting  bees,'  when  many  assemble  to  work  for  one,  in  padding  or 
quilting  bed  coverings  or  comforters.  Militia  musters  or  reviews  collect 
many  people,  but  they  are  happily  growing  out  of  date ;  they  generally 
display  the  most  repulsive  traits  of  the  New  England  character.  An  ordi- 
nation of  a  clergyman  over  a  society  discloses  better  characteristics.  It  is 
a  time  when  every  house  in  the  society  is  invitingly  open,  when  the  mas- 
ter generally  '  provides'  for  more  guests  than  he  has  the  good  fortune  to 
secure  ;  and  when  he  may  be  seen  forestalling  his  neighbors,  by  asking 
visiters  to  dine,  before  they  arrive  at  the  church.  Persons  of  all  creeds 
and  conditions  are  pressed,  nothing  loath,  to  the  feasts  that  smoke  upon  a 
hundred  tables. 

Ploughing  matches  and  cattle  shows  are  held  only  in  autumn ;  they  at- 
tract many  people,  and  give  a  favorable  impulse  to  the  interests  of  agricul- 
ture. The  celebration  of  the  fourth  of  July,  or,  as  it  is  called,  Independence, 
is  not  peculiar  to  New  England ;  it  is  the  great  national  holiday,  honored 
by  salutes  of  cannon,  fireworks,  processions,  addresses,  dinners,  in  all  cities, 
and  in  the  most  secluded  corners  of  the  republic. 

In  the  middle  states  there  is  little  general  or  peculiar  character.  In 
Pennsylvania,  society  takes  a  tone  from  the  Friends,  particularly  in  Phila- 
delphia and  some  other  towns  ;  in  the  interior,  German  influence  is  equally 
perceptible.  New  York  has  the  air  and  character  of  all  great  commercial 
cities.  One  abominable  custom  deserves  to  be  mentioned  with  reprobation. 
Swine  are  by  law  permitted  to  range  at  large,  and  these  quadruped  sca- 
vengers are,  of  course,  intolerable  nuisances.  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore 
seem  to  have  escaped,  in  some  measure,  from  the  moral  evils  which  appear 
almost  inseparable  from  great  cities.  In  these  places,  the  manner  of  life 
is  far  more  quiet  and  domestic  than  in  New  York,  and  in  the  former  city 
the  arts  and  sciences  meet  with  a  more  assiduous  cultivation.  Tbe  Wista* 
parties  of  this  city,  assemblies  held  at  gentlemen's  houses,  where  the  con- 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  457 

versation  is  chiefly  on  literary  and  scientific  subjects,  are  much  praised  by 
intelligent  strangers.^ 

The  amusements  of  the  middle  states  are  more  various  than  the  other 
sections  of  the  country.  As  the  three  largest  cities  in  the  union  are  dis- 
tant one  from  the  other  but  about  a  hundred  miles,  there  are  of  course 
greater  facilities  and  encouragement  for  scenic  exhibitions ;  and  the  thea- 
tres, especially  in  New  York,  are  much  attended.  The  actors  are  general- 
ly English,  and  the  best  English  performers  often  come  over  for  a  season. 
There  is  a  French  opera  company,  also,  who  at  times  perform  in  the  cities, 
where  they  give  general  pleasure,  and  a  splendid  opera  house  has  been 
recently  erected  in  New  York.  In  the  latter  city,  there  are  several  expen- 
sive public  gardens,  in  which  a  great  variety  of  costly  fireworks,  shows, 
and  amusements,  are  offered  in  the  warm  seasons ;  when  lighted  up  at 
night,  they  are  very  brilliant,  and  they  attract  crowds  of  people.  There 
are  many  small  gardens,  where  refreshments  are  sold  ;  and  in  Philadelphia 
the  number  of  these  is  considerable,  though  some  of  them  contain  little  else 
than  a  few  alcoves,  covered  with"  creeping  plants. 

Horse  racing,  which  in  New  England  is  almost  unknown,  is  more  honor* 
ed  in  the  middle  states ;  and  some  of  the  matches  on  Long  Island  and  in 
Dutchess  county,  have  been  attended  by  vast  crowds  of  people.  Boat  races 
also  are  sometimes  held  in  the  calm  waters  about  New  York. 

Skating  is  practised  with  great  animation,  and  thousands  of  people  col- 
lect on  the  Delaware,  at  Philadelphia,  when  the  stream  is  frozen.  An  ox, 
on  such  occasions,  has  sometimes  been  roasted  on  the  ice,  near  the  Mari- 
ners' hotel,  which  is  the  hull  of  a  large  vessel,  moored  in  the  river.  Skat- 
ing is  very  general  amusement  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States. 
and  there  are  few  boys  who  have  not  a  pair  of  skates.  Coasting  is  another 
winter  pastime,  in  which,  as  in  many  other  games,  the  labor  seems  to  be 
at  least  equal  to  the  pleasure.  When  the  snow  covers  the  earth,  a  troop 
of  joyous  boys  assemble  on  the  top  of  a  long  and  steep  hill,  and  each  one 
sitting  upon  a  little  sled,  gives  it  an  impulse  which  carries  him  to  the  bot- 

*  Mr.  Hamilton  observes — I  passed  an  hour  or  two  very  agreeably  at  one  of  a  series 
of  meetings,  which  are  called  '  Wistar  parties,'  from  the  name  of  the  gentleman  at  whose 
house  they  were  first  held.  Their  effect  and  influence  on  society  must  be  very  salutary. 
These  parties  bring  together  men  of  different  classes  and  pursuits,  and  promote  the  free 
interchange  of  opinion,  always  useful  for  the  correction  of  prejudice.  Such  intercourse, 
too,  prevents  the  narrowness  of  thought,  and  exaggerated  estimate  of  the  value  of  our 
own  peculiar  acquirements,  which  devotion  to  one  exclusive  object  is  apt  to  engender 
in  those  who  do  not  mix  freely  with  the  world. 

These  meetings  are  held  by  rotation  at  the  houses  of  the  different  members.  The 
conversation  is  generally  literary  or  scientific,  and  as  the  party  is  usually  very  large,  it 
can  be  varied  at  pleasure.  Philosophers  eat  like  other  men,  and  the  precaution  of  an 
excellent  supper  is  by  no  means  found  to  be  superfluous.  It  acts,  too,  as  a  gentle  emol- 
lient on  the  acrimony  of  debate.  No  man  can  say  a  harsh  thing  with  his  mouth  full  of 
turkey,  and  disputants  forget  their  differences  in  unity  of  enjoyment. 

At  these  parties,  I  met  several  ingenious  men,  of  a  class  something  below  that  of  the 
ordinary  members.  When  an  operative  mechanic  attracts  notice  by  his  zeal  for  im- 
provement in  any  branch  of  science,  he  is  almost  uniformly  invited  to  the  Wistar  meet- 
ings. The  advantage  of  this  policy  is  obviously  very  great.  A  modest  and  deserving 
man  is  brought  into  notice.  His  errors  are  corrected,  his  ardor  is  stimulated,  his  taste 
improved.  A  healthy  connection  is  kept  up  between  the  different  classes  of  society,  and 
the  feeling  of  mutual  sympathy  is  duly  cherished.  During  my  stay  in  Philadelphia,  I 
was  present  at  several  of  these  Wistar  meetings,  and  always  returned  from  them  with 
increased  conviction  of  their  beneficial  tendency. 

5S  39 


458  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

torn  with  accelerating  velocity,  and  far  into  the  plain  below.  The  mo- 
tion is  sometimes  so  swift  that  it  is  like  the  sweep  of  an  eagle.  In  the 
cities,  fatal  accidents  occur  in  following  this  amusement,  and  there  are 
generally  penalties  imposed  by  law  for  pursuing  it  there. 

The  coasting  is  performed,  however,  in  the  country,  upon  a  grander 
scale  ;  the  great  ox  sled,  or  sledge,  is  carried  up  with  commendable  perse- 
verance and  toil,  and  so  covered  with  youth  of  both  sexes,  that  little  of  the 
timber  appears.  When  fitted,  it  is  launched;  but  when  adrift  it  is  more 
difficult  to  be  guided  than  the  single  sledge,  and  the  whole  freight  is  some- 
times turned  topsy  turvy  into  a  snow  bank  half  way  down  the  hill.  This, 
however,  seems  to  increase  the  enjoyment.  This  practice  of  coasting  is 
even  more  common  in  New  England  than  in  the  middle  states. 

There  are  some  traits  of  character  which  run  through  the  southern 
states,  modified  by  a  variety  of  circumstances,  but  most  obviously  and 
generally  by  the  system  of  domestic  slavery.  The  character  of  Virginia 
and  South  Carolina  is  perhaps,  in  many  respects,  superior  to  that  of  the 
Southern  states,  yet  the  principal  characteristics  are  common  to  all.  In 
Virginia,  many  of  the  old  English  modes  of  life  are  retained,  and  the  do- 
mains of  the  landed  proprietors  have  the  extent  of  English  baronies.  At- 
tachment to  home,  family  connections,  and  profuse  hospitality,  eminently 
distinguish  this  high-minded  and  honorable  class. 

The  people  of  Carolina,  who  dwell  in  the  lower  country,  are  annually 
compelled  to  leave  their  homes,  however  attached  to  them.  None  can 
travel  without  gaining  knowledge,  and  losing  prejudices,  and  the  Caroli- 
nians are,  to  a  great  degree,  liberal  and  intelligent.  To  remain  in  sum- 
mer on  the  plantations,  is  at  the  risk  of  life ;  they  are  therefore  found,  at 
that  season,  in  the  northern  and  eastern  states,  and  in  Europe.  They  are 
social,  and  in  general  closely  united.  In  New  England,  gentlemen  of 
neighboring  towns  are  often  unacquainted  with  each  other ;  but  in  Caro- 
lina, the  acquaintance  extends  over  the  state.  This  arises  from  the  inter- 
course of  the  capital,  where  all  are  found  in  spring,  and  from  the  fellow- 
ships that  are  formed  in  packets,  or  while  residing  or  travelling  in  other 
states. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  life  of  a  southern  agriculturist  is  one  of 
indolence  and  ease.  It  is  the  very  reverse  ;  it  is  one  of  far  greater  activity 
than  is  led  by  gentlemen  of  wealth  elsewhere.  The  cares  of  a  plantation 
are  sufficient  to  consume  the  day,  and  the  planter  is  often  on  horseback  in 
his  fields,  till  evening.  His  notions  of  space  are  so  liberal,  that  he  will 
readily  ride  a  dozen  miles  to  dine,  and  he  engages  in  the  chase  with  his 
characteristic  ardor.  No  men  ride  so  fearlessly  ;  and  the  game  is  followed 
at  full  speed  in  thick  woods,  among  holes,  horizontal  branches,  and  pros- 
trate trunks.  The  social  relations  are  admirable.  The  season  for  visiting 
is  never  over,  and  as  the  social  is  as  much  increased  as  any  other  principle, 
by  cultivation,  here  it  attains  to  its  best  growth.  There  is,  among  relatives, 
great  kindliness  of  feeling,  and  the  circle  it  embraces  is  wider  than  in  New 
England.     Any  one  may,  as  far  as  affinity  can  be  traced, 

'Claim  kindred  there,  and  have  his  claim  allowed.' 

Gentlemen  meet  at  frequent  intervals  in  club  houses,  often  built  in  the 
Woods,  where  the  entertainment  is  furnished  by  each  one  in  turn. 

The  people  of  the  south  have  more  haughtiness,  courtesy,  and  a  higher 


>"      O^  Tjrw  ^ 


f« 


«/RSJ* 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPI 


estimation  of  personal  dignity,  than  those  of  the  north.  Pride  is  the  na- 
tural consequence  of  superiority  of  station,  though  it  is  generally  incompa- 
tible with  meanness.  A  planter  would  be  more  apt  to  do  what  he  would 
be  sorry  for,  than  what  he  would  be  ashamed  of.  A  slight  wound  of 
pride  is  more  strictly  avenged,  than  a  greater  injury  to  property  ;  and  a 
lack  of  courtesy  is  perhaps  as  much  reprobated  as  a  breach  in  morals. 
Duelling  is  the  natural  growth  of  such  a  state,  and  though  it  is  not  fre- 
quent, it  is  but  too  well  established  by  custom.  The  challenged  is  held  to 
fight,  even  if  he  feel  no  resentment,  or  has  done  no  injustice  ;  and  he 
sometimes  perils  his  life  for  mere  expediency  :  as  he  would  put  it  to  some 
risk  to  preserve  his  property,  he  is  led  to  believe  that  he  must  do  it  also  to 
save  his  character. 

'  The  poles,'  says  a  recent  traveller,  '  are  not  more  diametrically  opposed, 
than  a  native  of  the  states  south  of  the  Potomac,  and  a  New  Englander. 
They  differ  in  every  thing  of  thought,  feeling,  and  opinion.  The  latter  is 
a  man  of  regular  and  decorous  habits,  shrewd,  intelligent,  and  persevering; 
phlegmatic  in  temperament,  devoted  to  the  pursuits  of  gain,  and  envious 
of  those  who  are  more  successful  than  himself.  The  former — I  speak  of 
the  opulent  and  educated — is  distinguished  by  a  high-mindedness,  gene- 
rosity, and  hospitality,  by  no  means  predicable  of  his  more  eastern  neigh- 
bors. He  values  money  only  for  the  enjoyments  it  can  procure,  is  fond 
of'gayety,  given  to  social  pleasures,  somewhat  touchy  and  choleric,  and  as 
eager  to  avenge  an  insult  as  to  show  a  kindness.  To  fight  a  duel  in  the 
New  England  states  would,  under  almost  any  circumstances,  be  disgrace- 
ful. To  refuse  a  challenge,  to  tolerate  even  an  insinuation  derogatory  from 
personal  honor,  would  be  considered  equally  so  in  the  South. 

'.  In  point  of  manner,  the  southern  gentlemen  are  decidedly  superior  to 
all  others  of  the  union.  Being  more  dependent  on  social  intercourse,  they 
are  at  greater  pains,  perhaps,  to  render  it  agreeable.  There  is  more  spirit 
and  vivacity  about  them,  and  far  less  of  that  prudent  caution,  which,  how- 
ever advantageous  on  the  exchange,  is  by  no  means  prepossessing  at  the 
dinner-table,  or  in  the  drawing-room.  When  at  Washington,  I  was  a  good 
deal  thrown  into  the  society  of  members  from  the  South,  and  left  it  armed, 
by  their  kindness,  with  a  multitude  of  letters,  of  which  I  regret  that  my 
hurried  progress  did  not  permit  me  to  avail  myself.  Many  of  them  were 
men  of  much  accomplishment,  and  I  think  it  probable  that  Englishmen, 
unconnected  with  business,  would  generally  prefer  the  society  of  gentlemen 
of  this  portion  of  the  union,  to  any  other  which  the  country  affords.' 

The  amusements  and  occupations  of  the  people  inhabiting  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi  afford  no  great  scope  to  the  pen  of  the  true  chronicler, 
though  they  have  often  furnished  materials  for  the  foreign  traveller  and 
the  novelist.  A  new  country,  inhabited  by  what  may  be  called,  in  some 
sort,  a  new  people,  must,  however,  present  some  scenes  which  may  serve 
to  amuse,  if  not  to  instruct.* 

New  Orleans  seems,  by  common  consent,  to  be  the  focus  in  which  the 
eccentricities  of  Missouri,  Kentucky,  and  the  rest  of  the  western  country 
concentrate.  Here  are  seen  the  Spaniard  with  his  lazo,  the  Kentuckian 
with  his  broad-horn,  or  flat-bottomed  ark,  the  merchant  from  Europe  or  the 

*  For  interesting  sketches  of  western  manners  and  customs,  see  the  Transatlantic? 
Sketches,  by  Alexander,  and  the  valuable  works  of  Mr.  Flint. 


460  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

New  England  states,  stepping  stately  from  the  deck  of  his  ship,  the  slave 
with  his  burthen  on  his  shoulders,  and  the  gambler  looking  out  for  hi3 
prey.  Not  the  least  interesting  of  the  classes  of  this  heterogenous  popula- 
tion, are  the  women  who  have  not  the  pure  white  complexion  of  the  Atlan- 
tic coast,  or  the  crisp  locks  and  bent  limbs  of  their  remote  African  ances- 
tors. These  females  hold  an  anomalous  position  among  the  races  by 
whom  they  are  surrounded,  which  will  require  some  further  comment. 
They  are  called  quadroons,  mustees,  mulattoes,  &c.  as  the  purity  of  their 
parentage  or  the  circumstances  of  their  birth  may  require. 

These  women,  being  generally  the  offspring  of  white  men  of  standing 
and  respectability,  are  left  in  singularly  unfortunate  circumstances.  They 
have  the  feelings,  and,  in  a  considerable  degree,  the  education  and  senti- 
ments of  their  more  pure-blooded  countrywomen.  Nevertheless,  the  pre- 
judice, or  feeling,  be  it  natural  or  not,  which  inclines  every  free  white 
American  to  view  the  whole  African  race  as  an  inferior  order  of  mankind, 
prevents  any  legitimate  union  with  them.  So  situated,  they  make  the 
best  of  the  condition  into  which  the  accident  of  birth,  and  not  their  own 
fault,  has  thrown  them.  They  form  temporary  connections  with  such  re- 
spectable whites  as  are  able  to  maintain  them  in  ease,  and  attachments  are 
often  formed,  which  are  not  surpassed,  or  scarcely  equalled,  by  any  of 
which  we  read  in  romance.  However,  the  connection  is  generally  consi- 
dered in  the  light  of  a  bargain.  The  mother  promenades  with  her  fairer 
daughter  on  the  levee,  till  some  white  stranger,  smitten  with  the  charms 
of  the  latter,  makes  a  proposal.  A  bargain  is  made,  limited  in  time,  or 
unlimited,  according  to  circumstances,  and  a  breach  of  faith,  thus  plighted, 
rarely  occurs.  This  connection,  infamous  as  it  seems,  involves  no  disgrace 
in  New  Orleans.  It  is  the  most  respectable  condition  to  which  a  female, 
who  is  conscious  of  the  taint  of  black  blood,  can  aspire.  She  is  neither 
shunned  nor  scorned,  and  may  hold  up  her  head  in  any  company  into 
which  she  may  happen  to  enter. 

Strange  scenes  sometimes  occur,  in  consequence  of  the  mixture  of  races 
on  the  banks  of  the  levee  of  New  Orleans.  The  small  trader  tries  to  take 
advantage  of  all  with  whom  he  is  thrown  in  contact.  The  Indian  begs, 
the  over-wrought  slave  groans,  the  backwoodsman  bullies.  '  Twenty  dol- 
lars,' cried  a  Kentuckian  boatman,  stepping  upon  the  levee,  '  to  any  man 
who  stops  my  moderate  head- way.'  A  Mexican  hunter  of  wild  horses, 
who  rode  quietly  behind  him,  threw  his  lazo  over  his  head,  wheeled  his 
horse  short  round,  and  gallopped  up  the  levee,  drag-ging  the  boaster  after 
him. 

Gaming  is  practised  in  New  Orleans,  probably  to  a  greater  extent  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  United  States.  The  vice  being  considered  little 
or  no  shame,  houses  are  kept  openly.  This  may  be  considered  one  great 
well-spring  of  social  corruption. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  states  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  raise  great 
quantities  of  grain,  not  to  speak  of  pork  and  other  commodities  which 
bring  profit  to  American  agriculturists.  New  Orleans  is  the  mart  where 
these  articles  find  a  vent,  and  the  principal  object  of  a  western  farmer  is  to 
get  them  thither.  To  this  effect,  he  builds  what  he  calls  a  flat  boat,  that  is 
to  say,  a  large  square  box,  without  a  lid,  capable  of  containing  and  trans- 
porting many  tons.  The  materials  of  this  vehicle  are  found  in  abundance 
all  over  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  cost  of  building  it  is  there- 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  461 

fore  small.  In  this  bark  the  farmer  commits  himself  to  the  waters,  and  if 
he  escapes  snags,  sawyers,  &c.  which  usually  happens,  he  arrives  in  New 
Orleans,  where  he  disposes  of  his  produce.  Keel  boats  are  also  used  for 
the  transportation  of  goods  and  produce,  but  since  steamboats  have  become 
common  on  the  Mississippi  waters,  they  have  in  a  great  measure  supersed- 
ed the  aforesaid  means  of  conveyance.  Still,  the  keel  and  flat  boats  may 
merit  a  description.  The  former  were  nearly  in  the  form  of  the  packets 
used  on  the  Erie  and  Middlesex  canals,  and  were  propelled  by  poles,  oars, 
and  sails.  The  latter  were  unmanagable  hulks,  which  floated  at  the  mer- 
cy of  the  current,  and  could  only  be  diverted  from  rocks,  snags,  and  other 
perils  of  river  navigation,  by  the  use  of  sweeps,  which,  however,  could 
only  move  them  in  a  lateral  direction.  On  arriving  at  New  Orleans,  their 
owners  broke  them  up,  as  no  human  power  could  have  taken  them  up 
stream,  and  sold  them  for  fire  wood.  They  then  returned  to  their  homes 
by  land.  Flat  and  keel  boats  are  now  rarely  seen  on  the  western  waters ; 
but  when  they  were  the  only  means  of  transportation,  they  reared  a  hardy 
class,  fit  to  fight  with  Indians,  or  to  subdue  the  wilderness.  This  class, 
thanks  to  steam  navigation,  is  now  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  and  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi  has  seen  '  the  Last  of  the  Boatmen.' 

'  King  balls'  are  still  in  vogue  in  this  region,  both  in  the  white  and  free 
colored  classes.  A  ball  is  given,  precisely  like  those  known  in  other  parts 
of  the  United  States,  excepting  in  one  particular.  He  who  gives  the  ball, 
singles  out  a  lady  whom  he  designates  his  '  queen,'  to  whom  he  gives,  and 
who  receives,  his  exclusive  attention,  for  the  remainder  of  the  season. 
The  other  guests  do  likewise,  and  the  queens  frequently  receive  presents 
to  a  large  amount,  before  the  temporary  connection  is  dissolved.  Evil  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  known  to  come  of  this  custom. 

Rough  athletic  sports,  racing  and  shooting  matches,  are  the  most  common 
amusements  of  the  men  of  the  west.  It  is  common  for  parties  to  test  their 
marksmanship  by  squirrel  shooting,  with  the  western  weapon,  the  rifle. 
The  hunter  aims  solely  at  the  head  of  the  little  animal,  and  the  shot  which 
takes  effect  in  any  other  part  is  reckoned  as  nothing.  The  rifle  used  in 
this  and  other  sports,  is  very  different  from  those  used  by  volunteer  com- 
panies in  the  eastern  states,  the  barrel  being  very  heavy,  the  bore  small, 
and  the  sights  adjusted  with  scrupulous  accuracy.  Hence  the  proverbial 
marksmanship  of  the  backwoodsmen,  so  apparent  at  New  Orleans  and 
elsewhere.  The  feats  of  individual  hunters  almost  transcend  belief.  Some 
have  been  known  to  throw  two  apples  into  the  air,  and  strike  them  both 
with  a  single  bullet  as  they  crossed  each  other,  and  it  is  not  uncommon 
for  one  man  to  hold  up  a  small  object  for  another  to  shoot  at.  The  cele- 
brated ■  Mike  Fink '  used  to  amuse  himself  by  shooting  off  the  tails  of 
swine,  as  they  ran,  and  hitting  his  wife's  comb  upon  her  head. 

A  pastime  is  sometimes  practised  at  weddings  and  other  high  festive 
occasions,  which  is  called  a  goose  or  gander  pulling.  The  manner  is  this. 
The  toughest  goose  is  selected  from  the  flock,  and  its  neck  is  stripped  of 
its  feathers,  and  then  well  soaped  or  greased.  A  suitable  tree  is  next  se- 
lected, an  oak  or  hickory  being  preferred.  The  feet  of  the  fowl  are  then 
made  fast  to  the  extremity  of  a  pliant  limb,  about  as  high  as  a  man  on 
horseback  can  reach.  Bets  are  made,  and  a  prize  proposed.  The  first 
sportsman  rides  under  the  tree  at  full  speed,  and  snatches  at  the  neck  of 
the  devoted  fowl  as  he  passes.     If  he  succeeds  in  pulling  off  its  head,  he 

39* 


462  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

gains  the  prize  ;  but  this  rarely  happens  at  the  first  trial.  The  neck  is  too 
slippery,  the  animal  sees  and  avoids  the  horseman's  grasp,  and  the  sway- 
ing branch  aids  its  efforts.  Besides,  the  exploit  requires  no  little  strength 
of  arm,  and  is  seldom  accomplished  without  sundry  falls  and  bruises  ;  ail 
of  which  are  considered  matter  of  merriment. 

The  slaves  of  that  section  have  little  amusement,  save  what' they  derive 
from  their  constitutional  good  humor.  Dances  and  corn  huskings,  or 
shuckingSy  are  their  chief  pastimes.  After  laboring  hard  all  day,  the  negro 
will  cheerfully  run  to  a  dance,  half  a  score  of  miles  off,  and  get  back  to  his 
toil  before  morning.  A  corn  shucking  is  a  matter  of  more  importance. 
The  sable  helots  sit  in  a  circle  round  the  heap  of  maize,  keeping  time  with 
head  and  hand  to  some  rude  ditty  like  the  following  : — 

'  0  I  wish  that  I  had  the  wings  of  an  eagle ! 

Ho!  ho!  he— ho— ho! 
I  'd  fly  away  to  a  wild-goose  country, 

Ho,  ho,  he — ho — ho !' 

This  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  the  banjoe,  a  kind  of  rude  riddle. 
1  Possum  up  a  gum  stump,'  is  a  great  favorite  with  these  choristers. 

Buffalo  hunting  was  once,  as  deer  hunting  is  now,  a  favorite  amusement 
of  the  backwoodsmen.  The  wild  cattle  have  long  since  receded  beyond 
the  Mississippi,  and  now  furnish  sport  only  to  the  wandering  Indians, 
their  traders,  and  the  no  less  hardy  bands  of  trappers  and  hunters.  Some 
account  of  the  manner  of  taking  this  huge  animal  may  not  be  out  of 
place  here. 

The  scent  of  the  buffalo,  though  otherwise  it  is  a  very  stupid  animal,  is 
exceedingly  acute.  It  will  scent  a  man  more  than  a  league,  and  flee  in 
alarm,  though  it  is  not  terrified  at  the  sight  of  the  human  race.  Hence  it 
is  necessary  for  the  pedestrian  hunter  to  get  to  leeward  of  the  object  of  his 
pursuit.  Having  approached  the  animal  as  nearly  as  he  well  may,  he 
stoops,  then  gets  upon  all  fours,  and  finally  drags  himself  along  prone, 
pushing  his  firelock  before  him.  If  there  be  long  grass,  or  if,  in  winter, 
the  snow  be  deep,  the  circumstance  much  facilitates  his  operations.  If  the 
animal  ceases  to  feed  to  look  at  him,  he  stops  and  remains  motionless  till 
it  begins  to  graze  again.  By  observing  these  precautions,  the  buffalo  may 
be  approached  to  within  a  few  yards.  When  the  hunter  is  nigh  enough, 
he  directs  his  aim  behind  the  beast's  fore-shoulder,  and  inflicts  a  mortal 
wound.  This,  however,  is  but  a  slow  and  unsatisfactory  mode  of  hunting, 
inasmuch  as  it  consumes  much  time,  and  only  one  buffalo  can  be  killed  in 
many  hours.  The  best  and  most  experienced  hunters  follow  the  chase 
on  horseback. 

The  mounted  sportsman  dashes  into  the  thick  of  the  herd,  and  singles 
out  the  best  and  fattest.  The  buffalo,  when  frightened,  runs  fast,  but  awk- 
wardly. His  gait  is  that  of  a  swine,  and  this  peculiar  gait  the  trained 
horse  acquires,  and  assumes  when  beside  the  game,  obeying  the  least  pres- 
sure of  the  rider's  foot  or  knee.  Tbe  hunter  takes  care  to  keep  at  least 
his  horse's  length  from  the  buffalo,  in  order  that,  if  the  latter  should  turn 
upon  him,  which  he  will  certainly  do  if  wounded,  he  may  have  time  and 
space  to  escape.  All  precautions  being  duly  taken,  the  horseman  throws 
the  reins  on  his  steed's  neck,  holds  his  gun  stiffly  with  both  hands,  and 
fires.      The  horse  swerves  at   the  flash,  and  the  rider  directs  him  to 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  463 

new  game,  himself  loading  at  full  speed.  An  expert  huntsman  will  kill 
as  many  as  half  a  score  of  buffaloes  at  one  race,  and  rarely  misses  the 
heart. 

When  an  Indian  wounds  a  buffalo,  he  leaves  it  to  die  or  separate  from 
the  herd,  and  his  companions  never  interfere  with  what  has  thus  become 
his  property.  Few  of  the  skins  of  the  animals  so  killed  are  taken,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  flesh  remains  a  prey  to  the  wolves  and  ravens.  When 
the  cattle  are  in  plenty,  they  are  slain  merely  for  their  tongues,  humps, 
and  other  delicate  morsels.     Vast  havoc  is  made  of  them  every  year. 

The  more  remote  Indians,  not  being  provided  with  fire  arms,  use  bows 
and  arrows  in  the  chase,  and  with  great  effect.  A  single  arrow  is  often 
known  to  go  through  and  through  a  buffalo,  and  it  is  seldom  a  shaft 
stops  short  of  the  feather.  But  whether  it  strike  deep  or  not,  if  it  does  but 
stick,  the  animal's  fate  is  sealed.  It  works  inward  as  he  runs,  and  even- 
tually reaches  the  vitals. 

It  is  a  cheering  sight  to  see  an  Indian  buffalo  hunt.  The  tread  of  the 
herd  shakes  the  solid  earth  ;  the  hunters  animate  each  other  with  loud 
shouts,  and  the  guns  flash  incessantly.  Here  a  rider  is  seen  fleeing  for 
life  before  some  infuriated  animal ;  there  a  buffalo  stands  at  bay.  Alto- 
gether, the  scene  produces  an  excitement  which  those  only  who  have  felt 
can  conceive.  The  passion  for  this  chase  increases  with  time,  and  few 
professed  buffalo  hunters  leave  it  before  age  disables  them. 

There  are  many  apparent  dangers  in  buffalo  hunting.  The  prairies 
are  full  of  holes  dug  by  badgers  and  other  burrowing  animals,  in  which 
the  horse  may  stumble,  and  there  is  some  risk  from  the  horns  of  the  chase. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  seldom  that  any  serious  accident  occurs. 

Another  mode  of  taking  the  buffalo  was  formerly  in  use  among  the 
Indians  of  the  Mississippi.  Two  rows  of  stakes  were  planted  in  the  prai- 
rie, gradually  converging,  till  at  their  extremity  they  barely  left  a  passage 
into  an  inclosure  of  a  few  yards  in  area.  These  rows  were  a  league  or 
more  in  length,  and  on  the  top  of  each  stake  was  placed  a  piece  of  turf, 
which  frightened  the  cattle,  and  prevented  them  from  attempting  to  escape 
in  a  lateral  direction.  The  herd,  being  pursued  by  horsemen  to  the  en- 
trance of  this  artificial  defile,  were  driven  onward  till  they  reached  the 
pound,  when  the  entrance  was  closed,  and  the  work  of  destruction  began. 
Few  ever  escaped,  for  the  buffalo  has  little  sagacity,  and,  being  thus  shut 
up,  will  run  round  and  round,  without  attempting  to  break  through  the 
barriers  which  inclose  them.  This  mode  of  hunting  is  still  practised  by 
some  of  the  more  remote  tribes.^ 

Deer  are  hunted  on  the  Mississippi,  both  by  whites  and  Indians,  in  a 
way  unknown  in  the  eastern  states.  In  the  hot  nights  of  summer,  the 
deer  resort  to  streams  and  ponds,  to  escape  from  the  myriads  of  mosquitoes 
with  which  the  woods  teem,  and  stand  immersed  in  the  water  for  hours. 
Sportsmen  take  advantage  of  this  habit  to  destroy  them.  A  board  is 
placed  in  the  front  of  a  canoe,  before  which  burns  a  torch.  The  board 
serves  to  deflect  the  light  from  the  person  of  the  hunter,  who  paddles  as 
silently  as  possible  along  the  margin.  The  devoted  deer  seems  to  be 
fascinated  by  the  glare  of  the  torch,  and  suffers  the  canoe  to  approach 

•  For  a  full  description,  see  Captain  Franklin's  Narrative. 


464  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

within  five  yards  of  him.  Nay,  even  the  sound  of  a  gun  close  at  hand 
will  scarce  startle  him.  Two  or  three  are  often  killed  within  a  stone's 
throw  of  each  other. 

We  are  not  aware  that,  besides  the  particulars  already  noticed  under 
this  head,  there  are  any  occupations  or  amusements  peculiar  to  the  people 
of  the  west,  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  description. 


466 


CHAPTER  XIV.— PENITENTIARY  SYSTEM. 

Most  of  the  improvements  made  in  the  manner  of  punishing  and  re- 
forming persons  convicted  of  enormous  crimes  in  the  United  States  may 
justly  be  attributed  to  the  studies  and  exertions  of  enlightened  members  of 
the  Prison  Discipline  Society.  To  their  reports  and  publications,  there- 
fore, must  we  look  for  a  correct  synopsis  of  this  system,  so  highly  appre- 
ciated among  ourselves,  so  much  decried  by  the  high-priest  of  British  pre- 
judice, captain  Basil  Hall. 

The  first  annual  meeting  of  the  above-named  society  took  place  on  the 
second  of  June,  A.  D.  1826,  in  Boston.  The  report  declares  that  its  object 
was  the  improvement  of  public  prisons.  It  contained  many  lucid  remarks 
on  the  existing  state  of  these  prisons,  but,  as  it  is  with  the  present,  rather 
than  with  the  past,  that  we  have  to  do,  we  shall  pretermit  these.  It  ap- 
pears, however,  that  many  of  the  jails  of  that  time  were  very  insecure — 
that  solitary  confinement  gave  the  best  promise  of  the  desirable  security, 
and  prevented  prisoners  from  corrupting  each  other — that  frequent  inspec- 
tions were  necessary,  to  prevent  plans  of  escape — that  prisons,  from 
mere  humanity,  should  be  better  ventilated,  and  so  lighted  as  to  enable  the 
convicts  at  least  to  read  the  word  of  God — that  cleanliness  had,  in  many 
instances,  been  neglected — that  amended  means  of  instruction  in  the  me- 
chanic arts  were  highly  desirable — that  the  condition  of  the  sick  was  much 
neglected — and,  in  short,  that  the  condition  of  the  jails  and  penitentiaries 
of  the  United  States  was  little  better  than  that  of  European  places  of  pun- 
ishment. The  improvements  which  have  since  been  made  will  better  ap- 
pear from  positive,  authenticated  facts,  than  from  the  idle  speculations  of 
theorists  and  travellers. 

When  the  above  society  was  formed,  there  were  but  two  prisons  on  the 
principle  of  solitary  confinement  in  the  United  States, — at  Thomaston, 
Maine,  and  Auburn,  New  York,  containing  between  three  and  four  hun- 
dred night  rooms,  and  four  or  five  thousand  convicts.  Full  six  thousand 
solitary  cells  have  since  been  built.  The  prisons  /low  constructed  on  this 
principle  are  twenty-nine  in  number,  and  are  all  on  the  general  plan  of  the 
Auburn  prison,  with  some  slight  varieties  of  construction.  As  many  of 
the  prisons  are  nearly  identical  in  construction  with  this  last,  a  description 
of  it  will  probably  not  be  unacceptable. 

The  external  wall  of  this  establishment  comprises  an  area  of  upwards 
of  sixteen  thousand  feet,  in  which  is  contained  the  prisons,  yards,  lumber 
yard,  (very  large,)  garden  of  about  four  thousand  five  hundred  feet,  keep- 
er's house,  guard  room,  a  great  number  of  shops,  bathing  pools,  and  other 
offices.  Two  large  buildings,  on  the  old  plan,  and  which  were  formerly 
\ised  as  night  rooms,  are  no  longer  dedicated  to  that  purpose.  These, 
together  with  the  keeper's  house  and  the  prisons,  form  three  sides  of  a 
square,  which  opens  upon  an  area,  surrounded,  first  by  the  shops,  and  then 
by  the  exterior  wail. 
59 


466  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  external  wall  of  the  principal  prison,  (that  in  the  northern  wing,) 
is  thirty  feet  high,  two  hundred  and  six  feet  long,  forty-six  feet  wide,  and 
three  feet  thick.  It  incloses  an  area  of  five  hundred  feet.  The  long  bar- 
rack, thus  surrounded  by  this  external  wall,  is  divided  from  end  to  end  by 
a  solid  and  continuous  wall  of  masonry,  two  feet  thick.  On  each  side  of 
this,  the  cells  designed  for  the  prisoners  are  arranged.  To  explain  this  more 
fully ;  a  long,  narrow  building,  of  solid  granite  and  lime,  is  equally  divided, 
from  end  to  end,  by  a  solid  wall.  On  each  side  of  this  wall,  and  within 
the  outer  wall  of  the  building,  are  a  great  number  of  cells,  so  arranged  as 
to  effect  the  greatest  economy  of  room.  Outside  the  exterior  walls  of  these 
cells,  is  another  wall,  ten  feet  distant  from  them,  and  thirty  feet  high. 
Beyond  this  second  wall  are  certain  yards,  surrounded  by  a  third  wall,  and 
in  the  said  wall,  as  well  as  in  the  ten-foot-wide  gallery  between  the  cells 
and  the  thirty-foot  wall,  keepers  and  sentinels  are  constantly  moving. 
Thus,  if  a  prisoner  should  break  out  of  his  cell,  he  must  first  pass  or  kill  a 
sentinel,  then  force  a  second  wall,  then  pass  through  a  yard  in  which  other 
sentinels  are  stationed,  and  then  climb  over  another  wall.  So  great  is  the 
security  thus  afforded,  that  during  many  years,  it  is  believed  that  in  prisons 
thus  constructed,  but  one  serious  attempt  at  escape  has  occurred,  and  in 
that  instance  it  was  unsuccessful. 

Prisons  built  on  this  plan  are  thought  to  combine  the  advantages  of 
security,  solitary  confinement,  inspection,  ventilation,  light,  cleanliness, 
instruction,  and  proper  attendance  on  the  sick. 

The  exterior  wall  of  the  cells,  which  looks  upon  the  area  ten  feet  wide, 
is  two  feet  thick.  The  walls  which  separate  the  cells  are  one  foot  thick. 
Thus  a  recess  is  formed  at  each  door,  which  deadens  the  sound,  should 
one  prisoner  attempt  to  hold  communication  with  another.  The  only 
opening  from  each  cell  is  an  open  grate  in  the  upper  part  of  the  door, 
twenty  inches  long  by  eighteen  wide,  and  defended  by  thick  iron  bars. 
Through  this  glazed  grate,  light,  air,  and  heat  are  admitted  to  the  cell. 
The  door  is  fastened  by  a  strong  latch,  connected  with  a  hook  and  a  bar 
of  iron.  It  is  thus  almost  impossible  for  one  prisoner  to  communicate  with 
another,  even  if  there  were  no  sentinel  present  to  listen.^ 

*  At  the  period  when  the  prison  was  erected,  the  legislature  of  the  state,  and  the 
public,  had  become  so  dissatisfied  with  the  mode  of  penitentiary  punishment,  without 
solitary  confinement,  then  existing,  which  seemed  rather  to  harden  than  to  have  a  ten* 
dency  to  reform  the  delinquents,  that  it  was  generally  believed,  that,  unless  a  severe 
system  was  adopted,  the  old  sanguinary  criminal  code  must  be  restored.  The  legisla- 
ture of  New  York  state,  therefore,  in  the  year  1821,  directed  a  selection  of  the  oldest 
and  most  heinous  offenders  to  be  made,  who  should  be  confined  constantly  in  solitary 
cells.  Eighty  convicts  were  accordingly  put  into  solitary  cells,  on  the  twenty-fifth  of 
December,  1821.  Five  of  those  convicts  died  during  the  year  preceding  January,  1823, 
while  only  five  died  out  of  one  hundred  and  forty  convicts  confined  at  the  same  time  in 
prison,  but  who  were  kept  to  labor.  The  health  of  the  solitary  convicts  was  very  soon 
seriously  impaired.  Some  of  them  became  insane  ;  and  the  effect  of  this  constant  im- 
prisonment was  not  more  favorable  to  reformation  than  to  mental  and  bodily  health. 

Before  the  end  of  1823,  exclusive  solitary  confinement  was  entirely  discontinued,  and 
the  present  successful  system,  combining  solitude  and  silence  with  labor,  introduced ;  a 
majority  of  the  commissioners,  who  examined  the  prison,  having  reported,  that  they 
were  entirely  averse  to  solitary  confinement  without  labor,  on  the  grounds  of  its  being 
injurious  to  health,  expensive,  affording  no  means  of  reformation,  and  unnecessarily 
severe.  La  Fayette,  when  he  was  lately  in  the  United  States,  and  heard  of  the  experi- 
ment of  exclusive  solitary  confinement,  said  it  was  just  a  revival  of  the  practice  in  the 
Bastile,  which  had  so  dreadful  an  effect  on  the  poor  prisoners.    '  I  repaired,'  he  said, 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  467 

The  economy  of  this  mode  of  building  is  evident.  A  convenient  hospi- 
tal may  be  made,  by  dispensing  with  the  partition  walls  between  four  of 
the  cells  in  the  upper  story.  Thus  constructed,  four  hundred  cells,  seven 
feet  long,  seven  high,  and  three  and  a  half  feet  wide,  cover  only  two  hun- 
dred and  six  by  forty-six  feet  of  ground.  At  Auburn,  five  small  stoves 
and  eighteen  lamps,  great  and  small,  placed  in  the  ten-feet  area,  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  prisoners,  give  light  and  heat  to  five  hundred  and  forty 
cells.  One  sentinel  suffices  to  guard  four  hundred  prisoners,  and  to  pre- 
vent communication  between  them.  The  space  in  front  of  the  cells  is,  like 
the  ear  of  Dionysius,  a  perfect  sounding  gallery,  so  that  the  sentinel,  in  the 
area,  can  hear  a  whisper  from  a  distant  cell,  in  the  upper  story.  The 
experiment  has  been  often  tried,  and  always  with  the  same  result. 

The  rules  and  regulations  found  most  effectual  in  this  and  other  prisons, 
are  as  follows  :  On  entering,  a  criminal  should  undergo  a  thorough  cleans- 
ing. It  should  be  a  part  of  the  regulations  to  classify  the  prisoners.  Men 
and  women  should  be  separated,  as  also  old  and  young,  condemned  and 
uncondemned,  debtors  and  criminals.  Prisoners  should  be  comfortably 
clothed,  and  fed  with  wholesome  food.  Employment  should  be  provided 
for  such  as  have  trades,  and  trades  should  be  taught  to  such  as  have  none, 
so  that  they  may  not  be  a  burthen  to  the  society  they  have  offended,  or  be 
compelled  to  resort  to  crime  for  subsistence  when  discharged.  All  these, 
and  many  other  desirable  ends,  are  believed  to  have  been  attained  in  Au- 
burn, and  other  prisons  conducted  on  the  same  plan. 

The  government  of  Auburn  is  confided  to  five  inspectors,  a  keeper,  a 
deputy  keeper,  a  clerk,  sixteen  assistant  keepers,  who  are  master  workmen 
in  the  shops,  five  sentinels,  a  porter,  a  physician,  and  a  chaplain.  The 
inspectors  receive  no  compensation ;  that  of  the  officers  amounts  to  an  ag- 
gregate of  four  thousand  and  thirty-two  dollars  per  annum.  No  spirituous 
liquors  are  used  by  any  officer,  or  are  allowed  to  be  introduced  into  the 
establishment  by  the  guard,  when  on  duty,  nor  is  any  officer  to  invite  the 
others  together  for  the  purpose  of  drinking,  or  treating,  as  it  is  called.  All 
the  turnkeys  are  required  to  attend  divine  service  excepting  two,  who  cannot 
be  spared  from  the  prison  and  the  kitchen.  A  uniform  gravity  and  dignity 
are  constantly  maintained  by  the  officers  in  presence  of  the  convicts,  and 
they  are  expected,  at  all  times,  to  treat  each  other  with  that  respect  and 
kindness  which  are  calculated  to  advance  the  best  interests  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

The  convicts  march  to  and  from  their  rest,  food,  and  labor,  at  stated 
times,  in  profound  silence.  The  order  of  their  march  is  in  single  file,  to 
the  lock-step,  keeping  their  faces  toward  the  keeper,  that  he  may  detect 
conversation,  if  it  should  be  attempted.  The  same  silence  and  good  order 
are  enforced,  as  far  as  possible,  in  every  business,  and  in  every  depart- 
ment. The  duty  of  the  keepers  is  to  prevent  conversation,  looking  at 
spectators,  and  idle  diversion ;  for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  to  keep  the  con- 

( to  the  scene  on  the  second  day  of  the  demolition,  and  found  that  all  the  prisoners  had 
been  deranged  by  their  solitary  confinement,  except  one ;  he  had  been  a  prisoner 
twenty-five  years,  and  was  led  forth  during  the  height  of  the  tumultuous  riot  of  the 
people,  whilst  engaged  in  tearing  down  the  building.  He  looked  around  with  amaze- 
ment, for  he  had  seen  nobody  for  that  space  of  time ;  and,  before  night,  he  was  so 
much  affected,  that  he  became  a  confirmed  maniac,  from  which  situation  he  never  re- 
covered.' 


468  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

victs  at  work,  they  are  continually  walking  about  the  shops.  The  stillness 
and  order  of  divine  service  are  truly  impressive,  and  during  the  night  the 
area  about  the  cells  is  a  scene  of  peculiar  solemnity  and  gloom.  A  hun- 
dred or  more  young  convicts  acquire  the  rudiments  of  learning  in  tho 
Sunday  school. 

A  valuable  experiment  on  the  subject  of  temperance  was  first  made  in 
this  prison,  and  has  since  been  carried  into  effect  in  all  the  rest.  The 
convicts  being  strictly  debarred  the  use  of  tobacco,  ardent  spirits,  and  all 
other  stimulants,  it  was  found  that  the  health  of  the  most  abandoned 
drunkards  did  not  suffer,  contrary  to  the  common  idea  that  the  grossly  in- 
temperate cannot  at  once  break  off  from  the  use  of  spirits  without  danger. 
It  appears  that,  for  a  few  days,  they  are  uneasy,  and  lose  their  appetite, 
after  which  they  eat  heartily,  and  uniformly  improve  in  health  and  ap- 
pearance. 

The  mode  of  punishment  in  this  and  similar  prisons,  merits  some  atten- 
tion. Stripes,  fetters,  solitary  confinement,  and  hunger  are  used,  and 
there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  respecting  their  respective  degrees  of 
utility.  In  some  extensive  establishments,  stripes  and  chains  are  not  used 
at  all ;  in  others,  recourse  is  had  to  stripes  only.  It  is  so  in  Auburn.  In 
Richmond,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Charlestown,  and  Concord, 
solitary  confinement,  with  a  reduced  allowance  of  bread  and  water,  is  pre- 
ferred. In  Connecticut,  all  the  above  methods  are  practised,  and  severe 
hunger  is  often  found  efficacious.  If  the  efficacy  of  the  different  modes  is 
to  be  tested  by  the  results  they  produce  on  discipline,  Auburn  seems  to  show 
that  stripes  are  better  than  other  punishments.  The  difference  in  the  order 
industry,  and  subdued  feeling  of  the  prisoners,  is  in  favor  of  Auburn,  though, 
perhaps,  this  is  as  much  to  be  ascribed  to  their  separation  by  night,  and  othei 
salutary  regulations,  as  to  the  mode  of  physical  correction.  The  advocate* 
for  whipping  urge,  that  it  requires  less  time  than  other  punishments,  that 
the  mind  of  the  sufferer  does  not  so  long  dwell  on  it,  that  it  is  less  severe, 
and  that  it  can  more  easily  be  proportioned  to  the  offence.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  said  that  solitary  confinement  will  subdue  men  hardened  against 
all  other  inflictions,  and  no  doubt  it  has  so  operated  in  very  many  cases. 
Be  the  question  decided  as  it  may,  the  remark  of  the  London  Prison  Dis- 
cipline Society's  seventh  annual  report  is  undeniably  untrue,  viz.  that 
'  solitary  confinement,  unmitigated  by  employment  either  of  body  or  mind, 
is  the  most  prominent  feature  in  the  discipline  now  recommended  in  the 
United  States.' 

We  are  unable,  both  from  the  want  of  space  and  of  sufficient  means  of 
information,  to  enter  into  minute  details  respecting  the  government  of 
many  of  the  prisons.  At  Sing-sing,  on  the  Hudson  river,  the  convicts  are 
awakened  in  the  morning  by  a  bell ;  but  before  they  are  let  out  of  their 
cells,  the  chaplain  reads  a  prayer  that  may  be  heard  by  all  on  one  side,  the 
space  between  the  cells  and  the  external  wall  being  a  perfect  sounding 
gallery.  The  doors  are  then  opened,  and  the  prisoners  step  forth,  at  the 
word  of  command,  into  the  gallery.  They  are  then  marched  to  the  work- 
shops, stopping  on  the  way  to  wash  themselves.  One  party  cleanses  the 
whole  establishment,  another  attends  to  washing,  and  another  to  cooking. 
The  whole  body  then  go  to  their  fixed  tasks,  such  as  hewing  stone,  sawing 
marble,  forging  iron,  and  the  various  mechanic  arts  with  which  they  may 
be  acquainted.     Each  shop  is  superintended  by  a  turnkey,  who  must  hin> 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  469 

self  be  a  trustworthy  master-workman,  in  order  that  he  may  instruct  those 
under  his  charge.  While  in  the  shops,  the  prisoners  are  placed  with  their 
faces  all  in  one  direction,  so  that  there  can  be  no  communication  by  looks 
or  signs.  From  twenty  to  thirty  are  engaged  in  each  shop,  and  one  good 
man  is  found  able  to  keep  that  number  of  hardened  viHains  in  order. 

A  narrow,  dark  passage  runs  along  the  back  of  the  shops,  with  narrow 
slits  in  the  wall,  through  which  the  superintendent  may  observe  the  con- 
duct of  both  the  convicts  and  the  turnkeys,  himself  unseen  by  either. 
This  certainty  of  being  at  all  moments  liable  to  an  authorized  espionage, 
cannot  fail  to  keep  all  parties  careful  of  their  behavior. 

At  eight,  at  the  sound  of  the  bell,  the  convicts  are  again  marched  to 
ttair  cells,  at  the  doors  of  which  their  breakfasts  have  already  been  placed. 
They  are  locked  in,  and  eat  in  solitude  and  silence.  In  twenty  minutes, 
they  are  again  marched  to  their  work,  and  at  noon  they  go  to  dinner  in 
precisely  the  same  manner,  and  at  night  to  supper.  At  a  fixed  hour,  the 
bell  warns  them  to  undress  and  go  to  bed,  after  having  heard  the  chap- 
lain's prayer,  as  in  the  morning.  The  next  day  brings  the  same  dull,  un- 
varied round,  convincing  them  that  they  are  indeed  cut  off  from  mankind, 
and  that  for  the  purpose  of  punishment.  It  should  seem  that  if  any  thing 
could  make  the  wicked  turn  from  his  wickedness,  it  would  be  the  prospect 
of  passing  yeaTS  in  this  manner. 

It  is  the  practice  of  Mr.  Barrett,  the  resident  clergyman,  every  evening 
to  read  a  portion  of  the  Scriptures  to  the  convicts,  from  the  gallery,  then  to 
offer  explanatory  remarks,  and  to  conclude  with  prayer.  After  divine  ser- 
vice on  Sundays,  he  spends  a  considerable  portion  of  time  in  talking  with 
them  in  their  cells,  and,  hardened  as  they  are,  none  of  them  have  shown 
any  want  of  respect,  or  unwillingness  to  hear. 

The  inspectors  of  the  Auburn  prison  stated  to  the  legislature  of  New 
York,  in  182S,  that  the  labors  of  the  convicts  had  become  so  much  more 
productive  than  in  former  times,  they  thought  no  further  appropriations 
would  be  necessary  for  the  support  of  that  establishment.  In  the  same 
year,  the  earnings  of  the  Wethersfield  (Connecticut)  prison  gave,  in  six 
months,  a  net  gain  of  one  thousand  and  seventeen  dollars  over  and  above 
the  expenses  of  their  government  and  support.  A  large  gain  is  believed 
to  be  obtained  in  other  penitentiaries.  The  following  facts  will  show  the 
superiority  of  United  States  prisons,  in  this  particular,  to  those  of  England. 
In  one  year,  twelve  of  the  most  productive  prisons  in  England  contained 
three  thousand,  six  hundred  and  ninety-nine  convicts,  who  earned  forty- 
one  thousand,  seven  hundred  and  twenty-seven  dollars.  In  five  prisons  ki 
the  United  States,  during  the  same  length  of  time,  there  were  but  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-nine  convicts,  and  they  earned  eighty-one  thousand, 
nine  hundred  and  seventy-nine  dollars.  That  is,  a  little  more  than  a 
fourth  of  the  number  of  American  convicts  earn  more  than  double  the 
amount  of  nearly  four  times  the  number  of  convicts  in  England.  This 
difference  depends,  no  doubt,  greatly  on  discipline,  and  also  on  difference 
of  diet.  In  the  five  American  prisons  to  which  we  have  referred,  at  least 
a  pound  of  animal  food  is  given  to  each  man,  per  diem.  In  England,  the 
quantity  is  from  a  pound  to  half  a  pound  per  week,  scarcely  sufficient  to 
keep  up  the\trength  of  a  laboring  man. 

In  some  of  the  penitentiaries,  if  not  in  all,  a  Bible  is  placed  in  each  cell ; 
.the  only  book  the  prisoner  is  permitted  to  see.     It  is  not  required  that  he 


470  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

should  read  it ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  he  will  long  neglect 
to  do  so,  since  it  is  the  only  amusement  he  can  possibly  hope  for,  and  the 
only  occupation  which  can  relieve  the  soul-subduing  monotony  of  his  soli- 
tude. '  I  should  like  to  see  what  sort  of  stuff  the  Bible  is  made  of,'  said 
one  very  obdurate  sinner  to  the  chaplain.  With  the  same  feeling  will  the 
convict,  who  at  first  scoffs  at  religion,  find  that  this  privilege  is  the  only 
link  of  kindness  which  connects  him  with  his  species,  and  perhaps  eventu- 
ally find  inestimable  profit  in  it. 

Some  of  the  convicts,  especially  the  foreigners,  being  unable  to  read,  it 
Was  thought  expedient,  at  Auburn,  to  establish  the  Sunday  school.  Fifty 
of  the  most  ignorant  convicts  were  placed  in  it,  and  they  embraced  the 
privilege  with  eagerness  and  thankfulness.  The  school  has  since  been 
increased  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  scholars.  They  are  divided  into 
classes  of  five  or  six,  and  instructed  by  students  in  the  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary,  who  benevolently  give  their  services.  However,  no  greater  re- 
laxation of  the  ordinary  discipline  than  is  absolutely  necessary  takes  place 
on  these  occasions.  While  the  classes  are  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  chaplain,  they  are  also  closely  watched  by  the  officers.  The  annual 
report  of  1828  shows  that  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  whole  number  of  convicts 
attended  the  Sunday  school. 

It  will  not  be  supposed  that  the  effects  of  the  system  of  which  we  have 
given  a  brief  sketch,  are  beneficial  in  all  cases ;  but  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  they  are  often  so,  and  that  a  great  many  convicts  have  been  reformed. 
One  great  advantage  is  gained,  at  any  rate :  the  men  who  would,  in  En- 
gland, be  put  to  a  shameful  death,  are  made  to  live  and  be  harmless,  if  not, 
indeed,  actually  serviceable  to  society.  The  persons  subjected  to  this  dis- 
cipline are  the  most  depraved  and  ignorant  men  in  the  land.  Many  of 
them  have  learned  vice  as  a  science,  and  have  become  unable,  from  the 
force  of  habit,  to  control  their  wicked  propensities.  It  is  not  to  be  hoped 
that  all,  or  even  a  great  portion  of  such  a  class,  can  be  radically  reform- 
ed ;  but  they  can,  at  least,  be  rendered  less  wicked.  Beside  this,  the  safe 
custody  of  the  culprit  is*  combined  with  enough  punishment  to  make  an 
impression  on  the  mind,  and  deter  others  from  his  offences.  The  system 
is  also  entitled  to  much  praise  for  having  joined  economy  with  humanity. 
It  may  have  faults,  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  we  think  the  wisdom  of  man 
may  safely  be  challenged  to  make  a  better. 

A  late  English  traveller  has  offered  a  suggestion  on  this  head,  which 
We  think  entitled  to  attentive  consideration.  He  says,  in  substance,  that  a 
powerful  motive  to  virtue  might  easily  be  introduced  into  our  penitentiaries  ; 
namely,  hope.  At  present,  severe  coercion  is  the  only  means  of  preserving 
discipline,  and  indeed  it  is  indispensable.  But  hope  may  come  in  play  with 
fear.  If  disobedience  be  punished,  obedience  can  be  rewarded,  and  thus  the 
convicts  would  have  a  direct  interest  in  conforming  to  the  rules  of  the  pri- 
son. If  a  prisoner  were  sentenced  for  several  years,  and  should  behave 
well  for  a  week,  one  day  might  be  subtracted  from  the  period  of  his  con- 
finement ;  if  he  should  still  continue  to  do  aright,  his  detention  might  be 
further  shortened,  and  in  any  ratio  that  might  be  thought  expedient.  By 
this  procedure,  the  seeds  of  virtue  might  be  sown,  and  good  habits  formed. 

It  will  not  probably  be  thought  amiss  to  conclude  this  article  with  a 
glance  at  certain  institutions,  called  houses  of  reformation  for  juvenile  of- 
fenders.    There  are  several  of  them  in  the  country,  all  designed  to  reclaim 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  471 

children  from  incipient  habits  of  vice,  and  they  have  certainly  saved  many 
from  state  prison  and  gallows  here,  and  perdition  hereafter.  The  principal 
two  of  these  are  in  New  York  and  South  Boston. 

In  the  South  Boston  school  of  reform,  the  boys  are  divided  into  grades, 
and  are  promoted  or  degraded,  as  they  improve  or  retrograde  in  morals. 
When  their  reformation  is  supposed  to  be  complete,  they  are  apprenticed 
to  respectable  citizens,  who  become  bound  to  feed  and  clothe  them,  to  give 
them  the  means  of  instruction,  to  teach  them  some  useful  art,  and,  at  the 
expiration  of  their  indentures,  to  give  them  a  small  sum  of  money  to  begin 
the  world  with.  As  they  generally  come  very  ignorant  to  the  institution, 
and  do  not  stay  long  in  it,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  they  should  receive 
very  thorough  instruction,  but  they  are  nevertheless  taught  the  elements 
of  English  education.  They  were  formerly  taught  several  mechanical 
arts,  (as  they  still  are  in  New  York,)  but  this  having  been  thought  to  in- 
terfere with  the  great  business  of  moral  reform,  the  plan  has  been  aban- 
doned. Many  boys  have  been  discharged  as  cured  of  their  former  habits 
and  feelings,  most  of  whom  have  given  entire  satisfaction,  and  very  few 
indeed  have  relapsed.  The  institution  has  unquestionably  been  of  great 
benefit  to  society.^ 

*  The  following  judicious  remarks  are  from  the  excellent  work  of  Mr.  Stuart,  and 
indicate  the  estimation  in  wrhich  our  penitentiary  system  is  held  by  intelligent  foreigners. 

No  attempt  to  regulate  any  of  the  prisons  in  this  country  according  to  the  Auburn 
plan  has,  so  far  as  I  have  learned,  been  made.  This  appears  the  more  extraordinary, 
because  it  is  stated,  in  the  printed  report  of  the  agent  of  the  Auburn  prison  for  1827, 
that  the  British  minister  at  Washington,  Mr.  Vaughan,  after  a  critical  examination  of 
the  institution,  declared  in  ardent  language,  that  he  hoped  in  God  it  would  be  made  the 
model  of  imitation,  not  only  for  this  country,  but  for  all  Europe.  And  Mr.  Vaughan 
would,  of  course,  not  fail  to  make  his  opinion,  and  the  results  on  which  it  was  founded, 
known  in  the  proper  quarter.  Great  Britain  ought,  of  all  countries  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  to  be  the  most  grateful  to  the  state  of  New  York,  for  having  set  such  an  example 
before  her  ;  for  in  what  country  are  there  so  many  convicts  in  reference  to  the  popula- 
tion ? — where  are  they  maintained  at  so  great  expense  \o  the  state  ? — and  where  has  so 
little  yet  been  done  towards  accomplishing  the  great  end  of  punishment, — the  diminu- 
tion of  offences  by  the  terror  of  punishment  ? — or  in  promoting  the  reformation  of  the 
offenders  ? 

The  Auburn  system  embraces  all  the  objects  which  Howard,  and  the  philanthropists 
of  this  and  the  last  century,  have  been  endeavoring  to  attain.  In  the  Maison  de  Force, 
at  Ghent,  which  both  Howard  and  Buxton  visited,  at  different  periods,  thirty-four  years 
apart,  and  which  both  of  them  eulogize,  the  same  management  in  respect  to  solitary 
cells,  silence,  and  labor,  prevailed  as  at  Auburn,  and  was  attended  with  excellent  ef- 
fects ;  but  the  convicts  were  allowed  a  certain  portion  of  their  earnings,  and  the  system 
was  not  adhered  to  with  the  exactness,  precision,  and  regularity,  which  are  indispensa- 
bly  necessary,  so  that  at  one  period,  the  earnings  of  the  prisoners  were  much  reduced 
in  amount,  and  there  was  great  laxity  of  discipline.  Mr.  Western,  one  of  the  magis- 
trates of  the  county  of  Essex,  and  one  of  the  representatives  of  that  county  in  parlia- 
ment, a  gentleman  whose  benevolent  and  patriotic  views  are  well  known,  has,  in  a 
pamphlet  on  prison  discipline,  which  he  published  a  few  years  ago,  suggested  the  fol- 
lowing plan,  the  details  of  which  he  has  well  explained : — '  Solitary  confinement,  march- 
ing and  remarching  to  the  cells,  as  practised  at  Auburn  ;  hard  labor  for  eight  instead 
of  eleven  hours,  as  at  Auburn,  but  without  restriction  as  to  conversation,  and  with 
liberty  for  airing  and  exercise  for  three  hours.'  And  he  asks,  ■  if  each  successive  day 
was  spent  in  this  manner,  can  it  be  doubted  that  the  frequent  commission  of  crime 
would  be  checked,  and  more  done  to  deter,  correct,  and  reform,  than  could  be  accom- 
plished by  any  other  punishment  ?  A  period  of  such  discipline,  longer  or  shorter,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  offence,  would  surely  be  sufficient  for  any  violation  of  the 
law  short  of  murder,  or  that  description  of  outrage  which  is  likely  to  lead  to  the  perpe- 
tration of  it.    This  sort  of  treatment  is  not  to  be  overcome :  it  cannol  be  braved,  or 


472  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  other  institutions  of  the  same  nature  are  conducted  on  the  same- 
general  principles.  There  are  differences  in  their  governments,  endow- 
ments, and  discipline,  but  there  is  a  strong  general  resemblance.  It  is  not 
for  us  to  say  which  is  best  conducted,  and  we  have  only  selected  that  in 
South  Boston,  because,  having  witnessed  its  operation,  we  are  able  to  bear 
witness  of  its  peculiar  utility,  and  of  the  skill,  patience,  and  integrity  of  the 
gentlemen  who  have  hitherto  had  charge  of  it. 

laughed  at,  or  disregarded  by  any  force  of  animal  spirits,  however  strong  or  vigorous 
of  mind  or  body  the  individual  may  be.  The  dull,  unvarying  course  of  hard  labor, 
with  hard  fare  and  seclusion,  must  in  time  become  so  painfully  irksome,  and  so  wear 
and  distress  him,  that  he  will,  inevitably,  in  the  end,  be  subdued.'  If  Mr.  Western's 
plan  would  be  attended  with  the  effects  he  describes,  '  to  deter,  correct,  and  reform/ 
now  much  more  certainly  would  those  consequences  attend  that  followed  at  Auburn, 
where  the  offenders  suffer  the  penalty  of  total  exclusion  from  society,  deprived  of  all 
knowledge  of  their  friends  and  relations,  and  of  their  associates,  even  if  confined  in  the 
same  prison  with  them  ;  are  doomed  to  constant  hard  labor,  their  earnings  altogether 
applied  for  the  benefit  of  the  state ;  subjected  to  stripes,  inflicted  summarily  and  in- 
stantly, by  any  one  of  the  keepers,  for  every  infraction  of  the  prison  rules,  even  for  the 
slightest  attempt  to  break  silence,  or  for  inattention  to  work,  or  not  working  constantly 
and  well. 

The  punishment  of  stripes  has  been  found  fault  with  ;  but  both  at  Ghent  and  Auburn, 
the  keepers  have  given  it  as  their  opinion,  that  constant  labor,  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  very  strict  discipline  enjoined,  cannot  be  enforced  without  their  having  the  power  to 
inflict  this  summary  punishment.  It  is  only  permitted  to  be  inflicted  on  the  back  of  the 
convict,  in  such  manner  as  to  produce  personal  suffering,  without  danger  to  the  health 
or  any  vital  part.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the  certainty  of  punishment  following 
every  offence  is  so  thoroughly  understood,  that  the  power  is,  as  already  noticed,  seldom 
exercised. 


473 


CHAPTER  XVI.— LITERATURE  AND  EDUCATION. 

The  language  of  the  United  States  differs  little  or  nothing  from  that  of 
the  middle  and  southern  counties  of  England.  The  slight  peculiarities 
are  chiefly  such  as  relate  to  accent  and  intonation,  and  do  not  affect  the 
sense.  Most  of  the  expressions  which  are  now  peculiar  to  the  Americans, 
and  especially  to  the  Ycmkees,  were  in  use  by  the  '  pilgrim  fathers,'  at  the 
time  of  their  emigration,  and  to  them,  probably,  ought  to  be  attributed  the 
nasal  drawl  of  the  least  educated  inhabitants  of  New  England.  The  pe- 
culiar words  of  the  Americans  are  too  few  to  deserve  particular  notice. 
The  educated  men  of  all  the  states,  and  especially  the  inhabitants  of  the 
larger  cities  and  towns,  speak  a  language  scarcely  to  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  higher  classes  of  the  mother  country.  It  is  yet  a  ques- 
tion, in  what  part  of  the  union  it  is  spoken  in  its  greatest  purity,  each  of 
the  different  sections  arrogating  that  praise  to  itself.  A  practised  ear, 
however,  can  distinguish  a  difference  between  them,  so  as  to  decide  at 
once  to  what  division  the  speaker  belongs.  The  want  of  a  capital,  by 
which  the  standard  can  be  fixed,  is  probably  the  cause  of  this  variety.  It 
may  truly  be  asserted,  that,  on  the  whole,  English  is  as  well  spoken  in  the 
United  States  as  in  the  mother  country,  and  that  the  jargon  put  into  the 
mouths  of  Americans  by  foreign  travellers,  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
tongue  actually  spoken,  that  a  gross  caricature  does  to  its  original. 

Education  has  met  with  few  obstacles  in  the  United  States.  Neither 
the  interests  and  prejudices  of  an  aristocracy,  nor  poverty  and  dependence 
of  working  classes  have  checked  it  in  the  least.  State  has  vied  with  state 
in  giving  the  means  of  instruction  to  the  humblest  individuals.  Large 
tracts  of  land  have  been  granted  by  the  general  government,  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools  in  the  new  states,  and  a  reservation  is  made  in  every  new 
township  for  that  purpose.  In  the  old  states,  the  legislatures  have,  by  le- 
gal enactments,  compelled  every  township  to  provide  for  the  instruction  of 
its  population  by  assessment,  and  a  punishment  is  provided  for  neglect. 
In  the  New  England  and  some  other  states,  education  at  the  public  ex- 
pense is  accounted  one  of  the  rights  of  freeborn  citizens.*     It  appears  from 

*  Education  in  Maine. — A  writer  in  the  Saco  Republican  furnishes  some  details  re- 
specting the  public  provision  for  education  in  the  state  of  Maine.  After  its  separation 
from  Massachusetts,  a  law  was  passed,  requiring  every  town  to  raise  annually,  for  the 
support  of  schools,  a  sum  equal  to  forty  cents  for  each  person  in  such  town,  to  be  dis- 
tributed among  the  school  districts,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  each. 
In  1825,  the  number  of  districts,  as  appears  from  the  reports  made  to  the  legislature, 
was  two  thousand,  four  hundred  and  ninety-nine  ;  the  number  of  children,  between  the 
ages  of  four  and  twenty-one,  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  thousand,  nine  hundred  and 
thirty-one ;  the  number  who  usually  attend  schools,  one  hundred  and  one  thousand, 
three  hundred  and  twenty.five,  and  the  total  annual  expenditure,  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seven  thousand,  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight  dollars,  and  fifty-seven  cents. 
The  present  number  of  scholars  is  estimated  by  this  writer  at  one  hundred  and  forty 
thousand.  The  schools  kept  by  male  teachers  are  open,  on  the  average,  two  months  in 
60  40* 


474  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  returns  from  a  hundred  and  one  of  the  towns  of  Massachusetts  to  the 
legislature,  that  the  amount  annually  paid  in  those  towns  for  instruction 
is  one  hunched  and  seventy-seven  thousand,  three  hundred  and  forty -two 
dollars.  Twelve  thousand,  three  hundred  and  ninety-three  pupils  attend 
private  schools  in  the  same  towns,  at  an  expense  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy  thousand,  three  hundred  and  forty-two  dollars.  In  all  these 
towns,  the  whole  number  of  persons  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and 
twenty-one,  who  cannot  read  and  write,  is  only  fifty-eight.  In  one  con- 
siderable town,  there  are  but  three  persons  of  the  above-mentioned  age 
who  cannot  read  and  write,  and  those  three  are  deaf  and  dumb. 

Infant  schools  have  been  established  all  over  the  union,  with  great  bene- 
fit, and  great  attention  has  been  given  to  the  improvement  of  seminaries 
of  all  descriptions,  as  well  as  to  the  means  of  rendering  teachers  competent 
to  their  office.  The  press  teems  with  myriads  of  books  for  the  use  of 
children,  institutions  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  are  established,  thou- 
sands of  associations  for  mutual  instruction  are  formed,  countless  lectures 
are  delivered,  libraries  are  accumulated,  and,  in  short,  no  means  of  disse- 
minating knowledge  is  neglected. 

The  elements  of  knowledge  being  thus  accessible  to  all,  it  follows  natu- 
rally, that  the  wealthy  should  be  desirous  to  give  their  children  a  more 
perfect  education  than  elementary  public  schools  can  afford.  There  are, 
therefore,  an  almost  infinite  number  and  variety  of  private  schools,  in 
which  children  may  be  educated  in  conformity  to  the  views  which  their 
parents  may  entertain  for  them.  In  some  instances,  public  schools  have 
intrenched  materially  upon  private  academies  ;  in  others,  the  case  has  been 
reversed.  Females  are  not  neglected  in  the  same  degree  as  in  other  coun- 
tries— in  some  of  the  seminaries,  they  are  taught  Greek,  Latin,  the  exact 
sciences,  philosophy,  botany,  chemistry,  &c.  &c.  The  great  fault  of  Ame- 
rican instruction  in  general  is,  that  it  is  superficial,  some  knowledge  of 
many  subjects  being  communicated,  without  a  very  thorough  knowledge 
of  any  particular  one.  There  are,  however,  many  distinguished  excep- 
tions to  this  remark,  and  eminent  scholars  are  yearly  becoming  more  nu- 
merous. 

There  are  more  than  sixty  colleges  in  the  United  States,  besides  many 
academies,  several  theological  seminaries,  and  numerous  medical  and  law 
schools.  Of  all  these,  the  most  distinguished  are  Harvard  university  and 
Yale  college.  The  object  of  nearly  all  of  them  is  to  give  a  thorough  edu- 
cation, in  languages,  mathematics,  and  the  sciences,  and  it  cannot  be  doubt- 
ed that  most  of  them  afford  to  the  diligent  student  all  the  necessary  means 
of  acquiring  such  knowledge.  Yet  it  is  not  to  be  denied,  that  very  many 
of  the  students  leave  college  studies  for  the  more  active  pursuits  of  life, 
without  having  given  sufficient  time  or  pains  to  their  studies,  and  in  this 
respect,  our  universities  will  not,  certainly,  compare  advantageously  with 
those  of  England.  The  reason  is  obvious — in  the  old  country,  few  stu- 
dents would  spend  the  best  of  their  years  in  celibacy  and  seclusion,  in  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  were  they  not  supplied  with  the  luxuries  of  life  by 
endowments,  and  cheered  by  the  prospect  of  comfortable  future  establish- 

the  year,  and  those  kept  by  female  teachers,  about  two  weeks  longer.  The  writer  sug- 
gests, that  if  the  sum  of  one  dollar  and  six  cents,  instead  of  forty  cents,  for  every  in- 
habitant, were  required  to  be  raised,  that  the  schools  might  be  kept  open  during  the 
year,  and  believes  that  the  additional  tax  would  not  be  regarded  as  a  burden. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  475 

ments  by  provision  of  law.  We  may  console  ourselves  for  this  manifest 
inferiority  by  the  reflection,  that  if  we  have  fewer  great  scholars  than  Eu- 
ropean nations,  neither  have  we  peasants  or  beggars. 

The  consequences  of  the  superficial  but  universal  diffusion  of  literature 
and  science  in  the  United  States  are  remarkably  singular.  Literary  pro- 
ductions of  the  lowest  order  exist  in  excess.  We  think  we  should  not 
speak  much  amiss  in  saying,  that  more  newspapers  are  published  in  this 
country  than  in  all  Europe.  A  great  number  of  them  are  of  an  inferior 
character,  being  filled  with  virulent  and  crude  political  speculations,  reli- 
gious controversy,  or  rather  vituperation,  items  of  common-place  intelli- 
gence, such  poetry  and  literature  as  may  be  expected  from  writers  beneath 
thei  majority,  advertisements,  puffs,  and  trash  of  all  kinds.  Some,  which 
are  purely  political,  mistake  abuse  for  the  energy  of  eloquence  ;  others, 
which  are  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  commercial  classes,  are  chiefly 
filled  with  advertisements ;  some  contain  little  beside  invective  against 
masonry  or  antimasonry,  and  not  a  few  disgrace  religion,  under  pretence 
of  promoting  its  progress.  The  cause  of  this  perversion  of  the  press  is 
very  simple.  The  expense  of  starting  a  newspaper  is  so  trifling,  that  any 
successful  apprentice  can  establish  one  on  arriving  at  his  majority  ;  and 
an  excellent  printer  may  make  a  very  indifferent  editor.  Having  once 
began  to  publish  a  print,  he  must  conduct  it  on  his  own  mental  resources, 
for  there  are  few  establishments  of  this  kind  which  can  afford  to  pay  for 
really  valuable  assistance.  Yet,  every  state  can  boast  of  some  public 
journals  of  higher  character.  There  is  also  another  class  of  journals  which 
are  really  valuable,  and  which  partake  of  the  nature  of  magazines.  These 
are  periodical  records  of  facts  connected  with  trade,  commerce,  internal  im- 
provement, mechanical  inventions,  and  matters  connected  with  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  national  and  state  legislatures.  Such  are  Niles's  Register, 
Blount's  Annual  Register,  and  a  few  others  of  the  same  character. 

The  present  number  of  magazines  and  reviews  would  seem  to  indicate 
a  very  rapid  improvement  in  American  taste  and  knowledge.  Some  years 
since,  many  abortive  attempts  were  made  to  establish  an  American  review, 
and  the  North  American  was  the  first  to  maintain  its  ground,  and  its  im- 
provement has  been  constant.  It  is  now  very  well  known,  and  often  quot- 
ed in  Europe.  The  Quarterly  Review,  published  in  Philadelphia,  is  an 
exceedingly  able  work  of  the  same  kind.  Silliman's  Journal  of  the  Sci- 
ences is  deservedly  esteemed.  There  are  also  several  monthly  magazines 
of  a  very  respectable  character,  of  which  the  New  England  Magazine  is, 
in  many  respects,  the  best.  It  is  conducted  somewhat  in  the  style  of  the^ 
English  New  Monthly.  The  Knickerbocker,  issued  in  New  York,  has 
acquired  considerable  notoriety.  Even  the  new  western  states  are  not 
wholly  without  periodical  literature.  Theological  magazines  are  very 
numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  ably  conducted.  The  Christian  Exami- 
ner and  Unitarian  Advocate  are  the  organs  of  Unitarianism.  The  Chris- 
tian Spectator  and  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims  are  Calvinistic  works,  and,  in- 
deed, almost  every  sect  in  the  union  has  its  particular  organ.  Christians 
of  all  denominations  will  be  disposed  to  question  the  merits  of  many  of 
these ;  but  none  will  deny  that  they  are  all  useful  in  some  degree,  as  they 
serve  to  awaken  a  spirit  of  inquiry.  The  annual  publications  are,  the 
American  Almanac,  the  merits  of  which  are  denied  by  none,  and  which  is 
constantly  improving ;  and  the  Annual  Register,  also  a  very  useful  wo*k. 


476  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Souvenirs  are  supported  by  writers  of  some  talent  for  light  literature, 
and  indicate  improvement  in  the  arts. 

The  United  States  may  justly  boast  of  their  number  of  literary  publica- 
tions, though  not  of  their  general  excellence.  The  number  of  American 
plays  is  great ;  their  merit  is,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  but  slight. 
Verse-writers  we  have  in  cohorts  and  legions ;  but  with  the  exceptions  of 
Bryant,  Percival,  Halleck,  Hillhouse,  and  perhaps  two  or  three  others,  it  is 
probable  that  posterity  will  not  enjoy  the  benefit  of  their  works.  In  light 
literature,  we  have  the  names  of  Irving,  Brockden  Brown,  Cooper,  Pauld- 
ing, Dana,  Miss  Sedgwick,  Flint,  Neal,  and  a  few  more,  who  are  well 
known  by  their  productions.  Meritorious  law  books  of  American  produc- 
tion are  not  rare.  The  labors  of  Chancellor  Kent  are  an  honor  to  the  sci- 
ence of  jurisprudence.  In  history,  we  have  Judge  Marshall's  Life  of 
"Washington,  Belknap's  History  of  New  Hampshire,  and  well-written 
histories  of  most  of  the  old  states.  Many  more  writers  we  have,  whose 
pens  have  been  employed  merely  on  matters  of  local  and  temporary 
interest.  Still,  however,  our  literature  has  not  kept  pace  with  that  of 
the  mother  country.  Little  has  been  done  to  encourage  it,  and  many 
causes  have  contributed  to  retard  its  growth.  It  has  been  in  a  great 
measure  superseded  by  foreign  publications,  which  the  American  book- 
seller can  republish  without  paying  the  author,  and  which  he  therefore 
prefers.  There  is  little  honor  and  less  profit  in  the  pursuits  of  our  writers. 
Our  mechanics  become  wealthy  by  hard  labor,  whereas  our  writers  might 
starve,  did  they  depend  on  their  pens.  There  is  a  great  demand  for  all 
things  which  are  of  practical,  tangible,  every-day  utility,  but  a  very  limited 
one  for  fine  reading.  Few  of  our  people  have  the  leisure  and  fortune 
which  might  enable  them  to  cultivate  literature  and  science  advantageous- 
ly. Under  these  circumstances,  most  of  what  is  written  is  done  hastily, 
and  consequently  badly  done.  But  notwithstanding  the  great  number  of 
discouraging  circumstances,  enough  has  been  well  done  to  indicate  the 
existence  of  much  talent  and  learning.^ 

*  The  following  observations  are  from  the  pen  of  a  writer,  who  has  done  as  much  for 
the  really  useful  literature  of  the  country  as  any  other  man.  We  refer  to  Mr.  Flint,  of 
whose  valuable  writings  we  have  so  often  taken  the  liberty  to  avail  ourselves. 

I.  Our  national  and  state  governments  do  little  or  nothing  for  literature,  by  furnish- 
ing example,  premiums,  excitement,  money.  They  have  taken  no  pains  to  inspire  a 
taste  for  it,  or  to  cause  it  to  become  part  and  parcel  of  the  national  glory.  To  produce 
a  rail-road,  a  canal,  a  joint  stock  company,  is  felt  to  confer  more  national  renown,  as 
well  as  advantage,  than  to  rear  a  Milton,  Burke,  or  Walter  Scott.  We  hardly  retain 
our  West  Point.  Beside  our  solemn  farce  of  sending  among  the  few  respectable  ex- 
aminers, a  large  proportion  of  ignorant  and  incompetent  men  to  examine  the  pupils, 
legislators  have  not  been  found  wanting,  who,  availing  themselves  of  the  miserable  ap- 
peal of  demagogues,  to  the  sordid  appetite,  miscalled  economy,  have  wished  to  put  forth 
their  unhallowed  hands  to  demolish  this  only  vestige  of  national  show  of  a  disposition 
to  foster  the  sciences.  Profound  respect  for  our  country  interdicts  the  thoughts  that 
arise  in  our  mind  upon  this  head.  Literature,  science,  what  are  they  at  Washington, 
more  than  they  would  have  been  in  the  day  of  Attila  ?  The  members  of  the  legislature 
have  more  than  they  can  do  to  write  letters  to  their  constituents,  and  secure  the  means 
of  a  future  election,  and  to  make  excuses  for  refusing  their  names  to  the  thousand  ap- 
plicants for  patronage  to  new  books  and  periodicals. 

In  reply  to  all  this,  we  are  sometimes  asked,  what  a  government,  with  the  genius  and 
limitations  of  ours,  could  do  to  foster  literature  ?  Every  one  must  be  aware,  that  if  the 
constituent  parts  that  compose  the  government  felt  keenly  and  saw  clearly,  that  ad- 
vances in  science  and  literature  constituted  the  true  interest  and  glory  of  the  country,  they 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  477 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  general  feeling  in  regard  to  education. 
The  strength  of  this  is  exhibited  in  the  great  number  of  common  schools 
and  colleges.     Institutions  by  this  name  are  to  be  found  perhaps  more  fre- 

would  be  at  no  loss  to  apply  the  adequate  excitement.  Had  they  the  strong  impulse, 
the  inward  perception,  the  munificent  and  fostering  spirit,  we  should  discover  what  they 
could  do.  The  feeling,  the  will,  and  not  the  means,  are  wanting.  The  single  solitary 
expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clarke  twinkles,  as  a  kind  of  evening  star  above  the  western 
mountains,  in  the  midst  of  the  darkness  of  our  efforts  for  science  and  letters.  That 
single  mission  gained  the  administration  of  Jefferson  more  true  glory  abroad  and  at 
home,  than  any  single  act  of  that  or  any  subsequent  administration  ;  and  every  village 
orator  annually  announces,  that  Athens,  of  amaranthine  and  imperishable  memory, 
was  less  extensive  and  less  populous  than  one  of  our  states  of  the  second  class,  and  as- 
signs as  the  cause  of  this  freshness  and  perpetuity  of  her  fame,  nothing  but  intellectual 
pre-eminence.  But  the  people  and  the  rulers  have  alike  waxed  too  gross  and  sordid, 
too  blind  and  hardened  to  every  impulse  but  personal  aggrandizement  and  the  love  of 
money,  to  perceive  or  regard  what  constitutes  national  glory. 

II.  We  have  no  literary  metropolis,  no  central  point,  from  which  information,  ex- 
citement  and  emulation  might  radiate  in  every  direction,  so  as  to  fill  the  whole  circum- 
ference of  our  land.  The  interests  and  tastes  of  our  numerous  literary  capitals  not 
only  have  no  decided  concurrence,  but  clash  and  oppose  each  other.  The  favorite  au- 
thor, poet,  editor  of  one  capital,  glides  in  the  steamboat,  and  whirls  on  the  railway,  in 
a  few  hours,  out  of  the  orbit  of  his  own  little  universe,  and  is  surprised  to  find  himself 
in  a  new  planet,  as  little  known  as  the  man  in  the  moon.  There  is  no  common  point 
of  union  for  literary  men,  where  they  may  meet  and  replenish  their  oil  from  each 
other's  lamps,  guide  and  encourage  each  other,  review  and  pass  upon  the  books  and 
literary  efforts  of  the  past  year,  and  impart  counsels  touching  their  own  embryo  pro- 
jects for  the  coming  one.  A  censurate,  thus  constituted,  would  be  able  to  do  much  to- 
ward breaking  down  sectional,  and  building  up  in  its  stead  a  national,  literature.  Hun- 
dreds of  trumpery  books,  on  which  so  much  paper  and  ink  are  wasted,  would,  in  this 
case,  hereafter  cease  to  see  the  light — and  much  talent,  that  is  now  as  an  un wrought 
gem  in  the  mines,  would  be  brought  to  view.  "We  shall  be  told,  that  there  would  be 
infinite  jealousy,  rivalry,  clanship,  envy,  intrigue.  Perhaps  there  might.  But  political 
associations  are  not  abandoned,  because  the  same  evil  attaches  to  them.  Such  meet- 
ings have  long  been  practised  in  Germany,  and  have  proved  remarkable  for  their  ame- 
nity, courtesy,  and  good  fruits.  Men,  especially  intellectual  men,  when  brought  to- 
gether, mutually  catch  the  spirit  of  their  station.  Envy  and  jealousy  are  the  natural 
heritage  of  ignorance.  Intellectual  men,  if  proverbially  irritable,  have  been  in  all 
countries  and  all  times  proverbially  generous,  kind-hearted,  beneficent.  Such  men 
would  feel  themselves  impelled  to  act  according  to  their  station  and  responsibility,  and 
would  have  a  noble  disdain  at  the  idea  of  bringing  a  stain  upon  their  escutcheon. 
These  men,  being  charged  that  the  republic  of  letters  should  receive  no  detriment, 
would  scorn  prejudiced,  narrow,  and  illiberal  views,  and  would  promulgate  generous 
thoughts  and  broad  principles.  The  books  which  they  patronized  would  be  received 
by  the  public  with  confidence,  while  those  to  which  they  affixed  their  veto  would  cease 
to  circulate  ;  and  thus  transfer  more  than  half  the  patronage  of  literature,  which  is 
now  thrown  away  upon  worthless  books  and  periodicals,  to  such  as  are  important  and 
useful. 

III.  The  remaining  slavery  of  our  colonial  literary  dependence  upon  Great  Britain. 
It  is  humiliating  to  reflect,  that,  a  great  nation,  sometimes  not  a  little  tempted  to  bluster 
about  its  greatness  and  independence,  notwithstanding  all  the  taunts  and  reproaches  we 
have  received  from  the  writers  of  that  nation  for  our  servility  and  imbecile  depend- 
dence  upon  it  for  our  literary  opinions,  as  well  as  our  books,  should  still  look  beyond 
the  seas  for  literary  fame.  But  every  one  knows,  that  an  American  writer  must  delve 
on,  uncheered  and  unblest,  until  he  has  contrived  to  get  an  echo  of  his  name  from  be- 
yond the  Atlantic.  What  efforts,  what  arts,  what  servility  to  obtain  it  ?  This  is  not 
all.  In  the  greedy  competition  of  the  press,  the  books  of  that  country,  the  great  esti- 
mated mart  of  fame,  can  be  republished  here  without  copy-right.  On  this  head,  there 
is  no  need,  as  we  have  no  space,  to  enlarge.  Every  one  can  see  that  American  writers 
have  no  adequate  incitement  to  put  forth  their  powers,  while  obliged  to  work  up  against 
such  a  wind  and  tide  opposed  to  them. 


478  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

quently  than  the  cause  of  sound  scholarship  requires.  If  the  funds  which 
are  now  distributed  through  so  many  small  establishments  were  concen- 
trated on  a  few  universities,  advantages  might  be  enjoyed  which  will  now 
be  in  vain  sought.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  measures  have  not  been 
taken  for  the  erection  of  a  national  university,  which  the  general  govern- 
ment of  the  country  might  endow  with  privileges  and  means  sufficient  for 
its  permanent  success. 

At  the  head  of  the  collegiate  institutions  in  the  United  States,  is  Har- 
vard university,  originally  styled  Harvard  college,  at  Cambridge,  three 
miles  west-north-west  of  Boston.  In  the  year  1636,  the  general  court  ad- 
vanced four  hundred  pounds  towards  the  establishment  of  a  college,  which 
was  incorporated  in  1638;  and  the  same  year,  the  Rev.  John  Harvard 
died,  leaving  a  legacy  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy-nine  pounds,  seven- 
teen shillings,  and  two  pence,  to  the  college,  which,  on  account  of  this  do- 
nation, was  named  Harvard  college.  Its  endowments  have  since,  from 
time  to  time,  been  greatly  increased  by  donations  from  the  state,  and  many 
munificent  private  benefactors.  The  university  comprises  the  collegiate 
department  for  undergraduates,  or  the  college,  properly  so  called,  and  the 
theological,  law,  and  medical  departments.  It  has  four  halls,  four  stories 
high,  for  the  accommodation  of  undergraduates  ;  two  halls  containing  the 
library,  cabinet  of  minerals,  the  chapel,  and  various  other  public  rooms;  a 
divinity  hall,  a  law  hall,  and  a  medical  hall,  (which  last  is  situated  in  Bos- 
ton,) and  other  buildings.  The  university  library  contains  upwards  of 
forty  thousand  volumes,  of  which  thirty-five  thousand,  five  hundred,  are 
in  the  general  library,  three  thousand  in  the  law,  one  thousand  in  the 
medical,  six  hundred  and  fifty  in  the  theological  library  :  and  there  are 
libraries  belonging  to  the  students,  which  contain  four  thousand,  five  hun- 
dred volumes.  The  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus,  and  the  cabinet 
of  minerals,  are  extensive,  and  very  valuable.  The  property  in  possession 
of  the  university,  exclusive  of  the  college  buildings,  library,  apparatus,  and 
grounds  adjoining  to  the  buildings,  according  to  the  treasurer's  report,  dat- 
ed October,  1832,  amounted  to 8460,814.87 

Funds  in  trust  for  other  uses  than  those  of  the  college,     .     .       65,125.45 


395,689.42 
Funds  for  theological  department,  36,277.92  )  „  001  cr 

Funds  for  law  department,  17,943.63  \       '     '     V^fS 

Giving  for  the  more  immediate  use  of  the  college,  341,467.87 

The  institution  is  under  the  legislative  government  of  a  corporation,  con- 
sisting of  seven  members,  and  of  a  board  of  overseers,  consisting  of  thirty 
elected  members,  together  with  the  governor,  lieutenant  governor,  the 
members  of  the  council  and  senate,  the  speaker  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives, and  the  president  of  the  university,  ex  officio. 

Yale  college  was  established  in  1700,  at  Saybrook ;  incorporated  in 
1701  ;  and  removed  to  New  Haven  in  1716  :  the  first  commencement  at 
Saybrook  was  in  1702  ;  the  first  at  New  Haven,  in  1717.  It  derives  its 
name  from  Elihu  Yale,  of  London,  (but  a  native  of  New  Haven,)  governor 
of  the  East  India  company,  who  was  one  of  its  principal  benefactors ;  it 
received  from  bishop  Berkeley  one  thousand  volumes  of  books ;  and  since 
its  foundation  it  has,  from  time  to  time,  received  benefactions  from  various 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


479 


individuals,  and  also  from  the  state.  It  has,  for  some  years  past,  had  a  greater 
number  of  students  than  any  other  college  in  the  United  States.  It  possesses 
ten  valuable  buildings,  two  of  them  of  stone,  the  others  of  brick  ;  four  of 
which  are  college  halls,  one  hundred  feet  by  forty,  four  stories  high,  con- 
taining thirty-two  rooms  each  for  students  ;  and  another  hall  is  soon  to  be 
erected.  It  has  the  finest  cabinet  of  minerals  in  the  United  States,  a  good 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of  eight  thousand, 
five  hundred  volumes  ;  and  there  are  libraries,  belonging  to  the  students, 
containing  ten  thousand,  five  hundred  volumes.  The  funds  of  this  insti- 
tution, considering  its  reputation  and  number  of  students,  are  small ;  and 
it  is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition  fees.  The  whole  amount  of  the  funds  of 
the  different  departments,  exclusive  of  buildings,  library,  apparatus,  &c. 
is  stated  at  eighty  or  ninety  thousand  dollars.  According  to  the  state- 
ment of  the  treasurer,  subscriptions  have  lately  been  made  for  the  benefit 
of  the  college,  by  six  hundred  and  eighteen  individuals,  of  one  hundred 
and  seven  thousand  dollars,  of  which  forty-one  thousand  dollars  have  al- 
ready been  paid.  The  college  is  under  the  legislative  government  of  a 
corporation,  consisting  of  the  president  of  the  college,  the  governor  and 
lieutenant  governor  of  the  state,  and  the  six  senior  senators,  ex  officio,  and 
ten  clergymen. 

Connected  with  this  institution,  is  a  law  school,  theological  department 
and  medical  institution. 

The  legislature  of  Virginia,  at  the  session  of  1817-18,  adopted  measure* 
for  establishing  an  institution,  then  proposed  to  be  named  Central  College, 
and  twenty-four  commissioners  were  appointed  to  select  a  site  for  it.  They 
accordingly  selected  a  pleasant  and  elevated  spot,  nearly  two  miles  from 
Charlottesville,  in  the  county  of  Albemarle,  not  far  from  the  centre  of  the 


University  of  Virginia. 

population  of  the  state.  Their  choice  was  confirmed  by  the  legislature  in 
1819,  and  an  act  was  passed,  incorporating  the  institution,  by  the  title  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  which  went  into  operation  in  1825.  It  was 
erected  and  endowed  by  the  state ;  and  it  owes  its  origin  and  peculiar 
organization  chiefly  to  Mr.  Jefferson.     It  has  a  fine  collection  of  buildings, 


430  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

consisting  of  four  parallel  ranges,  about  six  hundred  feet  in  length,  and 
two  hundred  feet  apart,  suited  to  the  accommodation  of  nine  professors, 
and  upwards  of  two  hundred  students  ;  which,  together  with  the  real  es- 
tate, cost  three  hundred  and  thirty-three  thousand,  nine  hundred  and 
ninety-six  dollars.  It  possesses  a  very  valuable  library  of  eight  thousand 
volumes,  and  a  philosophical  apparatus,  which,  together,  cost  thirty-six 
thousand,  nine  hundred  and  forty-eight  dollars.  The  state  gives  annually 
fifteen  thousand  dollars  for  the  support  of  the  institution.  The  whole  an- 
nual income  of  the  university  is  about  eighteen  thousand,  five  hundred 
dollars.  The  professors  are  paid,  partly  by  a  fixed  salary,  and  partly  by 
fees  received  from  the  students  ;  but  the  sums  which  they  severally  receive* 
are  widely  different,  varying,  in  ordinary  years,  from  sixteen  hundred  to 
three  thousand,  five  hundred  dollars. 

The  plan  of  this  university  differs  materially  from  that  of  other  institu- 
tions of  the  kind  in  the  United  States.  The  students  are  not  divided  into 
four  classes,  with  a  course  of  studies  embracing  four  years  ;  but  the  diffe- 
rent branches  of  science  and  literature  here  taught  are  styled  schools.  The 
following  particulars  are  extracted  from  the  '  Regulations,'  &c.  Students 
are  not  admitted  under  sixteen  years  of  age  ;  every  one  is  free  to  attend 
the  schools  of  his  choice,  and  no  other  than  he  chooses  ;  provided,  that  if 
under  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  shall  attend  at  least  three  professors,  un- 
less he  has  the  written  authority  of  his  parents  or  guardian,  or  the  faculty 
shall,  for  good  cause  shown,  allow  him  to  attend  less  than  three.  In  each 
school,  there  are  three  regular  lectures  a  week;  besides  which,  there  are, 
in  most  of  them,  extra  lectures,  suited  to  the  several  classes  into  which  the 
school  is  divided.  The  mode  of  instruction  is  by  text-books  and  lectures* 
accompanied  by  rigid  examinations. 

Three  honorary  distinctions  are  conferred  by  this  institution ;  a.  certifi- 
cate of  proficiency , — that  of  graduate  of  any  class, — and  that  of  master  of 
arts  of  the  University  of  Virginia.  No  particular  period  of  study  is  pre- 
scribed for  the  acquisition  of  these  honors.  The  student  obtains  them 
whenever  he  can  undergo  the  rigid  examination  to  which  the  candidates 
for  them  are  subjected.  The  title  of  doctor  of  medicine  is  conferred  on  the 
graduates  of  the  medical  department. 

There  is  but  one  session  annually,  commencing  on  the  tenth  of  Septem- 
ber, and  ending  on  the  twentieth  of  July.  Commencement  is  on  the  last 
day  of  the  session,  when  there  are  public  exercises,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  certificates  and  diplomas  are  awarded.  Number  of  students,  in  1833, 
one  hundred  and  fifty-seven. 

Kenyon  college,  at  Gambier,  in  the  central  part  of  a  tract  of  land  be- 
longing to  it,  five  miles  east  of  Mount  Vernon,  and  fifty-two  north-east  of 
Columbus,  was  founded,  in  1828,  by  the  exertions  of  bishop  Chase,  who 
went  to  England  in  1823,  and  returned  in  1825,  having  there  obtained  for 
it  about  thirty  thousand  dollars  ;  and  he  gave  to  the  college  the  name  of 
1  Kenyon,'  from  lord  Kenyon,  one  of  its  principal  benefactors,  and  to  the 
town  the  name  of  '  Gambier,'  from  lord  Gambier,  another  of  its  benefac- 
tors. It  has  received  considerable  additions  to  its  funds  from  individuals 
in  several  of  the  states ;  and  it  possesses  eight  thousand  acres  of  land. 
The  college  edifice,  which  is  of  stone,  contains  thirty-six  rooms,  and  forms 
only  one  third  part  of  the  entire  design.  The  library  contains  two  thou- 
sand, three  hundred  volumes.     The  college  is  under  the  direction  of  a 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


4S1 


board  of  sixteen  trustees,  of  which  the  bishop  of  Ohio  is  president  ex  officio. 
The  college  has  connected  with  it  a  theological  department  and  a  grammar 
schpol. 


Kenyon  College,  Ohio. 

It  does  not  fall  within  our  plan  to  give  a  particular  description  of  the 
numerous  collegiate  institutions  throughout  the  country.  In  addition  to 
this  account  of  the  most  prominent  establishments,  we  have  added  a  list 
of  colleges  in  the  appendix,  for  which,  as  well  as  the  previous  descriptions, 
we  have  been  indebted  to  the  American  Almanac  for  1834.  To  that  valu- 
able work  we  refer  the  reader  for  a  collection  of  much  useful  and  interest- 
ing matter  on  the  subject  of  education  in  the  United  States. 

1  Less  attention,'  says  Mr.  Cooper,  '  is  paid  to  classical  learning  here 
than  in  Europe  ;  and,  as  the  term  of  residence  (at  our  colleges)  rarely  ex- 
ceeds four  years,  profound  scholars  are  by  no  means  common.  This  coun- 
try possesses  neither  the  population  nor  the  endowments  to  maintain  a 
large  class  of  learned  idlers,  in  order  that  one  man  in  a  hundred  may  con- 
tribute a  mite  to  the  growing  stock  of  general  knowledge.  There  is  a 
luxury  in  this  expenditure  of  animal  force,  to  which  the  Americans  have 
not  yet  attained.  The  good  is  far  too  problematical  and  remote,  and  the 
expense  of  man  too  certain,  to  be  prematurely  sought.  I  have  heard, 
I  will  confess,  an  American  legislator  quote  Horace  and  Cicero  ;  but  it  is 
far  from  being  the  humor  of  the  country.  I  thought  the  taste  of  the  orator 
questionable.  A  learned  quotation  is  rarely  of  any  use  in  an  argument, 
since  few  men  are  fools  enough  not  to  see  that  the  application  of  any  max- 
im to  politics  is  liable  to  a  thousand  practical  objections,  and,  nine  times  in 
ten,  they  are  evidences  of  the  want  of  a  direct,  natural,  and  vigorous  train 
of  thought.  They  are  the  affectations,  but  rarely  the  ebullitions,  of  true 
talent.  When  a  man  feels  strongly,  or  thinks  strongly,  or  speaks  strongly, 
he  is  just  as  apt  to  do  it  in  his  native  tongue,  as  he  is  to  laugh  when  he  is 
tickled,  or  to  weep  when  in  sorrow.  The  Americans  are  strong  speakers 
and  acute  thinkers,  but  no  great  quoters  of  the  morals  and  axioms  of  a 
heathen  age,  because  they  happen  to  be  recorded  in  Latin. 

•  The  higher  branches  of  learning  are  certainly  on  the  advance  in  this 
61  41 


482  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

country.  The  gentlemen  of  the  middle  and  southern  states,  before  the 
revolution,  were  very  generally  educated  in  Europe,  and  they  were  con- 
sequently, in  this  particular,  like  our  own  people.  Those  who  came  into 
life  during  the  struggle,  and  shortly  after,  fared  worse.  Even  the  next 
generation  had  little  to  boast  of  in  the  way  of  instruction.  I  find  that 
boys  entered  the  colleges  so  late  as  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  who  had  read  a  part  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and  a  few  books 
of  Cicero  and  Virgil,  with,  perhaps,  a  little  of  Horace.  But  great  changes 
have  been  made,  and  are  still  making,  in  the  degree  of  previous  qualifi- 
cation. 

1  Still,  it  would  be  premature  to  say,  that  there  is  any  one  of  the  Ameri- 
can universities  where  classical  knowledge,  or  even  science,  is  profoundly 
attained,  even  at  the  present  day.  Some  of  the  professors  push  their 
studies,  for  a  life,  certainly  ;  and  you  well  know,  after  all,  that  little  short 
of  a  life,  and  a  long  one  too,  will  make  any  man  a  good  general  scholar. 
In  1820,  near  eight  thousand  graduates  of  the  twelve  oldest  colleges  of 
this  country  (according  to  their  catalogues)  were  then  living.  Of  this 
number,  one  thousand,  four  hundred  and  six  were  clergymen.  As  some 
of  the  catalogues  consulted  were  several  years  old,  this  number  was,  of 
necessity,  greatly  within  the  truth.  Between  the  years  1800  and  1810,  it 
is  found  that  of  two  thousand,  seven  hundred  and  ninety-two  graduates, 
four  hundred  and  fifty-three  became  clergymen.  Here  is  pretty  good  evi- 
dence that  religion  is  not  neglected  in  America,  and  that  its  ministers  are 
not,  as  a  matter  of  course,  absolutely  ignorant. 

1  But  the  effects  of  the  literary  institutions  of  the  United  States  are 
somewhat  peculiar.  Few  men  devote  their  lives  to  scholarship.  The 
knowledge  that  is  actually  acquired,  is,  perhaps,  quite  sufficient  for  the 
more  practical  and  useful  pursuits.  Thousands  of  young  men,  who  have 
read  the  more  familiar  classics,  who  have  gone  through  enough  of  mathe- 
matics to  obtain  a  sense  of  their  own  tastes,  and  of  the  value  of  precision, 
Who  have  cultivated  belles  lettres  to  a  reasonable  extent,  and  who  have 
been  moderately  instructed  in  the  arts  of  composition,  and  in  the  rules  of 
taste,  are  given  forth  to  the  country  to  mingle  in  its  active  employments, 
I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  a  class  of  American  graduates  carries  away 
With  it  quite  as  much  general  and  diversified  knowledge,  as  a  class  from 
one  of  our  own  universities.  The  excellence  in  particular  branches  is 
commonly  wanting  ;  but  the  deficiency  is  more  than  supplied  by  variety 
of  information.  The  youth  who  has  passed  four  years  within  the  walls  of 
a  college,  goes  into  the  office  of  a  lawyer  for  a  few  more.  The  profession 
of  the  law  is  not  subdivided  in  America.  The  same  man  is  counsellor, 
attorney,  and  conveyancer.  Here  the  student  gets  a  general  insight  into 
the  principles,  and  a  familiarity  with  the  practice  of  the  law,  rather  than 
an  acquaintance  with  the  study  as  a  science.  With  this  instruction,  he 
enters,  the  world  as  a  practitioner.  Instead  of  existing  in  a  state  of  dream- 
ing retrospection,  lost  in  a  maze  of  theories,  he  is  at  once  turned  loose  into 
the  jostlings  of  the  world.  If,  perchance,  he  encounters  an  antagonist  a 
little  more  erudite  than  himself,  he  seizes  the  natural  truth  for  his  sheet- 
anchor,  and  leaves  precedent  and  quaint  follies  to  him  who  has  made  them 
his  study  and  delight.  No  doubt  he  often  blunders,  and  is  frequently,  of 
necessity,  defeated.  But  in  the  course  of  this  irreverent  treatment,  usages 
tind  opinions,  which  are  bottomed  in  no  better  foundation  than  antiquity. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


483 


and  which  are  as  inapplicable  to  the  present  state  of  the  world,  as  the 
present  state  of  the  world  is,  or  ought  to  be,  unfavorable  to  all  feudal  ab- 
surdities, come  to  receive  their  death-warrants.  In  the  mean  time,  by  dint 
of  sheer  experience,  and  by  the  collision  of  intellects,  the  practitioner  gets 
a  stock  of  learning,  that  is  acquired  in  the  best  possible  school ;  and,  what 
is  of  far  more  importance,  the  laws  themselves  get  a  dress  which  brings 
them  within  the  fashions  of  the  day.  This  same  man  becomes  a  legisla- 
tor, perhaps,  and,  if  particularly  clever,  he  is  made  to  take  an  active  part 
in  the  framing  of  laws,  that  are  not  to  harmonize  with  the  other  parts  of 
an  elaborate  theory,  but  which  are  intended  to  make  men  comfortable  and 
happy.  Now,  taken  with  more  or  less  qualification,  this  is  the  history  of 
thousands  in  this  country,  and  it  is  also  an  important  part  of  the  history 
of  the  country  itself.' 

We  may  not  inappropriately  introduce  in  this  connection  the  following 
account  of  the  Military  academy  at  West  Point,  for  which  we  have  been 
indebted  to  an  able  article  in  the  North  American  Review  for  January, 
1832. 

The  main  object  of  the  institution  is  to  qualify  the  pupil  for  the  per- 
formance of  all  the  duties  of  a  military  life ;  and,  by  way  of  preparation, 
he  is  carefully  disciplined  in  the  various  duties  of  a  soldier  and  officer, 
from  the  handling  of  a  musket,  to  the  commanding  of  armies.  The  use 
of  the  various  instruments  of  attack  and  defence  ;  the  construction  of  mili- 
tary works,  both  permanent  and  temporary,  and  the  most  approved  methods 
of  attacking  and  defending  these  works  ;  the  manner  of  conducting  the 
inarches  of  armies,  and  of  disposing  of  the  different  arms,  with  a  view  to 


,y^H^fe.A._ 


s^^-_^ 


/- 


West  Point 


their  mutual  protection  and  assistance  in  cases  of  emergency ;  minor  tac- 
tics, or  the  evolutions  of  troops,  whether  in  small  or  large  numbers  ;  and 
the  more  complicated  and  exalted  principles  of  grand  tactics,  or  strategy, 
are  each  in  turn  carefully  attended  to,  so  far  as  theory  and  the  lessons  of 
experience  extend. 

Besides  these  military  subjects,  studies  of  a  different  nature  are  made  to 
engage  a  large  portion  of  the  pupil's  attention  during  the  last  year.     Civil 


484 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


engineering,  m  its  multifarious  departments,  viz.  the  construction  of  road?, 
canals,  bridges,  and  rail-roads,  together  with  the  elements  of  carpentry  and 
architecture,  holds  an  important  rank.  As  architecture  is  becoming  daily 
more  interesting  to  the  public  at  large,  its  encouragement  and  advance- 
ment cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended.  A  deficiency  of  taste  and  in- 
formation upon  this  subject  is  but  too  evident  in  many  parts  of  our  coun- 
try; and  any  institution,  which  tends  to  diffuse  the  correct  and  chaste 
principles  of  this  art,  deserves  to  be  cherished  and  encouraged.  A  fine 
collection  of  casts,  representing  the  most  celebrated  buildings  of  antiquity, 
has  recently  been  procured  from  France  for  the  Military  academy ;  and 
thore  is  every  reason  to  hope,  that  it  will  tend,  materially  to  improve  the 
department  of  architecture. 

The  studies  that  have  now  been  enumerated,  together  with  rhetoric  and 
national  and  constitutional  law,  embrace  the  chief  objects  of  attention  at 
this  institution.  A  cursory  glance  at  this  course  of  instruction  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  convince  the  observer,  that  it  comprehends  much  useful  informa- 
tion. Yet  there  are  many,  who  profess  to  believe  the  academy  not  only 
useless,  but  absolutely  injurious,  in  its  effect  upon  the  public  interests. 
They  maintain,  that  genius  and  courage  alone  are  enough  to  insure  dis- 
tinction in  the  military  profession.  They  say,  that  all  our  citizens  are 
soldiers,  and  that  competent  officers  can  be  selected  from  among  them, 
whenever  military  services  are  necessary  ;  and  they,  doubtless,  honestly 
believe,  that  to  become  an  able  officer  is  not  a  very  difficult  matter.  But, 
with  due  respect  for  the  sincerity  of  these  opinions,  we  must  confess  our 
preference  for  the  doctrine  of  our  illustrious  Hamilton ;  who  says,  that 
*  war,  like  most  other  things,  is  a  science  to  be  acquired  and  perfected  by 


Military  Academy  at  West  Point 

diligence,  by  perseverance,  by  time,  and  by  practice.'  These  few  words, 
coming  as  they  do  from  a  statesman  of  acknowledged  genius  and  wisdom, 
are  entitled  to  the  most  respectful  and  deliberate  attention.  That  great 
p.ian  had,  investigated,  with  the  most  keen  and  discerning  scrutiny,  the 
many  and  complicated  causes  of  national  grandeur  and  infirmity.  He  had 
especially  weighed  the  mighty  causes,  which  had  elevated,  sustained,  and 


POLrflCAL  GEOGRAPHY:  485 

overthrown  the  various  contrivances  of  men  for  self-government ;  and  he 
was  of  the  unqualified  opinion,  that  a  national  military  establishment  was 
indispensable  to  our  peace  and  security.  The  reasons  which  led  him  to 
this  conclusion  are,  doubtless,  familiar  to  most  of  our  readers,  and  still 
operate  with  undiminished  influence.  All,  however,  must  acknowledge, 
that  a  military  establishment  without  skilful  officers,  would  be  about  as 
inefficient  as  powder  and  bullets  without  a  gun,  or  a  vessel  without  helm 
or  compass.  But  how  is  this  skill  to  be  '  acquired  and  perfected  ?'  Doubt- 
less, '  by  diligence,  by  perseverance,  by  time,  and  by  practice.'  These  ob- 
jectors should  hesitate,  before  they  destroy  one  of  the  most  useful  instru- 
ments by  which  this  benefit  is  to  be  secured. 

Such  an  instrument  is  the  Military  academy.  Before  they  attempt  to 
subvert  so  noble  an  edifice,  they  should  reflect,  that  it  is  not  always  wise 
to  suffer  speculation  to  prevail  over  experience.  They  should  remember 
the  consequences,  which  have  heretofore  resulted  from  the  want  of  military 
science  and  skill,  before  they  labor  to  expose  us  anew  to  similar  evils. 
They  ought  not  to  forget,  that  nations,  as  well  as  individuals,  are  liable  to 
be  overwhelmed  by  adverse  events,  whose  approaches  cannot  be  foreseen, 
or  guarded  against  by  any  sudden  exertion  of  art  or  power  ;  that  a  hither- 
to unknown  responsibility  rests  upon  the  citizens  of  this  republic,  an  obli- 
gation greater  than  ever  was  imposed  upon  any  other  political  society ; 
and  that  we  ought,  at  least,  to  pause,  before  we  divest  ourselves  of  any  of 
those  securities,  upon  which  the  peace,  the  progress,  and  the  stability  of 
our  institutions  may  depend.  41* 


1 


486 


CHAPTER  XVIL— FINE  ARTS. 

The  progress  of  the  arts  in  the  United  States  has  depended,  in  a  great 
measure,  on  their  practical  reference  to  the  essential  comforts  of  life.  In 
the  mechanical  arts,  we  yield  to  no  other  nation,  as  our  ships,  steamboats, 
engines  of  every  description,  and  vast  internal  improvements,  sufficiently 
testify.  The  prevailing  taste  in  architecture  is  much  better  than  it  was 
twenty  years  ago,  and  it  is  now  considered  of  great  importance  to  have 
regard  to  the  appearance  of  a  public  edifice.  Many  private  houses  of 
much  splendor  have  also  been  erected  within  a  short  period.  Our  churches 
and  state-houses  are  built  after  better  models,  and  the  eye  of  taste  is  no 
longer  shocked  by  unsightly  piles,  without  even  the  recommendation  of 
antiquity  to  compensate  for  their  defects. 

Of  the  fine  arts,  however,  painting  has  been  most  successfully  cultivated, 
and  many  artists  have  won,  in  this  department,  very  considerable  eminence. 
The  materials  for  an  account  of  the  history  and  present  condition  of  paint- 
ing in  this  country,  are  so  scattered  and  unsatisfactory,  that  we  shall  be 
able  to  present  but  a  brief  sketch.  We  are  pleased  to  learn  that  a  gentle- 
man of  New  York,  distinguished  as  a  dramatic  author  and  as  an  artist, 
has  a  work  in  preparation,  that  will  effectually  supply  this  deficiency  in 
our  literature.  This  work  is  expected  with  much  interest  by  the  lovers 
of  art.  In  the  mean  while,  we  must  look  to  the  leading  review  of  the 
country,  for  some  of  the  most  valuable  notices  of  American  art.  For  the 
remainder  of  this  chapter,  we  have  been  entirely  indebted  to  the  North 
American  Review,  for  October,  1830. 

It  is  stated  by  an  able  writer  in  that  work,  that  few  countries  have  done 
more  in  the  way  of  painting,  during  the  last  half  century,  than  our  own. 
There  is  no  nation  which,  during  that  period,  can  produce  a  more  respecta- 
ble list  of  artists  than  is  composed  by  the  names  of  Copley,  West,  Trum- 
bull, Allston,  Leslie,  Newton,  Stuart,  Sully,  Morse,  Doughty,  Peale,  Hard- 
ing, Fisher,  and  Weir.  Several  of  these  artists  have  been,  and  still  con- 
tinue to  be,  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  British  school,  which,  for  the  time 
in  question  belongs  at  least  as  much  to  the  United  States  as  to  the  mother 
country.  The  style  of  painting  in  France,  during  this  period,  has  been 
decidedly  vicious,  and  although  it  has  obtained  there  a  temporary  popu- 
larity, it  is  not  approved  by  competent  judges,  who  have  been  educated 
under  the  influence  of  a  better  taste.  In  the  rest  of  Europe,  there  has 
been  little  or  no  activity  in  this  branch  of  the  arts  ;  so  that  the  United 
States  have  done  as  much  for  painting  during  the  last  fifty  years,  as  any 
other  country. 

In  estimating  the  merits  of  our  various  painters,  the  article  to  which  we 
have  referred,  places  West  at  the  head  of  the  list.  '  The  length  of  his 
career,'  continues  this  writer, — '  his  conspicuous  position  at  the  head  of 
the  British  Academy,  and  the  indefatigable  perseverance  with  which  he 
pursued  his  labors  up  to  the  very  close  of  his  protracted  life — all  these  cir- 
cumstances placed  him  in  full  relief  before  the  public,  and  perhaps  raised 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  487 

his  reputation  a  little  higher  than  it  will  be  maintained  by  the  impartial 
judgment  of  posterity.  Perceiving  or  supposing  that  his  merit  was  ex- 
aggerated, a  certain  number  of  persons  were  induced,  as  always  happens 
in  similar  cases,  by  a  sort  of  re-action,  to  depreciate  the  value  of  his  works, 
and  even  to  deny  altogether  his  pretensions  to  excellence.  Without 
speaking  of  Peter"  Pindar,  who  attacked  him  merely  because  he  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  king,  we  may  find  the  feeling  to  which  we  allude  exhibited 
in  a  quarter  where  we  had  a  right  to  look  for  good  taste  and  political  im- 
partiality. Lord  Byron,  in  one  of  his  poems,  describes  our  illustrious 
countryman  as 

*  the  dotard  West, 

Europe's  worst  dauber,  and  poor  England's  best." 

But  even  here  the  noble  bard,  however  opposite  may  have  been  his  inten- 
tion, has  borne  a  sort  of  involuntary  testimony  to  the  high  deserts  of  the 
painter.  The  British  school,  which,  in  his  wayward  humor,  he  represents 
as  the  worst  in  Europe,  was  undoubtedly  at  that  time,  and  still  is,  the  best, 
and  by  putting  West  at  the  head  of  it,  he  rendered  him,  in  fact,  all  the 
justice  which  his  warmest  friends  could  possibly  have  claimed  for  him. 
His  real  merit  was  very  considerable,  although  he  may  not  have  risen  pre- 
cisely to  the  level  of  the  greatest  masters  of  other  times.  It  was  sufficient- 
ly evinced  by  the  great  popularity  and  success  of  his  last  and  best  pieces, 
the  Christ  Rejected,  and  the  grand  composition  of  Death  on  the  Pale  Horse. 
We  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  these  noble  paintings,  when  they  were  first 
brought  out  at  London,  and  witnessed  the  enthusiasm  which  they  excited 
among  the  lovers  of  the  arts,  and  the  public  at  large.  The  sum  of  ten 
thousand  pounds  was  offered  for  the  latter  work — a  higher  price,  probably, 
than  was  ever  commanded  by  any  other  picture.  As  there  was  nothing 
meretricious  in  the  style  of  West,  and  as  the  public  of  a  city  like  London 
is  not  often  very  widely  mistaken  in  matters  wholly  unconnected  with  any 
accidental  or  temporary  interest,  it  is  impossible  to  account  for  this  extra- 
ordinary vogue,  without  allowing  to  the  artist  a  talent  of  a  very  high  or- 
der. His  works  exhibit,  in  reality,  almost  all  the  qualities  that  designate 
a  first-rate  painting.  His  walk  lay  in  the  highest  department  of  the  art. 
His  subjects  were  always  of  a  poetical  cast,  and  he  treated  them  all  in  a 
large,  free  and  generous  spirit ;  and  while  he  possessed  the  principal  re- 
quisites of  a  great  painter,  his  manner  was  almost  wholly  free  from  faults. 
He  had,  in  particular,  the  great  merit  of  avoiding  the  unnatural  style  of 
coloring  which  prevailed  in  the  neighboring  kingdom,  and  seemed  likely, 
at  one  time,  to  corrupt  the  taste  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  His  excellent  moral 
character  contributed  much  to  his  talent,  and  still  more  to  his  fortune.  It 
kept  him  steady  to  his  profession,  during  a  period  of  violent  political  con- 
vulsions, which  swept  away  from  their  natural  occupation  almost  all  the 
high  and  stirring  spirits.  It  recommended  him  to  the  favor  of  the  king, 
and  through  that  to  the  presidency  of  the  academy,  and  it  preserved  his 
health  and  capacity  for  constant  employment,  to  the  last  moment  of  a  very 
long  life.  He  enjoyed  the  rare  happiness  of  realizing,  in  his  life-time,  his 
full  deserts  on  the  score  of  reputation — perhaps  something  more — and  of 
laboring  with  undiminished  activity,  and  a  constant  increase  of  fame,  be- 
yond the  ordinary  term  of  human  existence.  We  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  him  frequently   in  his  last  days,  and  have  seldom  known  a  more 


488  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

striking  example  of  a  serene  and  happy  old  age.  He  was  then,  at  nearly 
eighty,  a  healthy,  handsome  man,  busily  occupied  upon  his  last  and  great- 
est works,  and  enjoying  the  vogue  which  they  successively  obtained  on 
their  first  exhibition.  The  natural  simplicity  and  modesty  of  his  manner 
were  mingled  with  a  slight  air  of  self-importance,  and  conscious  satisfac- 
tion with  his  recent  success,  which  appeared  rather  graceful  than  other- 
wise in  one  so  much  respected,  and  so  far  advanced  in  years.  The  fresh- 
ness and  vigor  of  his  mind  were  truly  remarkable.  He  was  still  alive  to 
every  means  of  improving  himself,  and  when  the  Athenian  marbles  were 
received  in  England,  he  addressed  a  printed  letter  to  lord  Elgin,  in  which 
he  spoke  of  this  event  as  forming  a  sort  of  epoch  in  his  life,  and  anticipated 
the  great  advantage  which  he  should  derive  from  the  study  of  these  admira- 
ble remains  of  antiquity  in  the  further  prosecution  of  his  labors,  which, 
however,  were  very  soon  after  brought  to  a  close. 

1  We  have  said  above  that  the  manner  of  West  was  almost  wholly  free 
from  faults.  His  conceptions  are  noble,  his  drawing  correct,  his  coloring 
true,  and  his  composition  skilful  and  spirited.  If  we  miss  any  thing  in  his 
paintings,  it  is,  perhaps,  the  secret  indescribable  charm  of  coloring,  which, 
like  the  curious  felicity  of  language  in  some  writers,  seems  to  be  a  sort  of 
natural  "  grace,  beyond  the  reach  of  art,"  but  affording,  at  the  same  time, 
a  higher  delight  than  any  of  those  beauties,  which  can  be  more  distinctly 
analyzed  and  defined.  Of  this,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  possessed  a  larger 
share  than  West,  and  will,  probably,  on  that  account,  be  always  ranked 
above  him  in  the  general  scale  of  merit. 

1  The  paintings  of  West,  which  remained  in  his  possession  at  his  death, 
were  offered  for  sale  soon  after,  and  we  have  anxiously  desired,  that  the 
whole  or  a  portion  of  them  should  have  taken  the  direction  of  this  coun- 
try. They  would  have  formed  a  most  interesting  and  valuable  addition 
to  our  collections,  and  would  then  have  reached  what  may  fairly  be  con- 
sidered their  natural  destination,  the  birth-place  and  original  home  of  their 
author.  We  are  not  exactly  informed  what  disposition  has  been  made  of 
them,  and  venture  to  hope  that  the  expectation  we  have  expressed  may 
still,  in  part,  at  least,  be  realized. 

1  The  general  reputation  of  Trumbull  is  hardly  equal  to  that  of  West, 
although  the  Sortie  from  Gibraltar  is  perhaps  superior  in  effect  to  any 
single  production  of  the  latter  artist.  This  noble  picture  may  justly  be 
ranked  with  the  finest  productions  of  the  pencil,  and  would  forever  secure 
to  its  author,  had  he  done  nothing  else,  a  rank  with  the  greatest  masters 
of  the  art.  If  his  success  has  been,  on  the  whole,  inferior  to  that  of  his 
illustrious  contemporary,  it  is  probably  because  his  devotion  to  his  profession 
has  not  been  so  exclusive.  The  important  military  and  political  occupations, 
in  which  he  was  engaged  during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  most  active  part 
of  his  life,  diverted  his  attention  for  the  time  from  painting,  and  when  he  af- 
terwards resumed  the  pencil,  he  seemed  to  have  lost,  in  some  degree,  the  vigor 
and  freshness  of  his  youthful  talent.  Hence  his  reputation  has  not  continued 
to  increase  with  his  years,  and  his  last  works  have  not,  like  those  of  West, 
been  regarded  as  his  best.  The  four  great  paintings,  on  subjects  connect- 
ed with  the  revolutionary  war,  which  he  executed  for  congress,  have,  on 
the  whole,  hardly  satisfied  the  public  expectation,  and  for  that  reason  have, 
perhaps,  been  depreciated  below  their  real  worth.  They  are  all  valuable 
pieces,  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  which  we  look  upon  as  the 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  489 

best  of  the  series,  is  one  of  a  very  high  order.  They  derive  a  great  addi- 
tional interest  from  exhibiting  portraits,  as  far  as  they  could  be  obtained, 
of  the  signers  of  the  declaration,  and  of  the  other  patriots  and  warriors, 
who  took  a  part  in  the  memorable  action  of  the  revolution.  We  incline  to 
believe  that  these  paintings,  should  the  liberality  of  congress  allow  the  ap- 
propriation necessary  for  keeping  them  in  existence,  will  gradually  gain 
upon  the  public  opinion,  both  as  works  of  art,  and  as  historical  memorials, 
and  be  viewed  by  the  next  generation  with  more  interest  than  they  are  by 
the  present  one. 

'  Of  our  living  native  artists,  Mr.  Allston  is  the  one,  to  whose  future 
productions  the  country  looks,  with  reason,  for  the  most  brilliant  exhibi- 
tions of  talent,  and  the  most  valuable  accessions  to  our  public  and  private 
collections.  Few  painters  have  ever  possessed,  at  his  age,  a  higher  repu- 
tation, or  one  acquired  by  nobler  means ;  and  from  his  character  and  ha- 
bits, there  is  room  to  suppose  that  his  fame  will  continue  to  increase,  like 
that  of  West,  to  the  last  period  of  his  labors.  Inspired  by  that  exclusive 
and  passionate  love  for  his  profession,  which  is  the  sure  characteristic  of  a 
real  genius  for  it,  and  by  a  lofty  and  generous  disinterestedness,  which 
has  prevented  him  from  consecrating  his  pencil  to  its  lower  and  more  lu- 
crative departments,  he  has,  under  some  discouragements,  steadily  con- 
fined himself  to  historical,  scriptural,  and  poetical  subjects,  and  has  formed 
his  manner  upon  the  highest  standard  of  excellence.  His  conceptions  are 
uniformly  happy,  and,  when  the  subject  requires  it,  sublime  ;  his  taste 
and  skill,  in  the  mechanical  details  of  his  art,  complete ;  and  he  knows 
how  to  give  his  works  the  secret  charm  to  which  we  alluded  before,  and 
which  adds  the  last  finish  to  every  other  beauty.  If  there  be  any  thing 
to  complain  of  in  him,  it  is  that  he  is  not  satisfied  himself  with  the  degree 
of  merit,  which  would  satisfy  every  one  else,  and  employs  in  correcting, 
maturing,  and  repainting  a  single  piece,  not  always,  perhaps,  with  any 
real  accession  of  effect,  the  time  and  labor  which  would  have  been  suffi- 
cient for  completing  a  dozen.  This  extreme  fastidiousness  may  have 
been,  at  an  earlier  period  of  life,  a  virtue,  and  is  probably  one  of  the  quali- 
ties, which  have  enabled  the  artist  to  realize  the  high  idea  of  excellence, 
which  originally  warmed  his  young  fancy.  But,  if  we  might  venture  to 
express  an  opinion  on  the  subject,  we  should  say  that  the  time  has  now 
arrived,  when  he  might  throw  it  off  with  advantage,  and  allow  himself  a 
greater  rapidity  of  execution.  His  manner  is  formed.  He  possesses  his 
talent,  whatever  it  is,  and,  as  we  remarked  above,  when  we  treated  the 
same  question  in  general  terms,  the  more  freely  and  fearlessly  he  ex- 
ercises it,  the  more  natural  and  spirited,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  better 
will  be  the  product.  We  trust  that  he  will  not  permit  another  year  to 
pass  over,  without  putting  the  last  hand  to  the  grand  heroic  composition, 
upon  which  he  has  been  employed  so  many,  and  that  this  will  be  followed 
by  a  series  of  others,  of  equal  merit,  and  of  a  rather  more  rapid  growth. 
By  this  change  in  his  manner  of  working,  we  believe  that  he  would  gain 
in  ease  and  spirit,  without  sacrificing  any  real  beauty,  and  would  labor,  on 
the  whole,  with  infinitely  more  satisfaction  and  profit  to  himself  and  the 
public,  than  he  does  now.  We  offer  these  remarks,  however,  with  all  the 
deference  that  is  due  from  mere  amateurs  to  an  artist  of  consummate  ge- 
nius, who  is,  after  all,  the  only  true  judge  of  effect  in  his  art,  and  of  the 
best  means  of  producing  it.' 
62 


490 


CHAPTER  XVIIL— BANKING  SYSTEM .* 

In  new  countries,  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  with  which  a  civilized 
population  is  obliged  to  contend,  after  a  sufficiency  is  obtained  of  the  ne- 
cessaries of  life,  is  in  appropriating  a  portion  of  their  capital,  to  serve  as  a 
common  standard  of  value  in  the  transactions  of  commerce.  Barter,  which 
is  always  the  first  process,  soon  becomes  too  burdensome,  and  the  precious 
metals,  which,  in  older  countries  furnish  a  sound  and  universal  currency, 
are  too  expensive  for  new  settlements,  where  all  the  capital  of  the  inhabi- 
tants is  wanted  in  improving  the  face  of  the  country,  and  in  providing  ad- 
ditional comforts,  as  the  community  advances  in  wealth.  In  the  course  of 
time,  however,  commerce  claims  a  portion  of  capital,  as  the  medium  of  ex- 
change ;  and  the  struggle  commences  between  the  necessity  of  providing  a 
circulating  medium,  formed  of  a  material  of  universal  value,  and  the  re- 
luctance to  spare  for  that  purpose,  capital,  which  might  be  exchanged  for 
articles  essentially  wanted  in  new  countries.  Hence  it  is  found,  that  in 
new  colonies,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  substitute  the  credit  of  public 
bodies  in  the  place  of  capital,  or  in  other  words,  a  paper  for  a  metallic  cur- 
rency. The  want  of  capital  is  so  great,  and  the  opportunities  of  invest- 
ment so  abundant,  that  the  issues  soon  become  excessive ;  and  it  is  not 
until  the  channels  of  circulation  are  entirely  filled,  that  the  holders  begin 
to  look  to  the  fund  provided  for  its  redemption  ;  and  the  first  re-action  gene- 
rally results  in  the  depreciation  of  the  currency,  and  in  the  universal  dis- 
tress of  the  community. 

In  this  country,  this  evil  had  been  so  often  felt  under  the  colonial  go- 
vernments, and  during  the  revolution,  (when  the  necessity  of  the  public 
service  compelled,  if  it  did  not  excuse,  excessive  emissions  of  bills  of  credit 
by  the  individual  states,)  that  upon  forming  a  government  for  the  United 
States,  after  the  terrnination  of  hostilities,  all  power  over  the  currency  was 
taken  from  the  state  governments ;  and  they  were  expressly  prohibited 
from  coining  money,  issuing  bills  of  credit,  or  making  any  thing  but  gold 
and  silver  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts. 

It  was  intended  to  vest  in  congress  the  power  to  establish  a  uniform 
currency,  instead  of  the  fluctuating  medium  formerly  used ;  and  to  place 
it  out  of  the  power  of  the  states,  to  invalidate  or  alter  the  terms  of  con- 
tracts, by  tender,  relief,  or  bankrupt  laws,  or  by  any  tampering  with  the 
currency.  It  was  a  wise  endeavor  to  elevate  the  commercial  credit  of  the 
country,  by  placing  its  principles  under  the  guardianship  of  the  national 
government,  and  to  establish  the  currency  upon  an  immovable  basis,  by 
making  it  of  gold  and  silver.  The  effort,  though  well  meant,  was,  at  that 
period  of  our  history,  almost  too  great  for  the  ability  of  the  country.     A 

*  For  this  succinct,  able,  and  interesting  account  of  the  banking  system  of  the  Unit. 
ed  States,  we  have  been  indebted  to  the  Annual  Register  for  1831 — 2,  published  by 
Fessenden  &;  Co. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  491 

circulating  medium  composed  entirely  of  the  precious  metals,  could  not  be 
furnished,  without  abstracting  too  large  a  share  of  its  capital  from  active 
employment. 

Certificates  of  public  debt  were  already  too  abundant,  and  the  name  of 
continental  money  was  of  itself  sufficient,  to  prevent  government  bills  from 
becoming  current.  A  bank,  whose  issues  should  be  founded  on  real  capi- 
tal, convertible  at  pleasure  into  gold  and  silver,  would  furnish  a  circulating 
medium,  not  so  expensive  as  a  metallic  currency,  and  still  not  liable  to  the 
objections  made  to  treasury  bills.  So  long  as  the  credit  of  the  bank  should 
be  fully  sustained,  a  large  amount  of  bills  would  be  kept  in  circulation, 
and  an  additional  capital  provided,  on  which  it  might  safely  discount  to  a 
certain  extent.  The  experiment  had  been  already  successfully  tried,  in 
the  bank  of  North  America,  chartered  in  1781,  under  the  authority  of  the 
continental  congress.  This  institution  subsequently  accepted  a  charter 
from  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania,  and  of  course  lost  its  character  as  a 
national  bank.  This  step  was  also  unfortunate,  as  the  commencement  of 
state  banking,  and  being  speedily  followed  by  the  incorporation  of  the 
banks  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  by  the  legislatures  of  those  re- 
spective states,  established  the  practice  of  incorporating  state  banks,  upon 
a  footing  that  could  not  be  overthrown.  As  these  banks  were  all  estab- 
lished on  real  capital,  and  were  prudently  managed,  their  paper  soon  form- 
ed a  large  part  of  the  circulating  medium  ;  and  by  the  operation  of  causes 
more  powerful  than  legislative  enactments,  a  victory  was  finally  obtained 
over  the  policy  and  spirit  of  the  constitution  ;  and  a  currency,  chiefly  com- 
posed of  the  notes  of  incorporated  banks,  was  substituted  in  the  place  of  a 
metallic  currency.  With  such  a  circulating  medium,  it  is  clear  that  the 
state  governments,  in  exercising  the  power  of  incorporating  banks,  have 
materially  diminished  the  practical  control  of  congress  over  the  currency 
of  the  union.  These  notes,  indeed,  are  not,  and  cannot  be  made  a  legal 
tender  in  payment  of  debts.  The  federal  constitution  has  there  interposed 
an  effectual  prohibition.  But  although  the  power,  which  is  secured  to 
each  creditor,  of  enforcing  payment  of  his  debt  in  specie,  has  served  as  a 
check  to  the  excessive  issue  of  bank  notes,  still  a  paper  currency  has  ex- 
isted in  the  United  States,  which,  by  dispensing  with  and  superseding  the 
use  of  the  precious  metals,  has,  in  fact,  compelled  every  one  to  receive 
such  currency,  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  if  it  had  been  made  a  legal 
tender. 

The  old  United  States  bank,  which  was  chartered  by  congress  in  1791, 
shortly  after  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  by  the  salutary  con- 
trol it  exercised  over  the  state  banks,  prevented  any  great  and  general  in- 
jury from  growing  out  of  this  change  in  the  character  of  the  currency.  It 
carefully  guarded  against  all  excessive  issues  by  the  local  banks,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  make  their  paper  equivalent  to  specie.  Even  this  check 
did  not  always  prove  sufficient ;  and  the  natural  tendency  of  banking  in- 
stitutions in  new  countries  to  over  issues,  was  occasionally  illustrated  by 
the  bankruptcy  of  country  banks,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  mercantile 
community.  When  this  check  was  withdrawn  by  the  refusal  to  renew 
the  charter  of  the  United  States  bank,  in  1811,  the  evil  became  incompa- 
rably greater.  Availing  themselves  of  the  pecuniary  distress  of  the  go- 
vernment, during  the  war  that  ensued,  the  local  banks,  out  of  New  En- 
gland, came  to  a  determination  to  suspend  specie  payments,  and  by  con- 


492  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

tmually  increasing  their  issues,  they  finally  flooded  the  country  with  hank 
notes,  which  constituted  the  sole  circulating  medium,  and  which,  though 
nominally  convertible  into  specie  upon  demand,  were  in  reality  at  twenty 
per  cent,  discount. 

Even  this  currency  was  received,  as  if  it  had  been  made  a  legal  tender. 
An  outcry  had  been  made  against  those  who  enforced  the  payment  of 
specie,  as  engaged  in  a  combination  to  drain  the  country  of  the  precious 
metals ;  and  the  only  alternative  presented  to  the  creditor  was,  a  lawsuit 
in  the  face  of  public  opinion  for  his  legal  rights,  or  the  acceptance  of  the 
depreciated  paper  currency  from  his  debtor. 

Protected  by  this  popular  prejudice,  the  banks  went  on  issuing  their 
irredeemable  bills,  even  after  the  termination  of  the  war  ;  and  a  circulating 
medium,  altogether  without  value  in  other  countries,  became  the  currency 
of  the  union,  with  the  exception  of  the  eastern  states.  By  the  large  issues 
of  the  banks  that  had  suspended  payment,  the  circulating  medium  had 
been  so  much  augmented,  that  it  exceeded  the  wants  of  the  community, 
and  fell  greatly  in  value, — the  whole  currency  in  1816,  being  estimated  at 
one  hundred  and  ten  million  dollars,  when  forty-five  million  dollars  were 
all  that  was  needed.  This  evil  was  still  further  aggravated  by  the  diffe* 
rent  values  of  this  currency  in  the  several  states — being  in  some  five,  in 
some  ten,  in  others  twenty  per  cent,  below  par.  A  debtor,  therefore,  in 
paying  a  debt  contracted  before  the  general  depreciation  of  the  currency, 
would,  in  that  state  of  affairs,  pay  less  value  than  he  agreed  to  pay ;  and 
a  debtor,  by  moving  from  the  eastern  to  the  southern  and  western  states, 
would,  in  effect,  diminish  the  amount  of  his  indebtedness  twenty  per  cent. 
Nor  was  this  all.  By  the  federal  constitution,  it  was  provided  that  all 
duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  should  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States.  So  long,  however,  as  bank  notes  were  received  by  the  revenue 
officers  at  Boston,  New  York,  and  Baltimore,  the  importer  at  Baltimore 
during  this  period  paid  one  fifth,  and  at  New  York  one  tenth,  less  than  at 
Boston,  where  bank  notes  were  equivalent  to  specie. 

To  permit  the  longer  continuance  of  this  state  of  things  in  the  face  of 
the  constitution,  would  have  been  inconsistent  with  the  duty  of  congress. 
A  remedy  was  necessary.  Congress  could  no  longer  regulate  the  value 
of  the  currency,  by  declaring  that  current  coin  in  silver  and  gold  should 
be  of  a  specified  weight  and  purity.  A  paper  was  substituted  in  the  place 
of  a  metallic  currency,  and  it  was  essential  to  obtain  a  control  over  the 
local  banks,  and  to  bring  their  issues  within  proper  limits.  This  might 
have  been  done  by  positive  enactment,  or  by  imposing  a  stamp  duty  on 
bank  notes  ;  but  in  the  then  existing  state  of  the  currency,  it  was  deemed 
hazardous  to  resort  to  direct  interference. 

It  was  also  proposed  to  remedy  the  evil,  by  investing  the  receiving  offi- 
cers of  the  revenue  with  the  power  of  discriminating  between  the  notes  of 
the  several  banks.  This  addition  to  the  power  and  influence  of  the  reve- 
nue officers  was  wisely  deemed  inexpedient,  as  augmenting  too  directly  the 
powers  of  the  treasury  department ;  and  the  short  experiment  which  was 
made  of  this  mode  of  controlling  the  local  banks,  resulted  in  bringing  into 
the  treasury  more  than  a  million  of  dollars,  of  what  were  denominate^ 
unavailable  funds,  consisting  of  the  notes  of  broken  banks. 

The  only  mode  remaining  consisted  in  establishing  a  United  States 
jbank,  with  capital  sufficient  to  control  the  local  banks,  which  should,  by 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  493 

degrees,  compel  them  to  reduce  their  issues  to  an  amount  proportionate  to 
their  means,  and  thus  bring  the  paper  currency  to  the  par  of  silver  and 
gold.  This  mode  was  adopted,  and  the  present  United  States  bank  was 
chartered  in  1816,  for  twenty  years,  with  a  capital  of  thirty-five  million 
dollars,  to  which  the  federal  government  subscribed  one  fifth. 

The  notes  of  this  bank  and  its  branches  were  made  receivable  for  any 
debt  due  to  the  United  States,  and  its  capital  and  solidity  soon  gave  a 
currency  to  its  notes,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  local  banks  that  did  not  re- 
deem their  paper  in  specie. 

They  were  immediately  compelled  to  reduce  their  issues  with  a  view  to 
the  resumption  of  specie  payments,  and  within  three  years  after  the  open- 
ing of  the  United  States  bank,  the  currency  of  the  union  was  reduced  from 
one  hundred  and  ten  million  dollars,  to  forty-five  million  dollars,  and  made 
equivalent  to  gold  and  silver.  The  local  banks  found  the  United  States 
bank  notes  were  preferred,  and  they  were  compelled  to  furnish  as  good  a 
currency,  in  order  to  preserve  those  customers  who  were  worth  having. 
Since  this  restoration  of  the  currency  to  a  healthy  state,  it  has  been  kept 
so,  by  the  constant  action  of  the  national  bank  upon  all  local  banks  evinc- 
ing a  disposition  to  depart  from  the  true  rules  of  banking. 

Occasional  deviations  have  indeed  taken  place,  as  in  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky,  where  the  legislatures  undertook  to  create  capital  by  pledging 
the  public  credit,  and  to  force  an  unnatural  quantity  of  bank  notes  into  cir- 
culation. These  attempts  resulted,  as  was  predicted,  in  the  bankruptcy  of 
the  banks,  and  in  the  general  distress  of  that  part  of  the  country.  In 
Kentucky,  indeed,  the  legislature  sought  to  alleviate  the  distress  flowing 
from  this  policy,  by  relief  and  tender  laws.  But  this  only  aggravated  the 
evil,  and  finally  produced  a  contest  between  the  friends  of  law  and  order, 
and  the  partizans  of  the  'relief  system,'  that,  for  violence  and  acrimony, 
has  been  seldom  witnessed  in  the  United  States.  The  relief  and  tender 
laws  were  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  state  court  of  appeal,  and  their 
advocates,  having  obtained  possession  of  the  legislature,  abolished  the 
court,  and  constituted  a  new  court  in  its  place.  The  old  court,  however, 
refused  to  yield,  and  being  sustained  by  the  sound  part  of  society,  finally 
prevailed  in  the  contest ;  and  after  a  conflict  of  six  years,  the  legislative 
and  executive  departments  were  rescued  from  the  hands  of  the  relief  par- 
ty, and  law  and  justice,  which,  for  a  short  time,  had  been  driven  from  the 
judgment-seat,  resumed  their  sway  over  the  state  of  Kentucky. 

The  history  of  the  banking  institutions  of  that  state  affords  a  striking 
illustration  of  the  mischiefs  resulting  from  any  interference  of  a  state 
government  with  the  currency,  and  furnishes  a  complete  demonstration  of 
the  wisdom  of  the  federal  constitution,  in  vesting  the  whole  power  over 
this  subject  in  the  general  government.  During  the  short  period  that 
elapsed  between  the  first  usurpation  on  the  part  of  Kentucky  upon  this 
prerogative  of  congress,  and  the  termination  of  the  contest,  the  currency 
of  the  state  was  depreciated  ;  private  and  public  credit  destroyed ;  a  bank- 
ruptcy almost  universal  produced ;  the  principles  of  sound  morality  and 
civil  order  disregarded ;  the  most  valuable  institutions  of  the  state  tempo- 
rarily overthrown ;  and  the.  community  brought  to  the  brink  of  civil  war 
and  anarchy. 

The  right  side  having  triumphed,  means  were  taken  to  redeem  this  de- 
preciated currency  ;  and  the  notes  of  the  United  States  bank  furnishing  a 

42 


494  BOOK!  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

currency  that  was  universally  preferred,  the  paper  of  the  commonwealth 
bank  was  driven  from  circulation,  and  gradually  redeemed  and  destroyed. 

To  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  a  state  of  things  in  other  states,  is  one 
of  the  objects  of  a  national  bank.  In  a  country  like  this,  the  temptation 
to  excessive  issues  of  bank  paper  is  too  strong  to  be  resisted  by  banking 
institutions  in  the  new  states,  unless  they  are  checked  by  a  vigilant  super- 
intendence, beyond  the  effect  of  local  influence.  The  United  States,  at 
the  present  moment,  furnish  a  complete  epitome  of  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion in  a  wilderness,  and  until  the  whole  continent  shall  be  occupied,  this 
republic  will  always  possess  within  its  limits  all  the  varieties  of  human 
society,  in  its  advancement  from  the  savage  to  the  civilized  state.  On 
the  Atlantic  coast  are  cities  and  states,  which,  in  commerce,  in  capital* 
and  in  all  the  productions  of  wealth  and  skill,  are  not  far,  if  at  all,  behind 
those  of  Europe.  Advancing  through  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  a 
traveller  enters  the  new  states  beyond  the  Alleghanies,  and  although  Cin- 
cinnati, Lexington,  Louisville,  and  Nashville  are  inferior  to  but  few  cities 
on  the  sea-coast,  still  the  population  is  not  so  dense,  and  the  country  shows 
fewer  signs  of  cultivation.  The  roads  become  worse,  the  towns  smaller, 
until  in  the  far  west  he  comes  upon  the  log  hut,  the  half-cleared  field,  and 
finally  reaches  the  ultima  Thule  of  civilization,  in  discovering  the  trapper's 
tent  not  far  distant  from  the  Indian's  wigwam.  The  effect  of  this  condi- 
tion of  society,  upon  the  internal  commerce  of  the  country,  is  striking  and 
characteristic.  In  settling  in  the  interior,  whether  in  one  or  more  fami- 
lies, the  whites  take  with  them  little  more  than  their  clothing,  furniture, 
agricultural  implements,  and  a  small  stock  of  domestic  cattle. 

In  a  few  years,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  enables  them  to  send  surplus  pro- 
duce, in  exchange  for  European  or  West  India  productions,  to  the  stores 
•of  the  country  traders  in  some  neighboring  town,  who,  in  their  turn,  trans- 
port it  to  the  sea-coast,  for  home  consumption  or  exportation.  In  this 
manner  an  active  trade  is  maintained  between  the  seaports  and  the  inte- 
rior, and  as  the  new  settlers  stand  in  actual  need  of  many  foreign  articles, 
which  they  require  on  credit,  to  be  paid  for  from  the  next  year's  crop,  it 
follows,  that  the  interior  is  invariably  in  debt  to  the  merchants  on  the  sea- 
board. These  debts,  however,  they  are  enabled  to  discharge,  through  the 
great  fertility  of  their  soil,  and  the  advance  of  their  property  in  conse- 
quence of  the  improvement  of  the  country  ;  and  contrary  to  an  old  maxim, 
they  grow  rich,  although  they  continue  in  debt — that  is,  they  are  daily 
augmenting  the  value  of  their  farms,  and  each  year  they  are  enabled  to 
purchase  some  additional  comfort  or  luxury,  which  they  do  not  hesitate  to 
buy  on  credit,  because  they  are  certain  of  being  able  to  pay  for  it  before 
the  lapse  of  another  year. 

The  invariable  course  of  business  between  old  and  new  countries — al- 
ways showing  a  balance  in  favor  of  the  former,  and  bringing  the  latter  in 
debt — demonstrates,  that  this  habit  is  beyond  the  reach  of  legislation. 

The  truth  is,  that  new  countries  are  deficient  in  capital.  They  are  in 
Want  of  all  the  luxuries,  and  many  of  the  necessaries,  to  which  the  emi- 
grants were  accustomed  at  home.  They,  however,  advance  in  wealth  and 
population  faster  than  older  states,  and  for  the  advance  of  capital,  or  the 
credit  which  they  require,  they  are  able  and  willing  to  pay.  Thus  both 
parties  are  satisfied  with  their  mutual  relations  of  debtor  and  creditorrand 
lind  their  respective  interests  promoted  by  the  proper  adjustment  of  these 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  495 

relations.  The  same  principle  is  equally  applicable  to  the  capital  required 
in  the  new  states  for  a  circulating  medium.  If  they  can  borrow  at  a  fair 
rate  of  interest  from  the  Atlantic  cities,  or  from  Europe,  capital  for  this 
purpose,  it  is  as  advantageous  a  loan  as  if  procured  for  any  other  object. 
it  enables  them  to  appropriate  an  equal  amount  of  capital  to  the  clearing 
of  new  towns,  building  better  houses,  improving  the  roads,  and  generally 
promoting  the  prosperity  of  that  portion  of  the  union.  It  obviates  the 
necessity,  that  so  often  impels  them  to  excessive  issues,  on  a  limited  capi- 
tal of  their  own,  and  thus  lessens  the  danger  of  a  derangement  of  the  cur- 
rency. 

This  object  was  effectually  attained  in  the  establishment  of  the  United 
States  bank.  Founded  upon  real  capital,  which  was  large  enough  for  its 
proposed  ends,  it  furnished,  through  its  branches,  a  sound  paper  currency 
to  these  new  states  ;  and  by  the  supervising  care  of  the  mother  bank,  those 
branches  were  sufficient] y  guarded  against  the  tendency  to  over-issues. 

By  the  same  agency,  the  local  banks  were  compelled  to  conduct  their 
business  with  prudence,  and  to  keep  their  circulation  within  proper  limits. 
Whenever  their  issues  were  too  much  augmented,  the  national  bank  inter- 
posed a  direct  check,  in  demanding  the  redemption  of  their  paper ;  and  an 
indirect  check  was  also  given  by  the  superior  credit  of  its  bills,  which  are 
receivable  in  all  places  in  payment  of  duties.  Since  the  establishment  of 
this  bank,  consequently,  the  business  of  domestic  exchange  has  been  trans- 
acted upon  the  basis  of  a  sound  currency,  and  the  rate  of  exchange,  be- 
tween the  western  and  the  middle  states,  has  been  reduced  to  one  fifth  of 
its  price  before  that  event. 

It  was  not,  however,  in  this  manner  alone  that  the  rate  of  exchange  was 
lowered.  It  was  equalized  by  the  obligation  assumed  by  the  federal  go- 
vernment to  receive  the  notes  of  the  United  States  bank  in  payment  of 
duties.  The  revenue  paid  to  the  United  States  in  each  year,  amounts  to 
about  twenty-six  million  dollars,  of  which  about  one  half  is  receivable  at 
the  custom-house  in  New  York.  The  exchange  being  always  in  favor  of 
that  city,  whenever  it  became  too  high,  remittances  were  made  by  the 
western  merchants,  in  branch  notes,  to  their  New  York  creditors,  who 
used  those  notes  in  paying  their  custom-house  bonds.  The  exchange 
was  thus  equalized  without  any  expense  to  the  community,  and  this  ope- 
ration has  been  felt  through  all  the  branches  of  the  domestic  exchange 
business. 

Its  effect  has  been  so  great,  that  exchange  between  the  different  parts 
of  the  union  has  been  generally  kept  below  the  expense  of  transporting 
the  specie,  and  the  branch  notes  have  seldom  been  at  a  greater  discount 
than  one  fourth  per  cent,  in  any  part  of  the  country.  As  an  equivalent 
for  these  advantages,  the  national  bank,  besides  a  bonus  paid  to  the  go- 
vernment when  the  charter  was  granted,  has  collected  the  public  revenue, 
and  transported  it,  without  expense,  to  any  part  of  the  union  where  it  was 
wanted.  It  has  also  disbursed  it,  and  thus  formed  an  efficient  arm  of  the 
treasury  department.  During  the  time  it  has  been  in  existence,  it  has 
performed  these  duties  without  any  expense  to  the  government,  and  has 
saved  it  from  all  losses  from  the  insolvency  of  state  banks.  As  an  agent 
of  the  treasury  department,  in  collecting  and  disbursing  the  revenue,  it  has 
proved  itself  efficient  and  eminently  useful ;  and  in  that  point  of  view,  the 
establishment  of  the  United  States  bank  by  congress  has  been  vindicated, 


496  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

as  one  of  the  means  necessary  and  proper  to  carry  into  effect  trie  powers 
constitutionally  vested  in  the  federal  government.  In  its  operation  upon 
the  federal  currency  of  the  country,  however,  its  constitutionality  is  still 
more  unquestionable.  It  is  through  a  national  bank  alone  that  congress 
can  exercise  that  control  over  the  monetary  system  of  the  union,  that  i-s 
vested  in  it  by  the  federal  compact. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  regulate  the  currency,  and  to  render  the  taxes  and 
duties  imposed  by  congress  uniform  throughout  the  United  States,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  a  national  bank  should  be  established  with  suffi- 
cient capital  to  control  the  state  banks,  and  to  compel  them  to  keep  their 
notes  equivalent  to  specie.  It  can  in  this  manner  only  discharge  that 
duty,  which,  for  wise  and  salutary  ends,  was  exclusively  vested  in  con- 
gress, at  the  formation  of  the  government.  In  performing  these  highly 
responsible  duties,  the  United  States  bank  has  necessarily  gone  counter  to 
the  wishes  of  various  classes  of  the  community.  By  compelling  the  local 
banks  to  control  their  issues,  it  has  diminished  the  dividends  of  the  stock- 
holders ;  by  reducing  the  rate  of  domestic  exchange,  it  has  lessened  the 
profits  of  the  brokers  and  ^capitalists,  carrying  on  that  branch  of  business; 
and  by  increasing  the  value  of  the  circulating  medium,  through  its  super- 
vising power  over  the  local  banks,  it  has,  in  effect,  reduced  the  price  of  all 
property  for  which  money  is  exchanged.  These  effects,  though  salutary 
to  the  community,  have  been  injurious  to  individual  interests,  which  have 
all  been  arrayed  in  hostility  to  that  institution.  The  benefits  of  the  bank 
have  been  of  too  general  a  character,  to  be  readily  appreciated  by  the 
mass.  They  consist  in  restoring  and  maintaining  a  sound  currency,  and 
though  this  is  as  indispensable  to  prosperous  commerce,  as  a  pure  atmo- 
sphere is  to  a  healthy  man  ;  still  no  special  feeling  is  excited  in  the  minds 
of  those  who  use  the  one  and  breathe  the  other  with  a  happy  forgetful- 
ness,  that  adulterated  coin  and  irredeemable  paper  will  cause  as  much  de- 
solation among  merchants,  as  a  pestilential  miasma  in  a  crowded  city. 

The  administration  of  the  bank,  however,  though  excellent,  has  not  been 
without  faults.  Shortly  after  going  into  operation,  its  direction  fell  into 
the  hands  of  a  few  speculators,  who  brought  it  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy, 
and  it  did  not  escape  without  the  loss  of  more  than  a  million  of  dollars,  and 
no  small  portion  of  character.  In  the  distribution  of  capital,  dissatisfaction 
had  been  caused  by  the  small  amount  apportioned  to  the  city  of  New 
York ;  and  it  has  been,  with  too  much  reason,  asserted,  that  the  illiberal 
policy  pursued  by  the  present  bank  towards  that  city,  originated  in  a  jea- 
lousy of  the  increasing  wealth  and  trade  of  the  commercial  metropolis  of 
the  United  States.  At  times,  too,  it  had  indiscreetly  enlarged  its  dis- 
counts, and  in  order  to  bring  the  currency  within  proper  limits,  was  oblig- 
ed to  bear  harshly  upon  its  customers.  Notwithstanding  these  errors,  it 
was  with  no  little  surprise,  that  the  public  found,  in  the  first  message  of 
general  Jackson  to  congress,  (six  years  before  the  expiration  of  the  char- 
ter,) an  expression  of  his  opinion  against  the  constitutionality  and  expedi- 
ency of  the  United  States  bank,  and  an  assertion  that  it  had  failed  in  the 
great  end  of  establishing  a  uniform  and  sound  currency.  As  no  intimation 
vad  been  given  of  an  intention  to  apply  for  a  renewal  of  the  charter,  and 
as  no  specific  abuses  were  pointed  out  deserving  examination,  this  intima- 
tion was  justly  regarded  as  an  indication  of  a  strong  hostility  against  that 
institution,  on  the  part  of  the  president,  originating  in  causes  not  open  to 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  497 

the  public  eye.  The  message  had  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  value  of 
the  stock  six  per  cent,  lower  than  before  the  opening  of  congress.  The 
subject,  however,  was  referred  to  the  committees  on  finance,  and  reports 
adverse  to  the  president's  views  having  been  brought  in,  the  stock  recover- 
ed itself,  and  finally  attained  a  higher  rate  than  the  original  price. 

The  recent  history  of  the  bank,  the  unsparing  exercise  of  the  executive 
veto,  the  assumption  of  powers  not  contemplated  by  the  constitution,  the 
evil  results  which  have  followed  the  assumption,  have  been  topics  of  too 
recent  excitement  to  be  discussed  in  a  work  like  the  present.  We  leave 
the  history  of  the  institution  at  an  interesting  crisis,  and  will  not  trust  our- 
selves amid  the  conflicting  elements  of  political  strife. 

63  42* 


498 


CHAPTER  XIX.— BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES. 

ADAMS,  John,  the  second  president,  was  born,  in  1735,  at  Braintree, 
Massachusetts.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  master  of  arts  in  1758.  At  this  time,  he  entered  the 
office  of  Jeremiah  Gridley,  a  lawyer  of  the  highest  eminence,  to  complete 
his  legal  studies  ;  and  in  the  next  year  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Suf- 
folk. Mr.  Adams,  at  an  early  age,  espoused  the  cause  of  his  country,  and 
received  numerous  marks  of  the  public  confidence  and  respect.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  every  leading  measure,  and  served  on  several  commit- 
tees, which  reported  some  of  the  most  important  state  papers  of  the  time. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Congress,  and  was  among  the  foremost 
in  recommending  the  adoption  of  an  independent  government.  It  has  been 
affirmed  by  Mr.  Jefferson  himself,  '  that  the  great  pillar  of  support  to  the 
declaration  of  independence,  and  its  ablest  advocate  and  champion  on  the 
floor  of  the  house,  was  John  Adams.'  In  1777,  he  was  chosen  commis- 
sioner to  the  court  of  Versailles,  in  the  place  of  Mr.  Dean,  who  was  re- 
called. On  his  return,  about  a  year  afterwards,  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  convention  to  prepare  a  form  of  government  for  the  state  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  placed  on  the  sub-committee  chosen  to  draught  the  project 
of  a  constitution.  Three  months  after  his  return,  congress  sent  him 
abroad  with  two  commissions,  one  as  minister  plenipotentiary,  to  negotiate 
a  peace,  the  other  to  form  a  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  In 
June,  1780,  he  was  appointed,  in  the  place  of  Mr.  Laurens,  ambassador  to 
Holland,  and  in  1782,  he  repaired  to  Paris,  to  commence  the  negotiation 
for  peace,  having  previously  obtained  assurance  that  Great  Britain  would 
recognise  the  independence  of  the  United  States.  At  the  close  of  the 
war,  Mr.  Adams  was  appointed  the  first  minister  to  London.  In  1789,  he 
was  elected  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  and,  on  the  resignation  of 
Washington,  succeeded  to  the  presidency,  in  1797.  After  his  term  of 
four  years  had  expired,  it  was  found,  on  the  new  election,  that  his  adver- 
sary, Mr.  Jefferson,  had  succeeded,  by  the  majority  of  one  vote.  On  re- 
tiring to  his  farm  in  Quincy,  Mr.  Adams  occupied  himself  with  agriculture, 
obtaining  amusement  from  the  literature  and  politics  of  the  day.  The  re- 
maining years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  almost  uninterrupted  tranquillity. 
He  died  on  the  fourth  of  July,  1826,  with  the  same  words  on  his  lips, 
which,  fifty  years  before,  on  that  glorious  day,  he  had  uttered  on  the  floor 
of  Congress — '  Independence  forever  !'  Mr.  Adams  is  the  author  of  An 
Essay  on  Canon  and  Feudal  Law. 

ADAMS,  Samuel,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  connected  with  the 
revolution,  was  born  at  Boston,  in  1722.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
college,  and  received  its  honors  in  1740.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who 
organized  measures  of  resistance  to  the  mother  country ;  and  for  the  pro- 
minent part  which  he  took  in  these  measures,  he  was  proscribed  by  the 
British  government.     During  the  revolutionary  war,  he  was  one  of  the 


BIOGRAPHY.  499 

most  active  and  influential  asserters  of  American  freedom  and  indepen- 
dence. He  was  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  from  1766 
to  1774,  when  he  was  sent  to  the  first  congress  of  the  old  confederation. 
He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  1776,  for  the  adoption  of 
which  he  had  always  been  one  of  the  warmest  advocates.  In  1781,  he 
retired  from  congress,  but  only  to  receive  from  his  native  state  additional 
proofs  of  her  confidence  in  his  talents  and  integrity.  He  had  already  been 
an  active  member  of  the  convention  that  formed  her  constitution  ;  and 
after  it  went  into  effect,  he  was  placed  in  the  senate  of  the  state,  and  for 
several  years  presided  over  that  body.  In  1789,  he  was  elected  lieutenant 
governor,  and  held  that  office  till  1794;  upon  the  death  of  Hancock,  he 
was  chosen  governor,  and  was  annually  re-elected  till  1797,  when  he  re- 
tired from  public  life.  He  died  in  1803.  The  following  encomium  upon 
Mr.  Adams  is  from  a  work  upon  the  American  rebellion,  by  Mr.  Galloway, 
published  in  Great  Britain,  1780 :  '  He  eats  little,  drinks  little,  sleeps 
little,  thinks  much,  and  is  most  indefatigable  in  the  pursuit  of  his  object. 
It  was  this  man,  who,  by  his  superior  application,  managed  at  once  the 
factions  in  congress  at  Philadelphia,  and  the  factions  of  New  England.' 

ADAMS,  Hannah,  a  native  of  New  England,  whose  literary  labors 
have  made  her  name  known  in  Europe,  as  well  as  in  her  native  land. 
Among  her  works  are  the  View  of  Religions,  History  of  the  Jews,  Evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  Religion,  and  a  History  of  New  England.  She 
was  a  woman  of  high  excellence  and  purity  of  character.  She  died  in 
1S31,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six. 

ALEXANDER,  William,  a  major-general  in  the  American  army,  dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York,  but  passed 
a  portion  of  his  life  in  New  Jersey.  He  acted  an  important  part  through- 
out the  revolution,  and  distinguished  himself  particularly  in  the  battles  of 
Long  Island,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth.  He  died  at  Albany,  in  1783, 
at  the  age  of  fifty-seven  years,  leaving  behind  him  the  reputation  of  a  brave 
officer  and  a  learned  man. 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  a  brigadier-general  in  the  revolutionary  army,  was  born 
in  Connecticut,  but  was  educated  principally  in  Vermont.  In  1775,  soon  after 
the  battle  of  Lexington,  he  collected  a  body  of  about  three  hundred  Green 
Mountain  boys,  as  they  were  called,  and  marched  against  the  fortresses  of 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point ;  and  in  each  of  these  enterprises  he  was  suc- 
cessful. He  was  shortly  after  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  England ;  of  tho 
events  of  his  captivity  he  has  himself  given  an  interesting  narrative.  On 
release  from  his  confinement,  he  repaired  to  the  head-quarters  of  general 
Washington,  where  he  was  received  with  much  respect.  As  his  health  was 
much  injured,  he  returned  to  Vermont,  after  having  made  an  offer  of  his 
services  to  the  commander-in-chief,  in  case  of  his  recovery.  He  died  sud- 
denly at  Colchester,  in  1789.  Among  other  publications,  Allen  was  the 
author  of  a  work  entitled  Allen's  Theology,  or  the  Oracles  of  Reason,  the 
first  formal  attack  upon  the  Christian  religion  issued  in  the  United  States. 
He  was  a  man  of  an  exceedingly  strong  mind,  but  entirely  rough  and 
uneducated. 

ALSOP,  Richard,  a  man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Middletown,  in  Con- 
necticut, and  resided  in  that  place  during  most  of  his  life.  His  works  are 
numerous,  and  embrace  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  He  was  one  of  the 
contributors  to  the  Echo,  a  journal  that  obtained  considerable  celebrity,  in 


500  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

its  day,  for  humor  and  satire.  He  published  various  translations  from 
the  French  and  Italian,  and  left  in  manuscript  a  poem  of  considerable 
length,  called  the  Charms  of  Fancy.  He  died  in  1815,  at  the  age  of  fifty- 
seven. 

AMES,  Fisher,  one  of  the  most  eloquent  of  American  writers  and 
statesmen,  was  born  at  Dedham,  in  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1758.  He 
was  educated  at  Harvard  college,  where  he  received  his  degree  in  1774. 
About  seven  years  afterwards,  he  began  the  practice  of  the  law,  and  an 
opportunity  soon  occurred  for  the  display  of  his  superior  qualifications, 
both  as  a  speaker  and  essay  writer.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  convention  for  ratifying  the  constitution,  in  1788, 
and  from  this  body  passed  to  the  house  of  representatives,  in  the  state 
legislature.  Soon  after,  he  was  elected  the  first  representative  of  the  Suf- 
folk district,  in  the  congress  of  the  United  States,  where  he  remained, 
with  the  highest  honor,  during  the  eight  years  of  Washington's  adminis- 
tration. On  the  retirement  of  the  first  president,  Mr.  Ames  returned  to 
the  practice  of  his  profession  in  his  native  town.  During  the  remaining 
years  of  his  life,  his  health  was  very  much  impaired,  but  his  mind  still 
continued  deeply  interested  in  politics,  and  he  published  a  considerable 
number  of  essays,  on  the  most  stirring  topics  of  the  day.  He  died  in  1808. 
In  the  following  year,  his  works  were  issued  in  one  volume,  octavo,  pre- 
faced by  a  biographical  notice,  from  the  pen  of  his  friend,  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Kirkland. 

BAINBRIDGE,  William,  a  distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  on  the  seventh  of  May,  1774.  From  1793  to 
1798,  he  was  engaged  in  the  merchant  service,  sailing  between  Philadel- 
phia and  Europe.  In  July,  1798,  he  received  the  command  of  the  United 
States'  schooner  Retaliation,  of  fourteen  guns,  to  be  employed  in  the  hos- 
tilities which  had  arisen  with  France.  While  cruising  off  Guadaloupe 
this  schooner  was  taken  by  two  French  frigates  and  a  lugger,  and  taken 
in  to  that  island,  where  she  remained  three  months.  He  reached  home  in 
February,  1799,  and  his  exchange  being  soon  effected,  he  received  a  com- 
mission of  master-commandant,  and  sailed  in  the  brig  Norfolk,  in  another 
cruise  to  the  West  Indies.  Here  he  remained  for  some  months,  convoying 
the  trade  of  the  United  States.  On  his  return,  he  received  a  captain's 
commission,  and  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  frigate  George 
Washington,  in  which  he  shortly  afterwards  sailed  for  Algiers,  with  the 
presents  which  our  treaty  bound  us  to  make  to  the  regency.  After  per- 
forming, from  motives  of  policy,  a  highly  insolent  exaction  of  the  Dey, 
captain  Bainbridge  returned  to  Philadelphia,  in  the  month  of  April,  1801. 
In  the  following  year,  he  received  the  command  of  the  frigate  Essex,  and 
sailed  for  the  Mediterranean,  to  protect  American  commerce  from  the  Tri- 
politan  cruisers.  In  July,  1803,  he  sailed  in  the  Philadelphia,  to  join  the 
Mediterranean  squadron,  then  under  commodore  Preble.  His  frigate  was 
unfortunately  captured  by  the  Tripolitans,  and  captain  Bainbridge  and 
his  crew  remained  in  imprisonment  for  thirteen  months.  In  1805,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Tripoli,  and 
the  prisoners  were  liberated.  Captain  Bainbridge  was  received  with  much 
respect,  and  was  acquitted  of  all  blame,  by  a  court  of  inquiry,  held  at  his 
request.  From  1806  to  1812,  he  was  employed  at  times  in  the  merchant 
service.     In  1812,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  navy  yard  at 


BIOGRAPHY.  501 

Charlestown,  and  when  captain  Hull  applied  for  a  furlough,  after  his  vic- 
tory over  the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  commodore  Bainbridge  was  per- 
mitted to  take  command  of  the  Constitution.  In  a  few  weeks  after  sailing, 
he  was  running  down  towards  the  coast  of  Brazil,  when  he  fell  in  with 
the  Java  frigate,  which  he  captured,  after  a  severe  battle.  This  frigate 
was  so  much  injured,  that  it  was  impossible  to  bring  her  to  the  United 
States,  and  she  was  accordingly  blown  up.  The  situation  of  the  Consti- 
tution soon  compelled  commodore  Bainbridge  to  return,  and  he  was  en- 
gaged in  no  other  action  during  the  war.  After  the  peace  of  1815,  he  su- 
perintended the  building  of  the  Independence,  seventy-four,  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  first  line  of  battle  ship  that  belonged  to  our  navy.  In  this 
ship  he  sailed  to  the  Mediterranean,  to  form  a  junction  with  commodore 
Decatur,  to  cruise  against  the  Barbary  powers ;  but  matters  had  been  ar- 
ranged before  his  arrival.  In  November,  1815,  he  returned  to  this  coun- 
try, was  afterwards  appointed  one  of  the  navy  commissioners,  and  re- 
sumed the  command  of  the  navy  yard  in  Charlestown.  His  health  gra- 
dually declined,  and  he  died  at  Philadelphia  on  the  twenty-seventh  of 
July,  1833. 

BARLOW,  Joel,  a  poet  and  diplomatist,  was  born  at  Reading,  in  Con- 
necticut, about  the  year  1755.  His  father  died  while  he  was  yet  a  lad  at 
school,  and  left  him  little  more  than  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a 
liberal  education.  He  was  first  placed  at  Dartmouth  college,  New  Hamp- 
shire, then  in  its  infancy,  and  after  a  very  short  residence  there,  removed 
to  Yale  college,  New  Haven.  From  this  institution  he  received  a  degree, 
in  1778,  when  he  first  came  before  the  public  in  his  poetical  character,  by 
reciting  an  original  poem,  which  was  soon  after  published.  On  leaving 
college,  he  was  successively  a  chaplain  in  the  revolutionary  army,  an  edi- 
tor, a  bookseller,  a  lawyer,  and  a  merchant.  He  next  visited  England, 
and  published,  in  London,  the  first  part  of  Advice  to  the  Privileged 
Orders ;  and,  in  the  succeeding  year,  a  poem,  called  The  Conspiracy  of 
Kings.  In  the  latter  part  of  1792,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  deputies 
from  the  London  Constitutional  Society,  to  present  an  address  to  the  na- 
tional convention  of  France.  Information  of  the  notice  which  the  British 
government  had  taken  of  this  mission,  led  him  to  think  that  it  would  be 
unsafe  to  return  to  England,  and  he  continued  to  reside  in  Paris  for  about 
three  years.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  composed  his  most  popular 
poem,  entitled  Hasty  Pudding.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  consul 
for  the  United  States  at  Algiers,  with  powers  to  negotiate  a  peace  with  the 
dey,  and  to  redeem  all  American  citizens  held  in  slavery  on  the  coast  of 
Barbary.  After  discharging  these  duties',  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  again 
engaging  in  trade,  amassed  a  considerable  fortune.  In  1805,  he  returned 
to  his  native  country,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Washington,  where  he 
displayed  a  liberal  hospitality,  and  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  most 
of  our  distinguished  statesmen.  He  now  devoted  himself  to  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Columbiad,  which  was  based  upon  a  poem  written  while  he 
was  in  the  army,  and  published  soon  after  the  close  of  the  war,  under  the 
title  of  The  Vision  of  Columbus.  This  was  issued  in  a  style  of  elegance 
which  few  works,  either  American  or  European,  have  ever  equalled. 
In  1811,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  France,  and  in  October  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  was  invited  to  a  conference  with  the  emperor  Napoleon,  at 
Wilna.     He  immediately  set  off  on  this  mission,  travelling  day  and  night ; 


602  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

but,  sinking  under  the  fatigue,  and  want  of  food  and  sleep,  to  which  he 
was  obliged  to  submit,  he  fell  into  a  state  of  debility  and  torpor,  from  which 
he  never  recovered.  He  died  in  December,  1812,  at  Zarnowica,  a  village 
in  Poland,  near  Cracow. 

BARNEY,  Joshua,  a  distinguished  naval  commander,  was  born  at  Bal- 
timore, Maryland,  in  1759.  He  went  to  sea  at  a  very  early  age,  and  when 
the  war  commenced  between  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies,  Barney  offer- 
ed his  services  to  the  latter,  and  obtained  the  situation  of  master's  mate  in 
the  sloop  of  war  Hornet.  During  the  war,  he  was  several  times  taken 
prisoner  by  the  enemy,  and  displayed,  on  numerous  occasions,  great  valor 
and  enterprise.  In  1795,  he  received  the  commission  of  captain  in  the 
French  service,  but  in  1800  resigned  his  command,  and  returned  to  Ame- 
rica. In  1812,  when  war  was  declared  against  Great  Britain,  he  offered 
his  services  to  the  general  government,  and  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  flotilla  for  the  defence  of  the  Chesapeak.  While  in  this  situation, 
during  the  summer  of  1814,  he  kept  up  an  active  warfare  with  the  enemy ; 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  July,  he  was  severely  wounded  in  a  land  engage- 
ment near  Bladensburg.  In  the  following  year,  he  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Europe.     He  died  at  Pittsburg,  in  1818,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age. 

BARRY,  John,  a  distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  in  Ireland,  in 
1745.  He  arrived  in  America  when  only  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  old, 
and  obtained  employment  from  some  of  the  most  respectable  merchants  of 
the  day,  until  the  commencement  of  hostilities  between  the  colonies  and 
the  mother  country.  Embracing  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  his  reputation 
for  skill  and  experience  procured  for  him  one  of  the  first  naval  commis 
sions  from  congress.  During  the  war,  he  served  with  great  benefit  to  hia 
country,  and  credit  to  himself,  and  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities,  he  was 
appointed  to  superintend  the  building  of  the  frigate  United  States,  in  Phi- 
ladelphia, which  was  designed  for  his  command.  He  was  highly  respect- 
ed in  private  life,  and  died,  much  lamented  and  honored,  in  1803. 

BARTRAM,  John,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  our  botanists,  was 
born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1701.  He  was  a  simple  farmer,  self  taught  in 
the  science  of  botany,  and  in  the  rudiments  of  the  learned  languages, 
medicine,  and  surgery.  So  great  was  his  progress  in  his  favorite  pursuit, 
that  Linnaeus  pronounced  him  the  '  greatest  natural  botanist  in  the  world.' 
He  contributed  much  to  the  gardens  of  Europe,  and  received  honors  from 
several  foreign  societies  and  academies.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  which 
happened  in  1777,  he  held  the  office  of  American  botanist  to  George  III. 
of  England. 

BARTRAM,  William,  a  celebrated  naturalist,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1739.  In  early  life,  he  was  occupied  with 
mercantile  pursuits,  but  an  attachment  to  natural  science  induced  him  to 
relinquish  them,  and,  in  1773,  he  embarked  for  Charleston,  with  the  in- , 
tention  to  visit  the  Floridas  and  the  western  parts  of  Georgia  and  Carolina, 
to  examine  their  natural  productions.  In  this  employment  he  was  engag- 
ed nearly  five  years  ;  and  in  1790,  he  published  an  account  of  his  travels 
and  discoveries,  in  one  volume,  octavo.  After  his  return  from  his  travels, 
he  devoted  himself  to  science,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  several  learn- 
ed societies,  both  at  home  and  in  Europe.  His  contributions  to  the  natural 
history  of  our  country  have  been  highly  valuable.  He  died  suddenly,  in 
1823. 


BIOGRAPHY.  503 

BAYARD,  James  A.,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1767,  and  educated  at  Princeton  college.  In  the  year 
1784,  he  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  law,  and  on  admission  to  the  bar, 
settled  in  the  state  of  Delaware,  where  he  soon  acquired  practice  and  con- 
sideration. He  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  congress  towards  the  close  of  the 
administration  of  Mr.  Adams,  and  first  particularly  distinguished  himself 
in  conducting  the  impeachment  of  senator  Blount.  In  1804,  he  was  elect- 
ed to  the  senate  of  the  United  States,  by  the  legislature  of  Delaware,  and 
remained  for  several  years  a  conspicuous  member  of  that  assembly.  In 
1813,  he  was  appointed  by  president  Madison  one  of  the  ministers  to  con- 
clude a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  and  assisted  in  the  successful 
negotiations  at  Ghent,  in  the  following  year.  He  then  received  the  ap- 
pointment of  minister  to  the  court  of  St.  Petersburgh,  but  an  alarming  ill- 
ness induced  him  to  return  immediately  to  the  United  States.  He  died 
6oon  after  his  arrival  home,  in  July,  1815. 

BELKNAP,  Jeremy,  an  eminent  historian  and  divine,  was  born  at 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1744,  and  wTas  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in 
1762.  He  was  first  settled  in  the  Christian  ministry  at  Dover,  New- 
Hampshire,  and  afterwards  in  his  native  town.  He  was  one  of  the  foun- 
ders of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  and  devoted  much  of  his 
time  to  the  promotion  of  its  objects  and  interests.  His  published  works 
are,  the  History  of  New  Hampshire,  American  Biography,  and  a  number 
of  political,  literary  and  religious  tracts.  His  writings  are  characterized 
by  great  research,  clear  arrangement,  and  perspicuity  of  style.  He  died 
at  Boston,  in  1798. 

BENEZET,  Anthony,  a  philanthropist,  was  born  in  1713,  at  St.  Quen- 
lin,  in  Picardy,  of  Protestant  parents,  who  first  settled  in  London,  and  after- 
wards at  Philadelphia.  He  was  intended  for  a  merchant,  but  apprenticed 
himself  to  a  cooper,  and  subsequently  became  a  school-master,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  society  of  Friends.  His  whole  life  was  spent  in  acts  of  benevo- 
lence, and  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  opponents  of  the  atrocious  slave  trade. 
A  few  hours  before  his  death,  he  rose  from  his  bed,  to  give,  from  his  bu- 
reau, six  dollars  to  a  poor  widow.  His  funeral  was  attended  by  thousands  ; 
and  at  the  grave,  an  American  officer  exclaimed,  '  I  would  rather  be  An- 
thony Benezet,  in  that  coffin,  than  George  Washington,  with  all  his  fame.' 
Benezet  died  at  Philadelphia,  in  1784.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Caution  to. 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies ;  and  an  Historical  Account  of  Guinea. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  an  American  naval  officer,  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, in  1750.  He  entered  the  British  fleet  in  1770,  having  previously 
served  several  years  as  a  seaman  on  board  merchant  ships.  On  the  com- 
mencement of  hostilities  between  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country,  he 
returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  received  from  congress  the  captaincy  of  the- 
Andrew  Doria,  a  brig  of  fourteen  guns,  employed  in  the  expedition  against 
New  Providence.  Towards  the  close  of  1776,  he  received  command  of 
the  Randolph,  a  new  frigate  of  thirty-two  guns,  with  which  he  soon  cap- 
tured a  Jamaica  fleet,  of  four  sail,  richly  laden.  This  prize  he  carried  into, 
Charleston,  and  was  soon  after  furnished  by  the  government  of  that  town 
with  four  additional  vessels,  to  attack  several  British  cruisers,  at  that  time 
harassing  the  commerce  of  the  vicinity.  He  fell  in  with  the  royal  line-of- 
battle  ship  Yarmouth,  of  sixty-four  guns,  on  the  seventh  of  March,  1778* 


504  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and,  after  an  action  of  twenty  minutes,  perished,  with  all  his  crew  except 
four,  by  the  blowing  up  of  the  ship. 

BLAKELY,  Johnston,  a  captain  in  the  United  States  navy  during  the 
late  war,  was  born  in  Ireland,  in  1781.  Two  years  after,  his  father  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  North  Carolina.  Young  Blake- 
ly  was  placed,  in  1796,  at  the  university  of  North  Carolina ;  but  circum- 
stances having  deprived  him  of  the  means  of  adequate  support,  he  left  col- 
lege, and  in  1800  obtained  a  midshipman's  warrant.  In  1813,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Wasp,  and  in  this  vessel  took  his  Britannic 
majesty's  ship  Reindeer,  after  an  action  of  nineteen  minutes.  The  Wasp 
afterwards  put  into  L'Orient ;  from  which  port  she  sailed  August  27.  On 
the  evening  of  the  first  of  September,  1814,  she  fell  in  with  four  sail,  at 
considerable  distances  from  each  other.  One  of  these  was  the  brig  of  war 
Avon,  which  struck,  after  a  severe  action ;  but  captain  Blakely  was  pre- 
vented from  taking  possession,  by  the  approach  of  another  vessel.  The 
enemy  reported  that  they  had  sunk  the  Wasp  by  the  first  broadside  ;  but 
she  was  afterwards  spoken  by  a  vessel  off  the  Western  isles.  After  this, 
we  hear  of  her  no  more.  Captain  Blakely  was  considered  a  man  of  un- 
common courage  and  intellect. 

BOONE,  Daniel,  one  of  the  earliest  settlers  in  Kentucky,  was  born  in 
Virginia,  and  was  from  infancy  addicted  to  hunting  in  the  woods.  He  set 
out  on  an  expedition  to  explore  the  region  of  Kentucky,  in  May,  1769, 
with  five  companions.  After  meeting  with  a  variety  of  adventures,  Boone 
was  left  with  his  brother,  the  only  white  men  in  the  wilderness.  They 
passed  the  winter  in  a  cabin,  and  in  the  summer  of  1770,  traversed  the 
country  to  the  Cumberland  river.  In  September,  1773,  Boone  commenced 
his  removal  to  Kentucky,  with  his  own  and  five  other  families.  He  was 
joined  by  forty  men,  who  put  themselves  under  his  direction  ;  but  being 
attacked  by  the  Indians,  the  whole  party  returned  to  the  settlements  on 
Clinch  river.  Boone  was  afterwards  employed  by  a  company  of  North 
Carolina,  to  buy,  from  the  Indians,  lands  on  the  south  side  of  the  Kentucky 
river.  In  April,  1775,  he  built  a  fort  at  Salt-spring,  where  Boonesborough 
is  now  situated.  Here  he  sustained  several  sieges  from  the  Indians,  and 
was  once  taken  prisoner  by  them,  while  hunting  with  a  number  of  his 
men.  In  1782,  the  depredations  of  the  savages  increased  to  an  alarming 
extent,  and  Boone,  with  other  militia  officers,  collected  one  hundred  and 
seventy-six  men,  and  went  in  pursuit  of  a  large  body,  who  had  marched 
beyond  the  Blue  Licks,  forty  miles  from  Lexington.  From  that  time  till 
1798,  he  resided  alternately  in  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  In  that  year, 
having  received  a  grant  of  two  thousand  acres  of  land  from  the  Spanish 
authorities,  he  removed  to  Upper  Louisiana,  with  his  children  and  follow- 
ers, who  were  presented  with  eight  hundred  acres  each.  He  settled  with 
them  at  Charette,  on  the  Missouri  river,  where  he  followed  his  usual 
course  of  life, — hunting  and  trapping  bears, — till  September,  1822,  when 
he  died,  in  the  eighty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  He  expired  while  on  his 
knees,  taking  aim  at  some  object,  and  was  found  in  that  position,  with  his 
gun  resting  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 

BOUDINOT,  Elias,  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  Huguenots,  was  bom 
in  Philadelphia,  in  1740.  He  received  a  liberal  education,  and  entered  into 
the  practice  of  the  law  in  New  Jersey,  where  he  soon  rose  to  considerable! 


BIOGRAPHY.  505 

eminence.  In  1777,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  congress,  and  in  1782, 
was  elected  president  of  that  body.  On  the  return  of  peace,  he  resumed 
his  profession,  but,  in  1789,  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States,  which  he  continued  to  occupy  for  six 
years.  He  was  then  appointed  by  Washington  director  of  the  national 
mint,  in  which  office  he  remained  for  about  twelve  years.  Resigning  this 
office,  he  retired  to  private  life,  and  resided  from  that  time  in  Burlington, 
New  Jersey.  Here  he  passed  his  time  in  literary  pursuits,  liberal  hospi- 
tality, and  in  discharging  all  the  duties  of  an  expansive  and  ever  active 
benevolence.  Being  possessed  of  an  ample  fortune,  he  made  munificent 
donations  to  various  charitable  and  theological  institutions,  and  was  one  of 
the  earliest  and  most  efficient  friends  of  the  American  Bible  Society.  Of 
this  institution  he  was  the  first  president,  and  it  was  particularly  the  object 
of  his  princely  bounty.     He  died  in  October,  1821. 

BOWDOIN,  James,  a  governor  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Boston, 
in  the  year  1727,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1745.  He 
took  an  early  stand  against  the  encroachments  of  the  British  government 
upon  the  provincial  rights,  and  in  1774  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  first 
congress.  The  state  of  his  health  prevented  his  attendance,  and  his  place 
was  afterwards  filled  by  Mr.  Hancock.  In  1778,  he  was  chosen  president 
of  the  convention  which  formed  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts,  and  in 
1785,  was  appointed  governor  of  that  state.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  convention  assembled  to  deliberate  on  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  exerted  himself  in  its  favor.  He 
was  the  first  president  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  established 
at  Boston  in  1780,  and  was  admitted  a  member  of  several  foreign  societies 
of  distinction.     He  died  at  Boston,  in  1790. 

BOYLSTON,  Zabdiel,  was  born  at  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1684. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Boston,  and  entered  into  the  practice  of  his  profes- 
sion in  that  place.  In  1721,  when  the  small  pox  broke  out  in  Boston,  and 
spread  alarm  through  the  whole  country,  the  practice  of  inoculation  was 
introduced  by  Dr.  Boylston,  notwithstanding  it  was  discouraged  by  the 
rest  of  the  faculty,  and  a  public  ordinance  was  passed  to  prohibit  it.  He 
persevered  in  his  practice,  in  spite  of  the  most  violent  opposition,  and  had 
the  satisfaction  of  seeing  inoculation  in  general  use  in  New  England,  for 
some  time  before  it  became  common  in  Great  Britain.  In  1725,  he  visited 
England,  where  he  was  received  with  much  attention,  and  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  society.  Upon  his  return,  he  continued  at  the  head 
of  his  profession  for  many  years,  and  accumulated  a  large  fortune.  Be- 
sides communications  to  the  Royal  society,  he  published  two  treatises  on 
the  small  pox.     He  died  in  1766. 

BRADFORD,  William,  an  eminent  lawyer,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
in  1755.  After  graduating  at  Princeton  college,  he  pursued  the  study  of 
the  law.  and  in  1779,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  1780,  he  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and  in  1791, 
he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  his  native  state.  In  1794, 
he  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  and  held  this 
3ffice  till  his  death.  In  1793,  he  published  an  Inquiry  how  far  the  Pu- 
nishment of  Death  is  necessary  in  Pennsylvania.  He  died  in  1795.  He 
was  a  man  of  integrity,  industry,  and  talent. 

BRAINARD,  J.  G.  C,  a  poet  and  man  of  letters,  was  born  in  Con- 
'  64  4,3 


606  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

hecticut,  and  was  graduated  at  Yale  college,  in  1815.  He  pursued  the 
profession  of  the  law,  and  entered  into  practice  at  Middletown,  Connecti- 
cut ;  but  not  finding  the  degree  of  success  that  he  expected,  he  returned 
in  a  short  time  to  his  native  town,  whence  he  removed  to  Hartford,  to  un- 
dertake the  editorial  charge  of  the  Connecticut  Mirror.  His  poems  were 
chiefly  short  pieces,  composed  for  the  columns  of  that  paper,  and  afterwards 
Collected  into  a  volume.  They  display  much  pathos,  boldness,  and  origi- 
nality.    Braina  1  died  of  consumption,  in  1828. 

BRAINERD,  David,  the  celebrated  missionary,  was  born  at  Haddam, 
Connecticut,  in  1718.  From  an  early  period  he  was  remarkable  for  a  re- 
ligious turn  of  mind,  and  in  1739,  became  a  member  of  Yale  college,  where 
he  was  distinguished  for  application,  and  general  correctness  of  conduct. 
He  was  expelled  from  this  institution  in  1742,  in  consequence  of  having 
said,  in  the  warmth  of  his  religious  zeal,  that  one  of  the  tutors  was  as  de- 
Void  of  grace  as  a  chair.  In  the  spring  of  1742,  he  began  the  study  oi 
divinity,  and  at  the  end  of  July,  was  licensed  to  preach.  Having  received 
from  the  Society  for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge,  an  appointment  as 
missionary  to  the  Indians,  he  commenced  his  labors  at  Kaunameek,  a  vil- 
lage of  Massachusetts,  situated  between  Stockbridge  and  Albany.  He  re- 
mained there  about  twelve  months,  and  on  the  removal  of  the  Kaunameeks 
to  Stockbridge,  he  turned  his  attention  towards  the  Delaware  Indians.  In 
1744,  he  was  ordained  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  fixed  his  residence 
near  the  forks  of  the  Delaware,  in  Pennsylvania,  where  he  remained  about 
a  yeari  From  this  place,  he  removed  to  Crosvveeksung,  in  New  Jersey, 
Where  his  efforts  among  the  Indians  were  crowned  with  great  success.  In 
1747,  he  went  to  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  where  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  the  family  of  the  celebrated  Jonathan  Edwards.  He 
died,  after  great  sufferings,  in  1747.  His  publications  are  a  narrative  of 
his  labors  at  Kaunameek,  and  his  journal  of  a  remarkable  work  of  grace 
among  a  number  of  Indians  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  1746. 

BRANDT,  a  noted  half-blooded  Indian  chief,  of  the  Mohawk  tribe,  was 
educated  by  Dr.  Wheelock,  of  Dartmouth  college,  and  made  very  conside- 
rable attainments  in  knowledge.  In  the  revolutionary  war,  he  attached 
himself  to  the  British,  and  headed  the  party  which  destroyed  the  beauti- 
ful village  of  Wyoming.  He  resided  in  Canada  after  the  war,  and  died 
there  in  1807. 

BROOKS,  John,  the  son  of  a  respectable  farmer,  was  born  in  Medford, 
Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1752.  After  receiving  a  common  school  edu- 
cation, he  was  placed  with  Dr.  Tufts,  to  study  the  profession  of  medicine. 
On  completing  his  studies,  he  commenced  practice  in  the  neighboring 
town  of  Reading,  a  short  time  before  the  commencement  of  the  revolution. 
When  this  event  occurred,  he  was  appointed  to  command  a  company  of 
minute  men,  and  was  soon  after  raised  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the  conti- 
nental service.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  military  tac- 
tics, and  acquired  the  confidence  of  Washington.  In  1777,  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-colonel,  and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  capture  of 
Burgoyne,  at  Saratoga.  On  the  disbanding  of  the  army,  colonel  Brooks 
resumed  the  practice  of  medicine  in  Medford  and  the  vicinity,  and  was 
soon  after  elected  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  society.  He 
Was,  for  many  years,  major-general  of  the  militia  of  his  county,  and  his 
division  rendered  efficient  service  to  the  government  in  the  insurrection  of 


BIOGRAPHK  507 

17S6.  General  Brooks  also  represented  his  town  in  the  general  court,  and 
was  a  delegate  to  the  state  convention  for  the  adoption  of  the  federal  con- 
stitution. In  the  late  war  with  England,  he  was  the  adjutant-general  of 
governor  Strong,  whom,  on  his  retirement  from  office,  he  was  chosen  to 
succeed.  He  discharged  the  duties  of  chief  magistrate  with  much  ability, 
for  seven  successive  years,  when  he  retired  to  private  life.  His  remaining 
years  were  passed  in  the  town  of  Medford,  where  he  died  in  1825. 

BROWN,  Charles  Brockden,  a  distinguished  novelist  and  man  of  let- 
ters, was  born  at  Philadelphia,  in  January,  1771.  After  a  good  school 
education,  he  commenced  the  study  of  the  law  in  the  office  of  an  eminent 
member  of  the  bar.  During  the  preparatory  term,  his  mind  was  much  en- 
gaged in  literary  pursuits,  and  when  the  time  approached  for  his  admission 
into  the  courts,  he  resolved  to  abandon  the  profession  altogether.  His 
passion  for  letters,  and  the  weakness  of  his  physical  constitution,  disquali- 
fied him  for  the  bustle  of  business.  His  first  publication  was  Alcuin,  a 
Dialogue  on  the  Rights  of  Women,  written  in  the  autumn  and  winter  of 
1797.  The  first  of  his  novels,  issued  in  1798,  was  Wieland,  a  powerful 
and  original  romance,  which  soon  acquired  reputation.  After  this,  follow- 
ed Ormond,  Arthur  Mervyn,  Edgar  Huntley,  and  Clara  Howard,  in  rapid 
succession,  the  last  being  published  in  1801.  The  last  of  his  novels,  Jane 
Talbot,  was  originally  published  in  London,  in  1804,  and  is  much  inferior 
to  its  predecessors.  In  1799,  Brown  published  the  first  number  of  the 
Monthly  Magazine  and  American  Review  ;  a  work  which  he  continued 
for  about  a  year  and  a  half,  with  much  industry  and  ability.  In  1805,  he 
commenced  another  journal,  with  the  title  of  the  Literary  Magazine  and 
American  Register ;  and  in  this  undertaking  he  persevered  for  five  years. 
During  the  same  interval,  he  found  time  to  write  three  large  political  pam- 
phlets, on  the  Cession  of  Louisiana,  on  the  British  Treaty,  and  on  Com- 
mercial Restrictions.  In  1806,  he  commenced  a  semi-annual  American 
Register,  five  volumes  of  which  he  lived  to  complete  and  publish,  and 
which  must  long  be  consulted  as  a  valuable  body  of  annals.  Besides  these 
works,  and  many  miscellaneous  pieces,  published  in  different  periodicals, 
he  left  in  manuscript  an  unfinished  system  of  geography,  which  has  been 
represented  to  possess  uncommon  merit.  He  died  of  consumption,  in 
1810. 

BROWN,  John,  was  born,  in  1736,  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  and 
was  a  leader  of  the  party  which,  in  1772,  destroyed  the  British  sloop  of 
war  Gasper,  in  Narragansett  bay.  He  became  an  enterprising  and  weal- 
thy merchant,  and  was  the  first  in  his  native  state  who  traded  with  the 
East  Indies  and  China.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  congress,  and  was 
a  generous  patron  of  literature,  and  a  great  projector  of  works  of  public 
utility.     He  died  in  1803. 

BUCKMINSTER,  Joseph  Stevens,  a  celebrated  pulpit  orator,  was 
born  in  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1784.  His  male  ancestors,  on 
both  sides,  for  several  generations,  were  clergymen,  and  some  of  them  of 
considerable  eminence.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in  1800, 
with  much  distinction,  and  spent  the  ensuing  four  years  in  the  study  of 
theology  and  general  literature.  He  was  ordained  minister  over  the 
church  in  Brattle-street,  Boston,  in  January,  1805.  In  the  ensuing  year, 
he  embarked  for  Europe,  with  the  hopes  of  repairing  his  constitution,  which 
had  suffered  much  from  attacks  of  epilepsy.     He  returned  in  the  autumn 


508  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  1807,  and  resumed  the  exercise  of  his  profession  ;  his  sermons  placing 
him  in  the  first  rank  of  popular  preachers.  In  1810,  he  superintended  an 
American  edition  of  Griesbach's  Greek  Testament,  and  wrote  much  in 
vindication  of  this  author's  erudition,  fidelity,  and  accuracy.  In  1811,  he 
was  appointed  the  first  lecturer  on  Biblical  criticism,  at  the  university  of 
Cambridge,  on  the  foundation  established  by  Samuel  Dexter.  He  imm'* 
diately  began  a  course  of  laborious  and  extensive  preparation  for  the  du- 
ties of  this  office,  but  was  interrupted  by  a  violent  attack  of  his  old  disease, 
which  prostrated  his  intellect,  and  gave  a  shock  to  his  frame  which  he 
survived  but  a  few  days.  He  died  in  1812,  at  the  completion  of  his  twen- 
ty-eighth year.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  have  been  collected  and 
published  since  his  decease  ;  one  in  1814,  the  other  in  1829.  The  first 
was  prefaced  with  a  well- written  biographical  sketch. 

CABOT,  George,  was  born  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1752, 
and  spent  the  early  part  of  his  life  in  the  employment  of  a  ship-master.  He 
possessed  a  vigorous  and  inquisitive  mind,  and  took  advantage  of  every 
opportunity  of  improvement  and  acquisition,  even  amid  the  restlessness 
and  danger  of  a  seafaring  life.  Before  he  was  twenty-six  years  of  age, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts, 
wdiich  met  with  the  visionary  project  of  establishing  a  maximum  in  the 
prices  of  provision.  There  he  displayed  that  sound  sense,  and  that  ac- 
quaintance with  the  true  principles  of  political  economy,  for  which  he 
afterwards  became  so  much  distinguished.  Mr.  Cabot  was  a  member  of 
the  state  convention,  assembled  to  deliberate  on  the  adoption  of  the  federal 
constitution,  and  in  1790,  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  senate  of  the  United 
States.  Of  this  body  he  became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  members, 
and  enjoyed  the  unlimited  confidence  and  friendship  of  Hamilton  and 
Washington.  In  1808,  he  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  in  1814,  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  the  convention  which  met 
at  Hartford,  and  was  chosen  to  preside  over  its  deliberations.  He  died  at 
Boston,  in  1823,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two  years.  He  possessed  a  mind 
of  great  energy  and  penetration,  and  in  private  life  was  much  loved  and 
esteemed.  As  a  public  man,  he  was  pure  and  disinterested,  of  high  sa- 
gacity and  persuasive  eloquence.  His  favorite  studies  were  political 
economy  and  the  science  of  government. 

CADWALLADER,  John,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  and  rose  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general  during  the  revolutionary  war.  He  was  a  man  of  in- 
flexible courage,  and  possessed,  in  a  high  degree,  the  esteem  and  confi- 
dence of  Washington.  In  1778,  he  was  appointed  by  congress  general 
of  cavalry,  an  appointment  which  he  declined,  on  the  score  of  being  more 
useful  in  the  situation  he  then  occupied.  After  the  war,  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  assembly  of  Maryland,  and  died  in  1786,  in  the  forty-fourth  year 
of  his  age. 

CARROLL,  Charles,  was  born  on  the  twentieth  of  September,  1737, 
at  Annapolis,  in  Maryland.  At  an  early  age,  he  was  sent  to  St.  Omers 
to  be  educated,  whence  he  removed  to  the  college  of  Louis  le  Grand,  at 
Rheims.  After  prosecuting  for  some  time  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  at 
one  of  .the  best  institutions  in  France,  he  entered  the  temple.  After  be- 
coming well  versed  in  the  principles  of  the  common  law,  and  completing 
his  studies  and  travels,  he  returned  to  his  native  land,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
seven.     At  this  period,  the  difficulties  between  the  colonies  and  the  mother 


BIOGRAPHY.  509 

country  had  commenced,  and  the  struggle  was  soon  carried  on  with  con- 
siderable warmth.  Mr.  Carroll  wielded  a  vigorous  pen,  and  was  soon 
known  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  writers  in  Maryland.  He  foresaw  at 
an  early  hour  that  the  appeal  to  arms  must  finally  be  made,  and  boldly  re- 
commended due  preparation. 

Early  in  1776,  he  was  sent  as  one  of  the  commissioners  to  Canada,  to 
induce  the  people  of  that  province  to  join  us  in  the  opposition  to  the 
mother  country.  This  mission  was  ineffectual.  Mr.  Carroll  returned  in 
June,  1776,  and  immediately  took  his  seat  as  a  delegate  in  the  conven- 
tion of  Maryland.  Being  afterwards  elected  a  member  of  the  congress, 
he  presented  his  credentials  to  this  body  at  Philadelphia  on  the  eighteenth 
of  July,  and  on  the  second  of  August  following  subscribed  his  name  to 
the  declaration  of  independence. 

At  the  time  he  was  considered  as  one  of  the  most  fearless  and  daring 
men  of  the  age  ;  as  his  property  was  immense,  and  its  ultimate  loss  was 
considered  rationally  certain.  On  his  entrance  into  congress,  he  was 
immediately  appointed  to  the  board  of  war,  of  which  he  was  an  efficient 
member.  During  the  war,  he  bore  his  part  with  unabated  vigor,  and  was 
often,  at  the  same  time,  a  member'of  the  continental  congress  and  of  the 
convention  of  his  native  state  ;  discharging  his  duties  in  both  relations 
with  fidelity,  energy,  and  attention.  In  1778,  he  left  congress,  and  devot- 
ed himself  to  the  councils  of  his  native  state.  When  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States  went  into  operation,  Mr.  Carroll  was  elected  a  senator 
from  Maryland^  and  took  his  seat  at  the  organization  of  the  government, 
on  the  30th  of  April,  1789.  To  this  office  he  was  elected  for  a  second 
term. 

In  1801,  he  quitted  public  life  at  the  age  of  sixty-four,  and  for  upwards 
of  thirty  years  enjoyed  a  life  of  tranquil  honor,  and  unalloyed  prosperity. 
He  survived  all  his  companions  of  the  immortal  instrument  of  our  inde- 
pendence, and  on  the  fourteenth  of  November,  1832,  the  '  patriarch  was 
gathered  to  his  fathers.' 

CARTER,  Nathaniel  H.,  a  man  of  letters,  was  born  in  Concord, 
New  Hampshire,  and  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1811.  In  1816, 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  languages  at  the  college  where  he  was  edu- 
cated, and  was  subsequently  editor  of  the  New  York  Statesman.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  few  occasional  poems,  and  of  Travels  in  Europe,  in  two 
vols.  8vo.  He  died  in  Marseilles,  where  he  had  gone  on  account  of  his 
health,  in  January,  1830. 

CARVER,  Jonathan,  a  celebrated  traveller,  born  in  Connecticut,  in 
1732,  was  a  grandson  of  the  governor  of  that  province.  He  was  educated 
for  the  medical  profession,  but  embraced  a  military  life,  and  served  with 
reputation  till  the  peace  of  1763.  The  years  1766,  1767,  and  1768,  he 
spent  in  exploring  the  interior  of  North  America,  and  he  added  considera- 
bly to  our  knowledge  of  the  country.  He  visited  England,  in  1769, 
hoping  for  the  patronage  of  government,  but  he  was  disappointed.  In 
1778,  while  in  the  situation  of  clerk  of  a  lottery,  in  Boston,  he  published 
his  travels,  and,  subsequently,  a  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  Tobacco. 
After  having  long  contended  with  poverty,  he  died,  in  1780,  of  disease 
which  is  believed  to  have  been  produced  by  want.  His  narrations  have  all 
the  interest  of  fiction,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  they  may  in  some 
respects  be  considered  the  work  of  fancy. 

43* 


510  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

CHASE,  Samuel,  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  Somerset  county,  Maryland,  in  1741.  He  was  educated  by 
his  father,  a  learned  clergyman ;  and  after  studying  for  two  years  the  pro- 
fession of  law,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  at  Annapolis,  at  the  age  of 
twenty.  In  1774,  he  was  sent  to  the  congress  of  Philadelphia  as  a  dele- 
gate from  Maryland,  and  he  continued  an  active,  bold,  eloquent,  and  effi- 
cient member  of  this  body  throughout  the  war,  when  he  returned  to  the 
practice  of  his  profession.  In  1791,  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  chief 
justice  of  the  general  court  of  Maryland  ;  and  in  1796,  president  Wash- 
ington made  him  an  associate  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States.  He  remained  upon  the  bench  for  fifteen  years,  and  appeared  with 
ability  and  dignity.  It  was  his  ill  fortune,  however,  to  have  his  latter 
days  embittered  by  an  impeachment  by  the  house  of  representatives  at 
Washington.  This  impeachment  originated  in  political  animosities,  from 
the  offence  which  his  conduct  in  the  circuit  court  had  given  to  the  demo- 
cratic party.  The  trial  of  the  judge  before  the  senate  is  memorable  on 
account  of  the  excitement  which  it  occasioned,  the  ability  of  the  defence, 
and  the  nature  of  the  acquittal.  Judge  Chase  continued  to  exercise  his 
judicial  functions  till  1811,  when  his  health  failed  him,  and  he  expired  on 
the  nineteenth  of  June,  in  that  year.  He  was  a  sincere  patriot,  and  a  man 
of  high  intellect  and  undaunted  courage. 

CHURCH,  Benjamin,  a  physician  of  some  eminence,  and  an  able  wri- 
ter, was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1754,  and,  after  going  through 
the  preparatory  studies,  established  himself  in  the  practice*  of  medicine  in 
Boston.  For  several  years  before  the  revolution,  he  was  a  leading  cha- 
racter among  the  whigs  and  patriots;  and  on  the  commencement  of  the 
war  he  was  appointed  physician  general  to  the  army.  While  in  the  per- 
formance of  the  duties  assigned  him  in  this  capacity,  he  was  suspected  of 
a  treacherous  correspondence  with  the  enemy,  and  immediately  arrested 
and  imprisoned.  After  remaining  some  time  in  prison,  he  obtained  per- 
mission to  depart  for  the  West  Indies.  The  vessel  in  which  he  sailed  was 
never  heard  from  afterwards.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  occasional 
poems,  serious,  pathetic,  and  satirical,  which  possess  considerable  merit ; 
and  an  oration,  delivered  on  the  fifth  of  March,  1773. 

CLINTON,  James,  was  born  in  1736,  at  the  residence  of  his  father,  in 
Ulster  county,  New  York.  He  displayed  an  early  inclination  for  a  milita- 
ry life,  and  held  successively  several  offices  in  the  militia  and  provincial 
troops.  During  the  French  war  he  exhibited  many  proofs  of  courage,  and 
received  the  appointment  of  captain-commandant  of  the  four  regiments, 
levied  for  the  protection  of  the  western  frontiers  of  the  counties  of  Ulster  and 
Orange.  In  1775,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  third  regiment  of  New 
York  forces,  and  in  the  same  year  marched  with  Montgomery  to  Quebec. 
During  the  war,  he  rendered  eminent  services  to  his  country,  and  on  the 
conclusion  of  it  retired  to  enjoy  repose  on  his  ample  estates.  He  was, 
however,  frequently  called  from  retirement  by  the  unsolicited  voice  of  his 
fellow-citizens ;  and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  for  the  adoption  of 
the  present  constitution  of  the  United  States.     He  died  in  1S12. 

CLINTON,  George,  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in 
the  county  of  Ulster,  New  York,  in  1739,  and  was  educated  in  the  pro- 
fession of  the  law.  In  1768,  he  was  chosen  to  a  seat  in  the  colonial 
assembly,  and  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress  in  1775. 


BIOGRAPHY.  511 

In  1776,  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of' the  militia  of  Ulster 
county,  and  some  time  after  a  brigadier  in  the  army  of  the  United  States, 
and  continued  during  the  progress  of  the  war  to  render  important  services 
to  the  military  department.  In  April,  1777,  he  was  elected  both  governor 
and  lieutenant-governor  of  New  York,  and  was  continued  in  the  former 
office  for  eighteen  years.  He  was  unanimously  chosen  president  of  the 
convention  which  assembled  at  Poughkeepsie,  in  1788,  to  deliberate  on 
the  new  federal  constitution.  In  1801,  he  again  accepted  the  office  of 
governor,  and  after  continuing  in  that  capacity  for  three  years,  he  was 
elevated  to  the  vice-presidency  of  the  United  States  ;  a  dignity  which  he 
retained  till  his  death  at  Washington,  in  1812.  In  private  he  was  kind 
and  amiable,  and  as  a  public  man  he  is  entitled  to  respectful  remem- 
brance. 

CLINTON,  De  Witt,  was  born  in  1769,  at  Little  Britain,  in  Orange 
county,  New  York.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia  college,  commenced 
the  study  of  the  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  was  never  much 
engaged  in  professional  practice.  He  early  imbibed  a  predilection  for 
political  life,  and  was  appointed  the  private  secretary  of  his  uncle,  George 
Clinton,  then  governor  of  the  state.  In  1797,  he  was  sent  to  the  legisla- 
ture from  the  city  of  New  York ;  and  two  years  after  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  state  senate.  In  1801,  he  was  appointed  a  senator  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  continued  in  that  capacity  for  two  sessions.  He  retired 
from  the  senate  in  1803,  in  consequence  of  his  election  to  the  mayoralty 
of  New  York ;  an  office  to  which  he  was  annually  re-elected,  with  the 
intermission  of  but  two  years,  till  1815,  when  he  was  obliged  to  retire  by 
the  violence  of  party  politics.  In  1817,  he  was  elected,  almost  unani- 
mously, governor  of  the  state,  was  again  chosen  in  1820,  but  in  1822 
declined  being  a  candidate  for  re-election.  In  1810,  Mr.  Clinton  had  been 
appointed,  by  the  senate  of  his  state,  one  of  the  board  of  canal  commis- 
sioners, but  the  displeasure  of  his  political  opponents  having  been  excited, 
he  was  removed  from  this  office,  in  1823,  by  a  vote  of  both  branches  of 
the  legislature.  This  insult  created  a  strong  reaction  in  popular  feeling, 
and  Mr.  Clinton  was  immediately  nominated  for  governor,  and  elected  by 
an  unprecedented  majority.  In  1S26,  he  was  again  elected,  but  he  died 
before  the  completion  of  his  term.  He  expired  very  suddenly,  whilst  sit- 
ting in  his  library  after  dinner,  Feb.  11,  1828.  Mr.  Clinton  was  not  only 
eminent  as  a  statesman,  but  he  occupied  a  conspicuous  rank  as  a  man  of 
learning.  He  was  a  member  of  a  large  part  of  the  benevolent,  literary 
and  scientific  societies  of  the  United  States,  and  an  honorary  member  of" 
several  foreign  societies.  His  productions  are  numerous,  consisting  of  his 
speeches  and  messages  to  the  state  legislature  ;  his  discourses  before  vari- 
ous institutions  ;  his  speeches  in  the  senate  of  the  Union ;  his  addresses 
to  the  army  during  the  late  war;  his  communications  concerning  the 
canal;  his  judicial  opinions;  and  various  fugitive  pieces.  His  national 
services  .were  of  the  highest  importance  ;  and  the  Erie  canal,  especially, 
though  the  honor  of  projecting  it  may  belong  to  another,  will  remain  a 
perpetual  monument  of  the  patriotism  and  perseverance  of  Clinton. 

CLYMER,  George,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  indepen- 
dence, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  in  1739.  He  was  left  an  orphan  at  the 
age  of  seven  years,  and  after  the  completion  of  his  studies,  he  entered 
the  counting  house  of  his  uncle.     When  the  difficulties  commenced  be- 


512  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

tween  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies,  Mr.  -Clymer  was  among  the  first 
to  raise  his  voice  in  opposition  to  the  arbitrary  acts  of  the  mother  country, 
and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  safety.  In  177-5,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  first  continental  treasurers,  but  resigned  this  office 
soon  after  his  first  election  to  congress,  in  the  ensuing  year.  In  1780,  he 
was  again  elected  to  congress,  and  strongly  advocated  there  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  national  bank.  In  1796,  he  was  appointed,  together  with 
colonel  Hawkins  and  colonel  Pickens,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  Chero- 
kee and  Creek  Indians,  in  Georgia.  He  was  subsequently  president  of 
the  Philadelphia  bank,  and  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.     He  died  in  1813. 

COLDEN,  Cadwallader,  was  born  in  Dunse,  Scotland,  in  1688. 
After  studying  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
medicine  and  mathematical  science,  until  the  year  1708,  when  he  emi- 
grated to  Pennsylvania,  and  practised  physic  with  much  reputation,  till 
1715.  He  then  returned  to  England,  and  attracted  some  attention  by  a 
paper  on  Animal  Secretions,  which  was  read  by  Dr.  Halley  before  the 
Royal  society.  Again  repairing  to  America,  he  settled,  in  1718,  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  and  relinquishing  the  practice  of  physic,  turned  his 
attention  to  public  affairs,  and  became  successively  surveyor  general  of  the 
province,  master  in  chancery,  member  of  the  council,  and  lieutenant-go- 
vernor. His  political  character  was  rendered  very  conspicuous  by  the  firm 
ness  of  his  conduct  during  the  violent  commotions  which  preceded  the 
revolution.  In  1775,  he  retired  to  a  seat  on  Long  Island,  where  he  died 
in  September,  of  the  following  year,  a  few  hours  before  nearly  one  fourth 
part  of  the  city  of  New-York  was  reduced  to  ashes.  His  productions 
were  numerous,  consisting  of  botanical  and  medical  essays.  Among  them 
were  treatises  on  the  Cure  of  Cancer,  and  on  the  Virtues  of  the  Great 
"Water  Dock.  His  descriptions  of  between  three  and  four  hundred  Ame- 
rican plants  were  printed  in  the  Acta  Upsaliensia.  He  also  published  the 
History  of  the  Five  Indian  Nations,  and  a  work  on  the  Cause  of  Gravita- 
tion, afterwards  republished  by  Dodsley,  under  the  title  of  The  Principles 
of  Action  in  Matter.  He  left  many  valuable  manuscripts  on  a  variety  of 
subjects. 

COOPER,  Samuel,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  in  1725.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1743, 
and,  devoting  himself  to  the  church,  acquired  great  reputation  as  a  preach- 
er, at  a  very  early  age.  After  an  useful  and  popular  ministry  of  thirty- 
seven  years,  he  died  in  17S3.  He  was  a  sincere  and  liberal  christian,  and 
in  his  profession  perhaps  the  most  distinguished  man  of  his  day,  in  the 
United  States.  He  was  an  ardent  friend  of  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  did 
much  to  promote  it.  With  the  exception  of  political  essays  in  the  journals 
of  the  day,  his  productions  were  exclusively  sermons. 

COPLEY,  John  Singleton,  a  distinguished  painter,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  in  1738.  He  began  to  paint  without  any  instruction  at  a 
very  early  age,  and  executed  pieces  unsurpassed  by  his  later  productions. 
He  visited  Italy  in  1774,  and  in  1776  went  to  England,  where  he  deter- 
mined to  remain,  in  consequence  of  the  convulsed  state  of  his  native 
country.  He  therefore  devoted  himself  to  portrait  painting  in  London,  and 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  royal  academy.  His  celebrated  picture, 
styled  The  Death  of  Lord  Chatham,  at  once  established  his  fame,  and  he 
was  enabled  to  pursue  his  profession  with  success  and  unabated  ardor. 


BTOGRAPHY.  513 

till  his  sudden  death  in  1815.  Among  his  most  celebrated  productions, 
are  Major  Pierson's  Death  on  the  island  of  Jersey ;  Charles  I.  in  the 
house  of  commons,  demanding  of  the  speaker  the  five  impeached  mem- 
bers ;  the  Surrender  of  Admiral  De  Winter  to  Lord  Duncan ;  Samuel 
and  Eli;  and  a  number  of  portraits  of  several  members  of  the  royal 
family. 

CRAFTS,  William,  a  lawyer  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  in 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1787.  He  received  his  education  at  Har- 
vard college,  and  studied  law  in  his  native  city,  where  he  acquired  some 
reputation  for  talent  and  eloquence.  He  was  a  member  of  the  South 
Carolina  legislature,  and  for  some  time  editor  of  the  Charleston  Courier. 
He  died  at  Lebanon  springs,  New  York,  in  1826.  A  collection  of  his 
works,  comprising  poems,  essays  in  prose,  and  orations,  with  a  biographi- 
cal memoir,  was  published  in  Charleston,  in  1828. 

CRAIK,  James,  was  born  in  Scotland,  where  he  received  his  education 
for  the  medical  service  of  the  British  army.  He  came  to  the  colony  of 
Virginia  in  early  life,  and  accompanied  Washington  in  his  expeditions 
against  the  French  and  Indians,  in  1754;  and  in  the  following  year 
attended  Braddock  in  his  march  through  the  wilderness,  and  assisted  in 
dressing  his  wounds.  At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  by  the 
aid  of  his  early  and  fast  friend,  general  Washington,  he  was  transferred 
to  the  medical  department  in  the  continental  army,  and  rose  to  the  first 
rank  and  distinction.  He  continued  in  the  army  to  the  end  of  the  war, 
and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis,  on  the  memorable  19th  of 
October,  1781.  After  the  cessation  of  hostilities,  he  removed  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Mount  Vernon,  and  in  1798  was  once  more  appointed  by 
Washington  to  his  former  station  in  the  medical  staff.  He  was  present 
with  his  illustrious  friend  in  his  last  moments,  and  died  in  1814,  in  the 
84th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  a  skilful  and  successful  physician,  and 
Washington  mentioned  him  as  'my  compatriot  in  arms,  my  old  and 
intimate  friend.' 

DALE,  Richard,  an  American  naval  commander,  was  born  in  Virginia, 
in  1756.  At  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  sent  to  sea,  and  in  1776,  he 
entered  as  a  midshipman  on  board  of  the  American  brig  of  war  Lexington. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  a  British  cruiser,  and  after 
a  twelve-month  confinement  he  escaped  from  Mill  prison,  and  succeeded 
in  reaching  France.  Here  he  joined,  in  the  character  of  master's  mate, 
the  celebrated  Paul  Jones,  then  commanding  the  American  ship  Bon 
Homme  Richard.  He  was  soon  raised  to  the  rank  of  first  lieutenant,  and 
signalized  himself  in  the  sanguinary  engagement  between  the  Bon  Homme 
Richard  and  the  English  frigate  Serapis.  In  1794,  the  United  States 
made  him  a  captain  in  the  navy,  and  in  1801,  he  took  command  of  the 
American  squadron,  which  sailed  in  that  year  from  Hampton  roads  to  the 
Mediterranean.  From  the  year  1802,  he  passed  his  life  in  Philadelphia, 
in  the  enjoyment  of  a  competent  estate,  and  much  esteemed  by  his  fellow- 
citizens.  He  died  in  1826,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  brave  and  intelli- 
gent seaman. 

DALLAS,  Alexander  James,  was  born  in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  in 

1759 ;  and  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Westminster.     In  1783,  he 

left  Jamaica  for  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia;  taking  the 

oath  of  allegiance  to  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.     In  1785,  he  was  admitted 

65 


514  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

to  practise  in  the  supreme  court  of  the  state,  and  in  four  or  five  years  in 
the  courts  of  the  Union.  During  this  time  he  prepared  his  Eeports,  and 
was  engaged  in  various  literary  pursuits,  writing  much  in  the  periodical 
journals.  He  occupied  successively  the  offices  of  secretary  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, district  attorney  of  the  United  States,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and 
secretary  of  war.  On  the  restoration  of  peace,  in  1816,  Mr.  Dallas  resigned 
his  political  situation,  and  resumed  the  successful  practice  of  his  profession. 
His  services  as  an  advocate  were  called  for  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
union;  but  in  the  midst  of  very  flattering  expectations  he  died  at  Trenton, 
in  1817. 

DAVIE,  William  Richardson,  governor  of  North  Carolina,  was  born  in 
England,  in  1756.  He  was  brought  to  America  at  the  age  of  six  years,  and 
received  his  education  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  where  he  was  graduated 
in  1776.  After  pursuing  for  a  short  time  the  study  of  the  law,  he  entered 
the  army  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  legion  of  Pulaski,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  efficiency  and  courage  as  an  officer.  On  the  termination  of 
the  war,  he  devoted  himself  with  eminent  success  to  the  practice  of  the 
law.  In  1787,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  from  South  Carolina,  to  represent 
that  state  in  the  convention  which  framed  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  Unavoidable  absence  prevented  him  from  affixing  his  name  to 
that  instrument.  In  1790,  he  was  elected  governor  of  North  Carolina,  and 
in  1799,  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  for  negotiating  a  treaty 
with  France.  He  died  at  Camden,  in  1820.  He  was  a  man  of  a  dignified 
and  noble  person,  courage  as  a  soldier,  and  ability  as  a  lawyer. 

DEANE,  Silas,  minister  of  the  United  States  to  the  court  of  France, 
was  born  in  Connecticut,  and  educated  at  Yale  college.  He  was  elected 
member  of  congress  in  1774,  and  sent  two  years  after  as  agent  to  France, 
but  was  superseded,  in  1777,  and  returned.  Involved  in  suspicions  from 
which  he  could  not  extricate  himself,  he  lost  his  reputation,  and  returning 
to  Europe,  died  in  poverty  in  England,  in  1789. 

DECATUR,  Stephen,  a  distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  in 
Maryland,  in  1779,  and  received  his  education  in  Philadelphia.  He 
entered  the  navy  in  1798,  and  first  distinguished  himself  when  in  the  rank 
of  lieutenant,  by  the  destruction  of  the  American  frigate  Philadelphia, 
which  had  run  upon  a  rock  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli,  and  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  For  this  exploit,  the  American  congress  gave  him  a 
vote  of  thanks  and  a  sword,  and  the  president  immediately  sent  him  a 
captaincy.  At  the  bombardment  of  Tripoli,  the  next  year,  he  distinguished 
himself  by  the  capture  of  two  of  the  enemy's  boats,  which  were  moored 
along  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  and  immediately  under  the  batteries. 
When  peace  was  concluded  with  Tripoli,  Decatur  returned  home  in  the 
Congress,  and  afterward  succeeded  commodore  Barron  in  the  command  of 
the  -Chesapeake.  In  the  late  war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  his  chief  exploit  was  the  capture  of  the  British  frigate  Macedonian, 
commanded  by  captain  Carden.  In  January,  1815,  he  attempted  to  sail 
from  New  York,  which  was  then  blockaded  by  four  British  ships ;  but  the 
frigate  under  his  command  was  injured  in  passing  the  bar,  and  was  captured 
by  the  whole  squadron,  after  a  running  fight  of  two  or  three  hours.  He 
was  restored  to  his  country  after  the  conclusion  of  peace.  In  the  summer 
of  the  same  year,  he  was  sent  with  a  squadron  to  the  Mediterranean,  in 
order  to  compel  the  Algerines  to  desist  from  their  depredations  on  Ameri 


BIOGRAPHY.  515 

can  commerce.  He  arrived  at  Algiers  on  the  twenty-eighth  of  June,  and 
in  less  than  forty-eight  hours  terrified  the  regency  into  an  entire  accession 
to  all  his  terms.  Thence  he  went  to  Tripoli,  where  he  met  with  like  suc- 
cess. On  returning  to  the  United  States,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  board  of  commissioners  for  the  navy,  and  held  that  office  till  March, 
1820,  when  he  was  shot  in  a  duel  with  commodore  Barron.  He  was  a 
man  of  an  active  and  powerful  frame,  and  possessed  a  high  degree  of  ener- 
gy, sagacity,  and  courage. 

DENNIE,  Joseph,  born  in  Boston,  in  1768,  displayed  an  early  fondness 
for  polite  literature,  and  entered  Harvard  college  in  1787.  In  1790,  he 
left  this  institution,  and  commenced  the  study  of  the  law ;  but  made  little 
progress  in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  in  consequence  of  a  strong  attach- 
ment to  literary  pursuits.  In  the  spring  of  1795,  he  established  a  weekly 
paper  in  Boston,  under  the  title  of  The  Tablet,  but  it  died  from  want  of 
patronage.  Soon  after,  he  went  to  Walpole  to  edit  the  Farmer's  Museum, 
a  journal  in  which  he  published  a  series  of  papers  with  the  signature  of 
the  Lay  Preacher.  In  1799,  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  had 
received  an  appointment  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state.  He  subse- 
quently established  the  Port  Folio,  a  journal  which  acquired  reputation 
and  patronage.  He  died  in  1812.  Mr.  Dennie  was  a  man  of  genius,  and 
a  beautiful  writer,  but  wanted  the  industry  and  judgment,  which  might 
have  secured  him  a  competent  subsistence  and  a  permanent  reputation. 

DEXTER,  Samuel,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born  in 
Boston,  in  1761.  He  received  his  education  at  Harvard  college,  where  he 
was  graduated  with  honor,  in  1781.  Engaging  in  the  study  of  the  law,  he 
soon  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  extensive  practice.  He  enjoyed  success- 
ively a  seat  in  the  state  legislature,  and  in  the  house  of  representatives  and 
senate  of  the  United  States ;  and  in  each  of  these  stations  he  secured  a 
commanding  influence.  During  the  administration  of  Mr.  Adams,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  of  the  treasury ;  but  on  the  accession  of 
Mr.  Jefferson  to  the  presidency,  he  resigned  his  public  employments,  and 
returned  to  the  practice  of  his  profession.  For  many  years  he  was  exten- 
sively employed  in  the  courts  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  the  supreme  court 
of  the  United  States,  where  he  was  almost  without  a  rival.  He  died  sud- 
denly, at  Athens,  New  York,  in  1816.  Mr.  Dexter  was  tall,  muscular,  and 
well  formed.  His  eloquence  was  clear,  simple  and  cogent ;  and  his  powers 
were  such  as  would  have  made  him  eminent  in  any  age  or  nation. 

DICKINSON,  John,  a  celebrated  political  writer,  was  born  in  Maryland, 
in  1732,  and  educated  in  Delaware.  He  pursued  the  study  of  law,  and 
practised  with  success  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  soon  elected  to  the  state 
legislature,  and  distinguished  himself  as  an  early  and  efficient  advocate  of 
colonial  rights.  In  1765,  he  was  appointed  by  Pennsylvania  a  delegate  to 
the  first  congress,  held  at  New  York,  and  prepared  the  draft  of  the  bold 
resolutions  of  that  body.  His  celebrated  Farmer's  Letters  to  the  Inhabitants 
of  the  British  Colonies  were  issued  in  Philadelphia,  in  1767;  they  were 
reprinted  in  London,  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Franklin,  and  a  French 
translation  of  them  was  published  at  Paris.  While  in  congress,  he  wrote 
a  large  number  of  the  most  able  and  eloquent  state  papers  of  the  time,  and 
as  an  orator  he  had  few  superiors  in  that  assembly.  He  conscientiously 
opposed  the  declaration  of  independence,  and  his  opinions  upon  this  subject 
rendered  him  for  a  time  unpopular;  but  they  did  not  permanently  affect  his 


516  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

reputation  and  influence.  He  was  afterwards  a  member  of  congress,  and 
president  of  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  successively.  He  died  at  Wil- 
mington, in  1808.  Mr.  Dickinson  was  a  man  of  a  strong  mind,  great 
knowledge  and  eloquence,  and  much  elegance  of  mind  and  manners. 

DORSEY,  John  Syng,  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1783,  and  received  an  excellent 
elementary  education  at  a  school  of  the  society  of  Friends.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  commenced  the  study  of  medicine,  and  pursued  it  with  unu- 
sual ardor  and  success.  In  the  spring  of  1802,  he  was  graduated  doctor 
in  physic,  having  previously  defended  with  ability  an  inaugural  disserta- 
tion on  the  Powers  of  the  Gastric  Liquor  as  a  Solvent  of  the  Urinary 
Calculi.  Soon  after  he  received  his  degree,  the  yellow  fever  reappeared  in 
the  city,  and  a  hospital  was  open  for  the  exclusive  accommodation  of  those 
sick  with  this  disease,  to  which  he  was  appointed  resident  physician.  At 
the  close  of  the  same  season  he  visited  Europe.  On  his  return,  in  1804, 
he  immediately  entered  on  the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  soon  acquired, 
by  his  popular  manners,  attention  and  talent,  a  large  share  of  business.  In 
1807  he  was  elected  adjunct  professor  of  surgery,  and  remained  in  this 
office  till  he  was  raised  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  by  the  death  of  the  lamented 
Wistar.  He  opened  the  session  by  one  of  the  finest  exhibitions  of  eloquence 
ever  heard  within  the  walls  of  the  university ;  but  on  the  evening  of  the  same 
day,  he  was  attacked  by  a  fever,  which  in  one  week  closed  his  existence. 
He  died  in  1818.  His  Elements  of  Surgery,  in  two  volumes  8vo,  is  con- 
sidered the  best  work  on  the  subject.  It  is  used  as  a  text  book  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  the  first  American  work  on  medicine 
reprinted  in  Europe. 

DRAYTON,  William  Henry,  a  statesman  of  the  revolution,  was  born 
in  South  Carolina,  in  1742.  He  received  his  education  in  England,  and 
on  its  completion  returned  to  his  native  state.  Taking  an  early  and  active 
part  in  the  defence  of  colonial  rights,  he  wrote  and  published  a  pamphlet 
under  the  signature  of  Freeman,  in  which  he  submitted  a  '  bill  of  American 
Rights'  to  the  continental  congress.  On  the  commencement  of  the  revo- 
lution he  became  an  efficient  leader;  in  1775,  was  chosen  president  of  the 
provincial  congress ;  and  in  March  of  the  next  year,  was  elected  chief 
justice  of  the  colony.  In  1777,  Mr.  Drayton  was  appointed  president  of 
South  Carolina,  and,  in  1778,  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
congress,  where  he  took  a  prominent  part,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  activity  and  eloquence.  He  continued  in  congress  until  September, 
1779,  when  he  died  suddenly,  at  Philadelphia.  He  left  a  body  of  valuable 
materials  for  history,  which  his  only  son,  John  Drayton,  reyised  and  pub- 
lished at  Charleston,  in  1821,  in  two  volumes  8vo,  under  the  title  of 
Memoirs  of  the  American  Revolution. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  eminent  divine  and  writer,  was  born  at  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  in  1752.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  entered  Yale 
college ;  and  after  having  graduated,  took  charge  of  a  grammar-school  at 
New  Haven,  where  he  taught  for  two  years.  In  1771,  he  became  a  tutor 
in  Yale  college,  where  he  remained  for  six  years.  In  1783,  he  was 
ordained  minister  of  Greenfield,  a  parish  in  the  town  of  Fairfield,  in  Con- 
necticut ;  where  he  soon  opened  an  academy  that  acquired  great  reputation. 
In  1795,  Dr.  Dvvight  was  elected  president  of  Yale  college,  and  his  cha- 
racter and  name  soon  brought  a  great  accession  of  students.     During  his 


BIOGRAPHY.  517 

presidency,  he  also  filled  the  office  of  the  professor  of  theology.  He  con- 
tinued to  discharge  the  duties  of  his  station,  both  as  minister  and  president 
of  the  college,  to  the  age  of  sixty-five ;  when,  after  a  long  and  painful 
illness,  he  died,  in  January,  1817.  He  was  endowed  by  nature  with 
uncommon  talents;  and  these,  enriched  by  industry  and  research,  and 
united  to  amiability  and  consistency  in  his  private  life,  entitled  Dr.  Dwight 
to  rank  among  the  first  men  of  his  age.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  distin- 
guished by  his  originality,  simplicity,  and  dignity ;  he  was  well  read  in 
the  most  eminent  fathers  and  theologians,  ancient  ana*  modern  ;  he  was  a 
good  biblical  critic  ;  and  his  sermons  should  be  possessed  by  every  student 
of  divinity.  He  wrote  Travels  in  New  England  and  New  York;  Green- 
field Hill,  a  poem ;  The  Conquest  of  Canaan,  a  poem ;  a  collection  of 
theological  lectures;  and  a  pamphlet  on  The  Dangers  of  the  Infidel 
Philosophy. 

EATON,  William,  general  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1764,  and  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
college,  in  1790.  In  1792,  he  received  a  captain's  commission  in  the 
army,  and  served  for  some  time  under  general  Wayne,  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  in  Georgia.  In  1797,  he  was  appointed  consul  to  the  kingdom  of 
Tunis,  and  continued  there  engaged  in  a  variety  of  adventures  and  nego- 
ciations,  till  1803,  when  he  returned  to  the  United  States.  In  1804,  he 
was  appointed  navy  agent  for  the  Barbary  powers,  for  the  purpose  of  co- 
operating with  Hamet  bashaw  in  the  war  against  Tripoli ;  but  was  disap- 
pointed by  the  conclusion  of  a  premature  peace  between  the  American 
consul  and  the  Tripolitan  bashaw.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
he  failed  in  obtaining  from  the  government  any  compensation  for  his  pecu- 
niary losses,  or  any  employment  corresponding  with  his  merit  and  services. 
Under  the  influence  of  his  disappointments,  he  fell  into  habits  of  inebriety, 
and  died  in  1S11.  His  life,  published  by  one  of  his  friends  in  Massachu- 
setts, is  full  of  interesting  adventure. 

EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  was  born  at  Windsor,  in  the  province  of 
Connecticut,  in  1703.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years  he  was  admitted  into 
Yale  college,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  received  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  arts.  He  remained  nearly  two  years  longer  at  Yale,  preparing  for  the 
ministry ;  and  in  1722,  went  to  New  York,  and  preached  there  with  great 
distinction.  In  September,  1723,  he  was  elected  a  tutor  in  Yale  college, 
and  remained  there  till  1726,  when  he  resigned  his  office,  in  order  to  become 
the  minister  of  the  people  of  Northampton,  where  he  was  ordained  in 
February,  1727.  After  more  than  twenty-three  years  of  service  in  this 
place,  a  rupture  took  place  between  him  and  his  congregation,  and  he  was 
dismissed  by  an  ecclesiastical  council,  in  1750.  In  the  following  year  he 
accepted  a  call  to  serve  as  missionary  among  the  Indians  at  Stockbridge, 
Massachusetts.  In  1757,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  college  at  Prince- 
ton, New  Jersey,  and  accepted  the  invitation.  In  January,  1758,  he  re- 
paired to  Princeton,  where  he  died  of  the  small-pox,  in  the  March  following. 
His  chief  works  are  a  Treatise  on  Religious  Affections ;  an  Inquiry  into 
the  Notion  of  Freedom  of  Will,  which  is  considered  the  best  vindication 
of  the  doctrine  of  philosophical  necessity  ;  a  Treatise  on  Original  Sin  ; 
and  numerous  tracts  and  sermons.  Various  narratives  of  his  life,  and 
editions  of  his  works,  have  been  printed  both  in  Great  Britain  and  the 

44 


518  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

tJnited  States.  The  latest  is  in  ten  octavo  volumes,  published  in  New 
York,  in  1830,  and  edited  by  Sereno  E.  Dwight. 

ELLIOTT,  Stephen,  a  botanist  and  man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Beau- 
fort, South  Carolina,  in  1771,  and  received  his  education  at  Yale  college. 
On  his  return  home,  he  applied  himself  to  the  improvement  of  his  paternal 
estate,  devoting  his  leisure  hours  to  history  and  poetry.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-two  he  was  chosen  to  the  legislature  of  his  native  state,  where  he 
obtained  considerable  influence,  by  his  knowledge,  attention,  and  power  of 
argument.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  state  bank,  established  in 
1812,  and  continued  to  discharge  the  duties  of  this  office  with  ability 
to  the  time  of  his  death.  His  two  volumes  of  the  botany  of  South  Caro- 
lina are  held  in  high  estimation,  and  his  lectures  before  several  literary  and 
learned  societies  obtained  great  applause.  His  acquisitions  in  literature 
and  science  were  extensive,  and  he  left  a  valuable  collection  in  the  several 
branches  of  natural  history,  scientifically  arranged.  He  was  the  chief  editoi 
of  the  Southern  Review,  and  the  author  of  some  of  its  best  articles.  He 
died  in  1830.     Most  of  his  productions  remain  in  manuscript. 

ELLSWORTH,  Oliver,  an  American  judge  and  statesman,  was  born 
at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1745,  and  was  graduated  at  the  college  of 
Nassau  Hall,  at  Princeton,  in  1766.  Devoting  himself  to  the  practice  of 
the  law,  he  soon  rose  to  distinction,  by  the  energy  of  his  mind  and  his 
eloquence.  From  the  earliest  period  of  discontent,  he  joined  the  cause  of 
the  colonies,  and  in  1777  was  elected  a  member  of  the  continental  con- 
gress. In  this  body  he  remained  for  three  years,  and  in  1784  he  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  the  state.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  convention  for  framing  the  federal  constitution,  and  was  a  senator  in 
the  first  congress.  In  1796,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1799  was  sent  envoy  extraordinary  to 
France.  The  decline  of  his  health  induced  him  to  resign  his  seat  on  the 
bench,  and  he  retired  to  his  family  residence,  at  Windsor,  where  he  died 
in  1807. 

FRANKLIN,  Benjamin,  a  philosopher  and  statesman,  the  son  of  a  soap- 
boiler and  tallow-chandler,  was  born  in  1706,  at  Boston,  in  America.  He 
Was  apprenticed  as  a  printer,  to  his  brother,  at  Boston.  It  was  while  he 
Was  with  his  brother,  that  he  began  to  try  his  powers  of  literary  composi- 
tion. Street  ballads,  and  articles  in  a  newspaper,  were  his  first  efforts. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  manner  in  which  he  was  treated  by  his  relative,  he, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  privately  quitted  him,  and  went  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  obtained  employment.  Deluded  by  a  promise  of  patronage  from 
the  governor,  Sir  William  Keith,  he  visited  England  to  procure  the  ne- 
cessary materials  for  establishing  a  printing  office  in  Philadelphia ;  but, 
on  his  arrival  at  London,  he  found  that  he  had  been  deceived,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  work  as  a  journeyman  for  eighteen  months.  While  he  was  in 
the  British  metropolis,  he  wrote  a  Dissertation  on  Liberty  and  Necessity, 
Pleasure  and  Pain.  In  1726,  he  returned  to  Philadelphia  ;  not  long  after 
which  he  entered  into  business,  as  a  printer  and  stationer,  and,  in  1728, 
established  a  newspaper.  His  prudence  soon  placed  him  among  the  most 
prosperous  of  the  citizens,  and  the  influence  which  prosperity  naturally 
gave  was  enhanced  by  his  activity  and  talent.  Chiefly  by  his  exertions,  a 
public  library,  a  fire-preventing  company,  an  insurance  company,  and  a 
voluntary  association  for  defence,  were  established  at  Philadelphia.     In 


BIOGRAPHY.  519 

1732,  he  began  Poor  Richard's  Almanac.  His  first  public  employment 
was  that  of  clerk  to  the  general  assembly  of  Pennsylvania  ;  his  next,  that  of 
postmaster ;  and  he  was  subsequently  chosen  as  a  representative.  Philo- 
sophy, also,  now  attracted  his  attention,  and  he  began  those  inquiries  into 
the  nature  of  electricity,  the  results  of  which  have  ranked  him  high  among 
men  of  science.  In  1753,  he  was  appointed  deputy  postmaster-general  of 
British  America ;  and  from  1757  to  1762,  he  resided  in  London,  as  agent 
for  Pennsylvania,  and  other  colonies.  The  last  of  these  offices  was  in- 
trusted to  him  again,  in  1764,  and  he  held  it  till  the  breaking  out  of  the 
contest,  in  1775.  After  his  return  to  America,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  cause  of  liberty,  and,  in  1778,  he  was  dispatched  by  the  congress  as 
ambassador  to  France.  The  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  French  govern- 
ment, and  the  treaties  of  peace,  in  1782  and  1783,  as  well  as  treaties  with 
Sweden  and  Prussia,  were  signed  by  him.  On  his  reaching  Philadelphia, 
in  September,  1785,  his  arrival  was  hailed  by  applauding  thousands  of  his 
countrymen,  who  conducted  him  in  triumph  to  his  residence.  He  died 
April  17,  1790.  His  Memoirs,  written  by  himself,  but  left  unfinished,  and 
his  Philosophical,  Political,  and  Miscellaneous  Works,  have  been  published 
by  his  grandson,  in  six  volumes,  octavo. 

FULTON,  Robert,  an  American  engineer  and  projector,  was  born  in 
1765,  at  Little  Britain,  in  Pennsylvania.  Abandoning  the  trade  of  a 
jeweller,  he  studied  for  some  years  under  West,  with  the  intention  of  being 
a  painter  ;  but,  having  become  acquainted  with  a  fellow  countryman, 
named  Rumsey,  who  was  skilled  in  mechanics,  he  became  fond  of  that 
science,  and  ultimately  adopted  the  profession  of  a  civil  engineer.  Before 
he  left  England,  he  published,  in  1796,  a  treatise  on  Inland  Navigation, 
in  which  he  proposed  to  supersede  locks  by  inclined  planes,  In  1800,  he 
introduced,  with  much  profit  to  himself,  the  panorama  into  the  French 
capital.  For  some  years  he  was  engaged  in  experiments  to  perfect  a 
machine  called  a  torpedo,  intended  to  destroy  ships  of  war  by  explosion. 
After  his  return  to  America,  he  gave  to  the  world  an  account  of  several 
inventions,  among  which  are  a  machine  for  sawing  and  polishing  marble, 
another  for  rope  making,  and  a  boat  to  be  navigated  under  water.  He 
obtained  a  patent  for  his  inventions  in  navigation  by  steam,  in  1809,  and 
another  for  some  improvements,  in  1811.  In  1814,  he  contrived  an  armed 
steam  ship  for  the  defence  of  the  harbor  of  New  York,  and  a  submarine 
vessel  large  enough  to  carry  one  hundred  men  ;  the  plans  of  which  being 
approved  by  government,  he  was  authorized  to  construct  them  at  the  public 
expense.  But  before  completing  either  of  those  works,  he  died  suddenly, 
in  1815.  Though  not  the  inventor  of  it,  he  was  the  first  who  successfully 
employed  the  steam  engine  in  navigation.     - 

GATES,  Horatio,  was  born  in  England,  in  1728,  and  entering  the 
British  service  in  early  life,  rose  by  his  merits  to  the  rank  of  major.  In 
1755,  he  was  with  Braddock  when  that  unfortunate  commander  was  de- 
feated, and  received  in  that  battle  a  severe  wound,  which  for  some  time 
debarred  him  from  active  service.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace,  he  settled 
in  Virginia,  where  he  resided  till  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  in 
1775.  He  was  then  appointed  adjutant-general  by  congress,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier,  and  in  1776,  received  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Canada.  General  Schuyler  succeeded  him  for  a  few  months,  in  1777,  but 
he  resumed  his  situation  in  August,  and  soon  revived  the  hopes  of  his 


520  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

country,  by  the  capture  of  the  army  under  Burgoyne.  In  1780,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  southern  districts,  but  he  was  after- 
wards superseded  by  general  Greene,  and  his  conduct  was  subjected  to  the 
investigation  of  a  special  court.  He  was  restored  to  his  command  in  1782. 
On  the  termination  of  war  he  resided  on  his  farm  in  Virginia,  till  1790, 
when  he  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  lived  much  esteemed  and 
respected,  till  his  decease  in  1806. 

GERRY,  Elbridge,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  indepen- 
dence, and  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Marblehead, 
Massachusetts,  in  1744,  and  received  his  education  at  Harvard  college. 
He  was  graduated  at  this  institution  in  1762,  and  afterwards  engaging  in 
mercantile  pursuits,  amassed  a  considerable  fortune.  He  took  an  early  part 
in  the  controversy  between  the  colonies  and  Great  Britain,  and  in  1772, 
was  elected  a  representative  from  his  native  town,  to  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1776,  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
congress,  where  for  several  years  he  exhibited  the  utmost  zeal  and  fidelity, 
in  the  discharge  of  numerous  and  severe  official  labors.  In  1784,  Mr. 
Gerry  was  re-elected  a  member  of  congress,  and  in  1787,  was  chosen  a 
delegate  to  the  convention,  which  assembled  at  Philadelphia,  to  revise  the 
articles  of  confederation.  In  1789,  he  was  again  elected  to  congress,  and 
remained  in  that  body  for  four  years,  when  he  retired  into  private  life,  till 
the  year  1797,  when  he  was  appointed  to  accompany  general  Pinckney 
and  Mr.  Marshall  on  a  special  mission  to-  France.  In  October,  1798,  Mr. 
Gerry  returned  home,  and  having  been  elected  governor  of  his  native 
state,  and  in  1812  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  he  died  suddenly 
at  Washington,  in  November,  1814. 

GIRARD,  Stephen,  a  celebrated  banker,  was  born  in  France,  about  ihe 
year  1746.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years,  in  the  capacity  of  cabin  boy,  he 
left  France  for  the  West  Indies,  where  he  resided  some  time,  and  whence 
he  made  many  voyages  to  the  United  States.  About  1775,  he  arrived  in 
this  country,  and  for  a  while  kept  a  small  shop  in  New  Jersey.  In  1780, 
he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  by  gradual  but  sure  acquisition  accumu- 
lated a  large  fortune.  He  became  distinguished  for  his  active  philan- 
thropic exertions  during  the  ravages  of  the  yellow  fever  in  that  city  in 
1793.  In  1811,  when  congress  refused  to  recharter  the  old  bank  of  the 
United  States,  Mr.  Girard  purchased  the  banking  house  of  that  institution, 
and  became  a  banker.  The  capital  which  he  first  invested'  in  his  bank, 
was  one  million  eight  hundred  thousand  dollars,  and  he  subsequently 
augmented  it  to  five  millions.  During  our  late  war  with  Great  Britain, 
the  government  found  difficulty  in  raising  the  necessary  funds,  and  public 
credit  had  sunk  so  low,  that  seven  per  cent,  stock  was  offered  at  thirty  per 
cent,  discount.  Of  this  stock  Mr.  Girard  took  five  millions.  At  the  time 
of  his  death,  in  1832,  he  was  estimated  to  be  worth  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
millions  of  dollars,  and  he  was  the  most  wealthy  man  in  the  new  world. 
He  was  buried  with  public  honors.  By  his  will,  he  distributed  his  im- 
mense riches  in  the  most  judicious  and  liberal  manner,  among  several 
charitable  institutions,  and  for  the  purposes  of  public  improvements.  One 
bequest  was  of  two  millions,  for  the  erection  of  a  permanent  college  in 
Penn  Township,  for  the  accommodation  of  at  least  three  hundred  poor 
white  male  orphans,  above  the  age  of  six  years.  In  regulation  of  this  be- 
quest, it  is  enjoined,  that  '  no  ecclesiastic,  missionary,  or  minister,  of  any 


BIOGRAPHY.  521 

sect  whatever,  shall  ever  hold  or  exercise  any  station  or  duty  whatever,  in 
said  college ;  nor  shall  any  such  person  ever  be  admitted  for  any  purpose, 
or  as  a  visiter,  within  the  premises  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  the  said 
college.' 

GODMAN,  John  D.,  an  eminent  naturalist  and  physician,  was  born  at 
Annapolis,  in  Maryland,  and  having  lost  his  parents  at  an  early  age,  was 
bound  apprentice  to  a  printer.  He  afterwards  entered  the  navy  as  a  sailor 
boy,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  commenced  the  study  of  medicine.  On  com- 
pleting his  studies,  he  settled  in  Philadelphia  as  a  physician  and  private 
teacher  of  anatomy,  and  for  some  time  was  an  assistant  editor  of  the  Medi- 
cal Journal.  It  was  at  this  period  that  he  published  his  Natural  History 
of  American  Quadrupeds,  in  three  volumes,  8vo.  Having  been  elected  to 
the  professorship  of  anatomy  in  Rutgers'  Medical  college,  he  removed  to 
New  York,  where  he  soon  acquired  extensive  practice  as  a  surgeon.  Ill 
health,  however,  obliged  him  to  relinquish  his  pursuits,  and  he  returned  in 
1829  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  in  1830,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of 
his  age.  He  possessed  much  and  varied  information  in  his  profession,  in 
natural  history,  and  in  general  literature-  Besides  the  work  above  refer- 
red to,  he  is  the  author  of  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist,  and  several  articles  on 
natural  history  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Americana. 

GODFREY,  Thomas,  the  real  inventor  of  the  quadrant  commonly  call- 
ed Hadley's,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  and  pursued  the  trade  of  a  glazier. 
He  was  a  great  student  of  mathematics,  and  acquired  by  himself  a  tolerable 
knowledge  of  Latin,  in  order  to  be  able  to  read  mathematical  works  in  that 
language.  In  1730,  he  communicated  the  improvement  he  had  made  in 
Davis's  quadrant  to  Mr.  Logan,  secretary  of  the  commonwealth ;  and  in 
the  following  year  a  full  description  of  a  similar  instrument  was  read  be- 
fore the  Royal  society  of  London,  by  Mr.  Hadley.  It  was  decided  that 
both  claimants  were  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  invention,  and  the  society 
presented  Godfrey  with  household  furniture  to  the  value  of  £200.  He 
was  intemperate  in  his  habits,  and  died  in  1749. 

GODFREY,  Thomas,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  poet  of  some  merit, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  in  the  year  1736.  He  was  at  first  apprenticed 
to  a  watchmaker,  but  disliking  the  drudgery  of  this  occupation,  he  obtain- 
ed a  lieutenant's  commission  in  the  Pennsylvania  forces,  which  were 
raised  in  1753  for  the  expedition  against  fort  Du  Quesne.  Subsequently 
he  established  himself  as  a  factor  in  North  Carolina,  where  he  died  in 
1763.  His  chief  works  are  The  Court  of  Fancy,  a  poem  ;  and  The  Prince 
of  Parthia,  which  was  the  first  American  tragedy. 

GREENE,  Nathaniel,  major-general  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Warwick,  Rhode  Island,  in  1742.  Though  enjoying 
very  few  advantages  of  education,  he  displayed  an  early  fondness  for 
knowledge,  and  devoted  his  leisure  time  assiduously  to  study.  In  1770, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  state  legislature,  and  in  1774,  enrolled 
himself  as  a  private  in  a  company  called  the  Kentish  Guards.  From  this 
situation  he  was  elevated  to  the  head  of  three  regiments,  with  the  title  of 
major-general.  In  1776,  he  accepted  from  congress  a  commission  of 
brigadier-general,  and  soon  after,  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton, 
distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  and  bravery.  In  1778,  he  was  appointed 
quarter-master  general,  and  in  that  office  rendered  efficient  service  to  the 
country  by  his  unwearied  zeal  and  great  talents  for  business.  He  presided 
6Q  b  44* 


522  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

at  the  court-martial  which  tried  major  Andre,  in  1780,  and  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Arnold  in  the  command  at  West  Point ;  but  he  held  this  post 
only  a  few  days.  In  December  of  the  same  year,  he  assumed  the  com- 
mand of  the  southern  army,  and  in  this  situation  displayed  a  prudence, 
intrepidity  and  firmness  which  raise  him  to  an  elevated  rank  among  our 
revolutionary  generals.  In  September,  1781,  he  obtained  the  famous 
victory  at  Eutaw  Springs,  for  which  he  received  from  congress  a  British 
standard  and  a  gold  medal,  as  a  testimony  of  their  value  of  his  conduct 
and  services.  On  the  termination  of  hostilities,  he  returned  to  Rhode 
Island,  and,  in  1785,  removed  with  his  family  to  Georgia,  where  he  died 
suddenly,  in  June  of  the  following  year.  He  was  a  man  of  high  energy, 
courage  and  ability,  and  possessed  the  entire  confidence  of  Washington. 

HAMILTON,  Alexander,  was  born  in  the  island  of  Nevis,  in  1757. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  accompanied  his  mother  to  New  York,  and  was 
placed  at  Columbia  college,  where  he  soon  gave  proof  of  extraordinary 
talent,  by  the  publication  of  some  political  essays,  of  such  strength  and 
sagacity  that  they  were  generally  attributed  to  Mr.  Jay.  At  the  age  of 
nineteen  he  entered  the  American  army,  and  in  1777,  was  appointed  aid- 
de-camp  of  Washington,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In  this 
capacity  he  served  during  the  remainder  of  the  war,  and  at  the  siege  of 
Yorktown  led  in  person  the  detachment  that  carried  by  assault  one  of  the 
enemy's  outworks.  After  the  war  he  commenced  the  study  of  the  law, 
entered  into  its  practice  in  New  York,  and  soon  rose  to  distinction.  In 
1782,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  congress  from  the  state  of  New  York ; 
in  1787,  a  member  of  the  convention  which  formed  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1787  and  1788,  wrote,  in  connection  with  Mr.  Jay 
and  Mr.  Madison,  the  essays  published  under  the  title  of  The  Federalist. 
In  1789,  he  was  placed  by  Washington  at  the  head  of  the  treasury  de- 
partment, and  while  in  this  situation  rendered  the  most  efficient  service  to 
the  country,  by  the  establishment  of  an  admirable  system  of  finance,  which 
raised  public  credit  from  the  lowest  depression  to  an  unprecedented  height. 
In  1795,  he  retired  from  office,  in  order  to  secure  by  his  professional 
labors  a  more  ample  provision  for  his  numerous  family.  In  1798,  his 
public  services  were  again  required,  to  take  the  second  command  in  the 
army  that  was  raised  on  account  of  the  apprehended  invasion  of  the  French. 
On  the  disbanding  of  the  army,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law  in 
New  York,  and  continued  to  acquire  new  success  and  reputation.  In 
1804,  he  fell  in  a  duel  with  colonel  Burr,  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  and  died  universally  lamented  and  beloved.  Besides  his  share  in 
the  Federalist,  general  Hamilton  was  the  author  of  numerous  congressional 
reports,  the  essays  of  Pa'cificus,  and  the  essays  of  Phocion.  A  collection 
of  his  works  in  three  vols.  8vo,  was  issued  at  New  York  some  time  after 
his  death.  He  was  a  man  of  transcendent  abilities  and  unsullied  integrity  ; 
and  no  one  labored  more  efficiently  in  the  organization  of  the  present  fede- 
ral government. 

HANCOCK,  John,  a  patriot  and  statesman,  was  born  in  Quincy,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1737,  and  under  the  patronage  of  a  wealthy  uncle  received 
a  liberal  education,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in  1754.  On 
leaving  college,  he  entered  the  counting-house  of  his  uncle,  by  whose  sud- 
den death,  in  1764,  he  succeeded  to  great  riches  and  the  management  of 
an  extensive  business.     In  1766,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  assembly 


u»*Vl 


MOGBAPHT.   X^J^g  623 

find  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  the  colonies. 
In  1774,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  provincial  congress  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  in  the  following  year,  president  of  the  continental  congress,  in 
which  capacity  he  was  the  first  to  affix  his  signature  to  the  declaration  of 
independence.  In  this  station  he  continued  till  October,  1777,  when  ill 
health  induced  him  to  resign.  In  1780,  he  was  elected  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  held  that  office  for  four  successive  years,  and  again  from 
1787  till  his  death  in  1793.  Governor  Hancock  was  hospitable  and 
munificent,  a  man  of  excellent  talents  for  business,  and  a  true  lover  of 
his  country. 

HARPER,  Robert  Goodloe,  was  a  native  of  Virginia,  but  when  very 
young  removed  with  his  parents  to  North  Carolina.  His  parents  were 
poor,  and  in  early  life  he  passed  through  a  number  of  vicissitudes.  At 
the  age  of  twenty  he  found  himself  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  with  but  a  do! 
lar  or  two  in  his  pocket,  and  with  the  intention  of  studying  the  profession 
of  the  law.  Having  obtained  introduction  to  a  lawyer,  he  prepared  him- 
self under  his  instruction  for  the  bar,  and,  in  about  a  twelvemonth,  under- 
took the  management  of  causes  on  his  own  account.  He  then  removed 
from  Charleston  to  an  interior  district,  where  he  first  distinguished  him- 
self, politically,  by  the  publication  of  a  series  of  newspaper  essays  on  a 
proposed  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  state.  He  was  immediately 
elected  to  the  state  legislature,  and  soon  afterwards  to  congress,  where  he 
was  an  efficient  member  of  the  federal  party,  a  powerful  advocate  of  the 
policy  of  Washington,  and  the  personal  friend  of  the  most  distinguished 
federal  statesmen  of  the  day.  Many  years  afterwards,  he  collected  in  an 
octavo  volume  a  number  of  his  circulars  and  addresses  to  his  constituents, 
and  several  of  his  speeches  in  congress.  In  1797,  he  published  a  pam- 
phlet, entitled  Observations  on  the  Dispute  between  the  United  States  and 
France,  which  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  acquired  great 
celebrity  both  at  home  and  in  Europe.  The  speeches  which  he  delivered 
in  managing  the  impeachment  of  Blount,  and  the  defence  of  judge  Chase, 
are  admirable  specimens  of  argument  and  eloquence.  On  the  downfal 
of  the  federal  party,  Mr.  Harper  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law  in  Balti- 
more, where  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  distinguished  Charles  Car- 
roll. He  attended  almost  every  session  of  the  supreme  court,  from 
the  time  of  its  removal  to  Washington  to  that  of  his  death,  and  was 
always  heard  with  respect  and  attention  by  the  court  and  juries.  The 
federal  party  having  regained  the  ascendant  in  Maryland,  Mr.  Harper  was 
immediately  elected  a  senator  in  congress ;  but  the  demands  of  his  profes- 
sion soon  obliged  him  to  resign  his  seat.  In  the  years  1819-20,  he  visit- 
ed Europe  with  a  portion  of  his  family,  and  was  absent  about  two  years. 
He  died  suddenly  in  Baltimore,  in  1825.  He  was  an  active  leader  in  the 
federal  party,  an  able  and  learned  lawyer,  well  versed  in  general  literature, 
and  political  economy,  and  lived  with  elegant  hospitality. 

HEATH,  William,  an  officer  in  the  army  of  the  revolution,  was  born 
in  Roxbury,  in  1737,  and  was  bred  a  farmer.  He  was  particularly  atten- 
tive to  the  study  of  military  tactics,  and  in  1775  he  was  commissioned  as 
a  brigadier-general  by  the  provincial  congress.  In  1776,  he  was  promot- 
ed to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  continental  army,  and  in  the  cam- 
paign of  that  year  commanded  a  division  near  the  enemy's  lines,  at  Kings- 
bridge  and  Morrisania.     During  the  year  1777,  and  till  November,  1778, 


524  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

he  was  the  commanding  officer  of  the  eastern  department,  and  his  head- 
quarters were  at  Boston.  In  1779,  he  returned  to  the  main  army,  and 
was  invested  with  the  chief  command  of  the  troops  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Hudson.  After  the  close  of  the  war,  he  served  in  several  public  offices, 
till  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1814. 

HENRY,  Patrick,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in  1736,  and  after  receiving 
a  common  school  education,  and  spending  some  time  in  trade  and  agri- 
culture, commenced  the  practice  of  the  law,  after  only  six  weeks  of  pre- 
paratory study.  After  several  years  of  poverty,  with  the  incumbrance  of 
a  family,  he  first  rose  to  distinction  in  managing  the  popular  side  in  the 
controversy  between  the  legislature  and  the  clergy,  touching  the  stipend 
which  was  claimed  by  the  latter.  In  1765,  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  house  of  burgesses,  with  express  reference  to  an  opposition  to  the 
British  stamp  act.  In  this  assembly  he  obtained  the  honor  of  being  the 
first  to  commence  the  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, which  terminated  in  the  revolution.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates 
sent  by  Virginia  to  the  first  general  congress  of  the  colonies,  in  1774,  and 
in  that  body  distinguished  himself  by  his  boldness  and  eloquence.  In 
1776,  he  was  appointed  the  first  governor  of  the  commonwealth,  and  to 
this  office  was  repeatedly  re-elected.  In  1786,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
legislature  one  of  the  deputies  to  the  convention  held  at  Philadelphia,  for 
the  purpose  of  revising  the  federal  constitution.  In  1788,  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  convention,  which  met  in  Virginia  to  consider  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States,  and  exerted  himself  strenuously  against  its  adop- 
tion. In  1794,  he  retired  from  the  bar,  and  died  in  1799.  Without 
extensive  information  upon  legal  or  political  topics,  he  was  a  natural  ora- 
tor of  the  highest  order,  possessing  great  powers  of  imagination,  sarcasm 
and  humor,  united  with  great  force  and  energy  of  manner,  and  a  deep 
knowledge  of  human  nature. 

HOBART,  John  Henry,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  on  the  fourteenth 
of  September,  1775.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  in  Princeton,  New 
Jersey,  and  was  noted  in  early  life  for  his  industry  and  proficiency  in  his 
studies.  On  leaving  this  institution  he  was  engaged  a  short  time  in  mer- 
cantile pursuits,  was  subsequently  a  tutor  at  Nassau  Hall,  and  after  two 
years  service  in  this  capacity,  he  determined  upon  the  study  of  theology. 
In  1798,  he  was  admitted  into  orders,  and  was  first  settled  in  the  two 
churches  at  Perkiomen,  near  Philadelphia,  but  soon  after  accepted  a  call 
to  Christ  church,  New  Brunswick.  In  about  a  year  he  removed  from  this 
place  to  become  an  assistant  minister  of  the  largest  spiritual  cure  in  the 
country,  comprising  three  associated  congregations  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  In  1811,  he  was  elected  assistant  bishop,  and  in  1816,  became 
diocesan  of  New  York,  and  in  performing  the  severe  duties  of  the  office, 
his  labors  were  indefatigable.  From  1818  to  1823,  he  was  employed  in 
editing  the  American  edition  of  Mant  and  D'Ogly's  Bible,  with  notes.  In 
September,  1823,  the  state  of  his  health  required  a  visit  to  Europe,  where 
he  remained  about  two  years.  He  died  in  1830.  He  was  incessantly 
active  in  performing  his  religious  offices,  and  made  several  valuable  com- 
pilations for  the  use  of  the  church. 

HOLLEY,  Horace,  a  celebrated  pulpit  orator,  was  born  in  Connecti- 
cut, in  1781,  and  was  graduated  at  Yale  college,  in  1799.  On  leaving 
this  institution  he  began  the  study  of  the  law,  which  he  soon  relinquished 


BIOGRAPHY.  525 

for  divinity,  and  in  1805,  was  ordained  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  Green- 
field Hill,  Conn.  In  1809,  he  was  installed  over  the  society  in  Hollis 
street,  Boston,  where  he  remained  for  ten  years,  when  he  accepted  an 
invitation  to  become  president  of  Transylvania  university,  in  Kentucky. 
In  this  situation  he  continued  till  1827,  when  he  died  on  his  passage  from 
New  Orleans  to  New  York.  His  sermons  were  generally  extemporane- 
ous, and  were  distinguished  for  power  and  eloquence. 

HOLYOKE,  Edward  Augustus,  was  born  in  1728,  in  the  county  of 
Essex,  Massachusetts,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in  1746 
He  pursued  the  study  of  medicine,  and  in  1749  began  to  practice  his  pro- 
fession in  Salem.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Medical  society  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  always  considered  a  learned  physician  and  skilfu . 
surgeon.  He  lived  to  be  over  one  hundred  years  of  age,  and  died  in 
1829.     He  published  various  scientific  disquisitions. 

HOPKINSON,  Francis,  an  excellent  writer,  and  signer  of  the  decla- 
ration of  independence,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  in  1737.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  college  in  his  native  town,  and  pursued  the  profession  of 
the  law.  In  1766,  he  visited  England,  where  he  resided  more  than  two 
years,  and  on  his  return,  married  and  settled  in  the  state  of  New  Jersey. 
]He  entered  with  much  zeal  into  the  public  measures  of  the  patriotic  party, 
and  in  1776,  was  elected  a  delegate  to  congress.  In  1779,  he  was  ap- 
pointed judge  of  the  admiralty  court  of  Pennsylvania,  and  for  ten  years 
continued  to  discharge  with  fidelity  the  duties  of  this  office.  In  1790, 
he  passed  to  the  bench  of  the  district  court,  and  died  suddenly  in  the 
midst  of  his  usefulness,  in  1791.  Mr.  Hopkinson  possessed  talents  of 
a  quick  and  versatile  character,  excelling  in  music  and  poetry,  and  hav- 
ing some  knowledge  of  painting.  In  humorous  poetry  and  satire  he  was 
quite  successful,  and  his  well-known  ballad  of  the  Battle  of  the  Kegs 
obtained  great  popularity.  A  collection  of  his  miscellaneous  works,  in 
three  volumes  8vo.  was  published  in  1792. 

HOPKINS,  Samuel,  a  divine,  and  founder  of  the  sect  called  Hopkin- 
sians,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  in  1721,  and  educated  at  Yale  college. 
In  1743,  he  was  settled  at  a  place  now  called  Great  Barrington,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  continued  there  till  1769,  when  he  removed  to  Newport, 
Rhode  Island.  He  died  in  1803.  He  published  numerous  sermons,  a 
Treatise  on  the  Millennium,  and  a  sketch  of  his  own  life.  His  theological 
learning  was  extensive,  and  he  was  a  profound  metaphysician. 

HOPKINS,  Stephen,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence,  was 
born  in  Providence,  in  1707,  and  after  receiving  a  school  education,  turned 
his  attention  to  agriculture.  In  1751,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the 
superior  court  of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1756,  was  elected  governor  of  that 
state.  In  1774,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  general  congress  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  was  re-elected  to  that  body  in  1775  and  1776.  In  1776,  he 
was  a  delegate  to  congress  for  the  last  time,  though  for  several  subsequent 
years  he  was  a  member  of  the  general  assembly  of  his  native  state.  He 
died  in  1785.  Although  his  early  education  was  very  limited,  Mr.  Hop- 
kins acquired  by  his  own  efforts  extensive  information.  He  wrote  a 
pamphlet  on  the  rights  of  the  colonies,  was  a  member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  society,  and  for  many  years  chancellor  of  the  college  of 
Rhode  Island. 

HOWARD,  John  Eager,  an  officer  of  the  army  of  the  American  revo- 


626  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

.'ution,  was  bom  in  Baltimore,  in  1752.  After  serving  in  the  rank  of 
captain,  in  1779,  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  valor  and  activity  during  the  war.  At  the  battle  of  Cow- 
pens,  colonel  Howard,  at  one  time,  had  in  his  hands  the  swords  of  seven 
officers,  who  had  surrendered  to  him  personally.  He  was  also  present  at 
the  battles  of  Germantown,  White  Plains,  Monmouth,  Camden,  and  Hob- 
kicks  hill.  On  the  disbanding  of  the  army,  he  retired  to  his  patrimonial 
estates,  near  Baltimore,  and  was  subsequently  governor  of  Maryland,  and 
member  of  the  senate  of  the  United  States.  He  died  in  1827.  General 
Greene  said  of  him,  that  as  a  patriot  and  soldier,  he  deserved  a  statue  of 
gold  no  less  than  Roman  and  Grecian  heroes. 

HUMPHREYS,  David,  minister  of  the  United  States  to  the  court  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  in  1753,  and  received  his  education  at 
Yale  college.  Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war, 
he  entered  the  army,  and  was  successively  an  aid  to  Parsons,  Putnam, 
Greene,  and  Washington.  He  left  the  army  with  the  rank  of  colonel. 
In  1784,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  legation  to  Paris,  and  was  subse- 
quently ambassador  to  the  court  of  Lisbon,  and  in  1797,  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  the  court  of  Madrid.  While  in  the  military  service,  he  pub- 
lished a  poem  addressed  to  the  American  armies,  and  after  the  war,  ano- 
ther on  the  happiness  and  glory  of  America.  In  1789,  he  published  a  life 
of  general  Putnam,  and  while  in  Europe,  a  number  of  miscellaneous 
poems.     He  died  in  1818. 

HUTCHINSON,  Thomas,  a  governor  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts, 
was  born  in  Boston,  in  1711,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college.  He 
was  for  a  while  occupied  with  commercial  pursuits,  but  soon  engaged  in 
the  study  of  law  and  politics,  and  was  sent  agent  to  Great  Britain.  On 
his  return  he  was  elected  a  representative,  and  after  a  few  years  .was  chosen 
speaker  of  the  house,  and  in  1752,  judge  of  probate.  After  being  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council,  lieutenant  governor  and  chief  justice,  in  1771,  he  re- 
ceived his  commission  as  governor  of  Massachusetts.  In  1774,  he  was 
removed  from  his  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  general  Gage.  He  then 
repaired  to  England,  fell  into  disgrace,  and  died  in  retirement,  in  1780. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  valuable  History  of  Massachusetts,  some  occasional 
essays,  and  a  pamphlet  on  colonial  claims.  It  is  said  that  no  man  con- 
tributed more  effectually  to  bring  about  the  separation  between  the  colonies 
and  Great  Britain  than  Hutchinson. 

JAY,  John,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1745.  He  was 
graduated  at  Columbia  college,  in  1764,  and  in  1768,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  He  soon  rose  to  eminence  as  a  lawyer,  and  began  to  take  an  active 
part  in  politics.  In  1774,  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  first  congress. 
In  May,  1776,  he  was  recalled  from  congress  by  the  provincial  convention, 
to  aid  in  forming  the  government  for  the  province,  and  to  this  it  is  owing 
that  his  name  does  not  appear  among  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of 
independence.  Upon  the  organization  of  the  state  government,  in  1777, 
Mr.  Jay  was  appointed  chief  justice,  and  held  this  office  till  1779.  In 
November,  1778,  he  was  again  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  continental  con- 
gress, and  three  days  after  taking  his  seat  was  elected  president  of  that 
venerable  body.  In  September,  1779,  he  was  appointed  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  the  court  of  Spain,  and  he  arrived  at  Cadiz  in  January  of  the 
following  year.     Having  resigned  his  commission  as  minister  in  1783,  in 


BIOGRAPHY.  527 

1784  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
department  for  foreign  affairs.  In  this  post  he  remained  till  the  adoption 
of  the  present  constitution,  when  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States.  In  1794,  he  was  sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  to  Great 
Britain,  and  before  his  return  in  1795,  he  had  been  elected  governor  of  his 
native  state.  In  1798,  he  was  re-elected  to  this  office,  and  in  1S01,  went 
into  voluntary  retirement.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  in  the 
faithful  discharge  of  the  charitable  duties,  and  he  was  publicly  known  only 
by  the  occasional  appearance  of  his  name,  or  the  employment  of  his  pen,  in 
the  service  of  philanthropy  and  piety.  He  died  in  1829.  Beside  a  variety 
of  state  papers  and  political  essays,  Mr.  Jay  was  the  author  of  the  2d,  3d, 
4th,  5th,  and  64th  numbers  of  the  Federalist. 

JEFFERSON,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Albemarle  county,  Virginia,  in 
1743,  and  was  entered  a  student  in  the  college  of  William  and  Mary.  On 
leaving  this  seminary,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  law,  under 
the  tuition  of  the  celebrated  George  Wythe,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1766.  He  soon  occupied  a  high  stand  in  his  profession,  and  at  the  early 
age  of  twenty-five  entered  the  house  of  burgesses  of  his  native  state.  In 
1774,  he  published  a  Summary  View  of  the  Rights  of  British  America,  a 
bold  but  respectful  pamphlet  addressed  to  the  king.  In  1775,  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  continental  congress,  and  in  the  following  year 
drew  up  the  declaration  of  independence.  Between  1777  and  1799,  he 
was  employed,  together  with  George  Wythe  and  Edmund  Pendleton,  on  a 
commission  for  revising  the  laws  of  Virginia.  In  1779,  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Virginia,  and  continued  in  office  until  June,  1781.  In  the 
latter  yea»  he  composed  his  celebrated  Notes  on  Virginia,  and  in  1787, 
published  it  under  his  own  signature.  In  November,  1783,  he  again  took 
his  seat  in  the  continental  congress,  and  in  May  following  was  appointed 
minister  plenipotentiary,  to  act  abroad  with  Adams  and  Franklin  in  the 
negotiation  of  commercial  treaties.  In  1785,  he  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Dr.  Franklin  as  minister  to  the  court  of  Versailles,  and  performed  the  duties 
of  this  office  till  1789,  when  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  and  was 
placed  by  president  Washington  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  state. 
In  1797,  he  became  vice-president,  and  in  1801,  president  of  the  United 
States.  At  the  expiration  of  eight  years  he  again  retired  to  private  life, 
and  took  up  his  residence  at  Monticello.  He  still  continued  anxious  to 
promote  the  interest  of  science  and  literature,  and  devoted  the  attention  of 
several  years  to  the  establishment  of  a  university  in  Virginia.  He  died 
on  the  fourth  of  July,  1826,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  declaration  of 
independence.  In  stature,  Mr.  Jefferson  was  six  feet  two  inches  high- 
His  person  was  erect  and  well  formed,  though  spare.  In  his  manners  he 
was  simple  and  unaffected,  simple  in  his  habits,  and  incessantly  occupied 
with  the  pursuits  of  business  or  study.  Four  volumes  of  his  Correspon- 
dence have  been  published  since  his  decease. 

JONES,  John  Paul,  a  native  of  Scotland,  was  born,  in  1747,  at  Selkirk, 
and  settled  in  America  when  young.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery  in  the  American  service,  during  the  contest  with  the  mother  country, 
particularly  in  a  desperate  action  with  the  Serapis  frigate,  which  he  cap- 
tured. He  died  in  Paris,  in  1792,  and  was  buried  at  the  expense  of  the 
national  convention.  Jones  was  not  only  a  man  of  signal  courage,  but 
also  of  great  talent,  and  keen  sagacity,  wrote  poetry,  and  in  France  aspired 


528  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

to  be  a  man  of  fashion.  His  memorials  and  correspondence  are  quite 
voluminous. 

KING,  Rufus,  an  eminent  statesman,  was  born  in  Scarborough,  in  the 
state  of  Maine,  in  the  year  1755.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
in  1777,  immediately  entered  as  a  student  at  law  in  the  office  of  the  cele- 
brated Theophilus  Parsons,  at  Newburyport,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1780.  In  1784,  he  was  chosen  to  represent  Newburyport  in  the  state 
legislature,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  old  congress. 
In  1787,  he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  the  general  convention  assembled 
at  Philadelphia,  and  in  1788  removed  from  Massachusetts  to  the  city  of 
New  York.  In  1796,  he  was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
court  of  Great  Britain,  and  remained  there  for  seven  years  with  equal 
honor  to  his  country  and  himself.  In  1813,  he  was  chosen  by  the  legisla- 
ture of  New  York  a  senator  of  the  United  States,  and  being  re-elected  in 
1820,  he  continued  till  the  expiration  of  the  term  in  1825.  Upon  his 
retirement  from  the  senate,  he  accepted  from  president  Adams  an  invitation 
again  to  represent  the  United  States  at  the  court  of  Great  Britain.  During 
the  voyage  to  England  his  health  was  seriously  impaired,  and  his  illness 
induced  him  to  return  in  about  a  twelvemonth  to  his  native  land.  He 
died  in  April,  1827. 

KNOX,  Henrv,  a  revolutionary  general,  was  born  in  Boston,  in  1750, 
and  after  receiving  a  common  school  education,  commenced  business  as  a 
bookseller,  in  his  native  town.  Before  the  commencement  of  hostilities, 
he  discovered  an  uncommon  zeal  in  the  cause  of  liberty.  When  the  corps 
of  artillery,  in  1776,  was  increased  to  three  regiments,  the  command  was 
given  to  Knox,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  courage  at  the  battles  of  Trenton,  Princeton,  Germantown, 
and  Monmouth,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  capture  of  Cornwallis.  Im- 
mediately after  this  event  he  received  from  congress  the  commission  of 
major-general.  In  1785,  he  succeeded  general  Lincoln  in  the  office  of 
secretary  of  war,  and  having  filled  this  department  for  eleven  years,  he 
obtained  a  reluctant  permission  to  retire  into  private  life.  In  1798,  when 
our  relations  with  France  were  assuming  a  cloudy  aspect,  he  was  called 
upon  to  take  a  command  in  the  army,  but  the  peaceful  arrangement  of 
affairs  soon  permitted  him  to  return  into  his  retirement.  He  died  at 
Thomaston,  Maine,  in  1806.  In  private  life  he  was  amiable,  in  his  public 
character  persevering,  and  of  unsurpassed  courage. 

LAURENS,  Henry,  a  patriot  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  in  1724.  After  receiving  a  good  school  education,  he 
engaged  in  commerce,  and  soon  amassed  an  ample  fortune.  At  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  revolution  he  was  in  London,  but  he  immediately  returned 
to  his  native  country,  and  in  1776,  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  general 
congress.  He  was  soon  chosen  president  of  this  body,  and  remained  so 
till  the  close  of  the  year  1778.  In  1779,  he  received  the  appointment  of 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Holland,  but  on  his  way  thither  was  captured 
by  the  British,  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  in  confinement 
fourteen  months.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  foT  negotiating  a 
peace  with  Great  Britain,  and  in  1782,  he  signed  with  Jay  and  Franklin 
the  preliminaries  of  the  treaty.  His  health,  however,  was  much  impaired, 
and  he  soon  returned  home,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  agricul- 
tural pursuits.     He  died  in  1792 

•4 


BIOGRAPHY.  529 

LAURENS,  John,  lieutenant-colonel,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  liberally 
educated  in  England,  and  having  returned  to  his  native  country,  joined  the 
American  army  in  1777.  He  displayed  prodigies  of  valor  at  Brandywine, 
Germantown,  Monmouth,  Savannah  and  Charleston,  and  was  killed  at  the 
very  close  of  the  war  by  carelessly  exposing  himself  in  a  trifling  skirmish. 
In  1780,  he  was  sent  as  a  special  minister  to  France,  to  negotiate  a  loan ; 
and  after  being  subjected  to  a  vexatious  delay,  he  determined  to  present  a 
memorial  to  the  king  in  person  at  the  levee.  This  purpose  he  carried  into 
effect,  the  memorial  was  graciously  received,  and  the  object  of  negotiation 
satisfactorily  arranged. 

LAWRENCE,  James,  a  distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  in  New 
Jersey,  in  1781,  and  became  a  midshipman  in  1798.  In  1803,  he  was 
sent  to  the  Mediterranean,  as  first  lieutenant  to  the  schooner  Enterprise, 
and  while  there  distinguished  himself  by  his  activity  and  valor.  He 
remained  on  this  station  for  three  years,  and  then  returned  to  the  United 
States,  having  been  transferred  to  the  frigate  John  Adams.  In  February, 
1813,  he  was  in  command  of  the  Hornet,  and  took  the  fine  British  brig 
Peacock,  after  an  action  of  fifteen  minutes.  On  his  return  to  the  United 
States  he  was  transferred  to  the  frigate  Chesapeake,  and  in  June  of  the 
same  year,  while  engaged  in  battle  with  the  frigate  Shannon,  he  received 
a  mortal  wound.  His  last  exclamation,  as  they  were  carrying  him  below, 
was — '  Don't  give  up  the  ship.'  He  lingered  in  great  pain  for  four  days, 
when  he  died.     His  remains  are  interred  at  New  York. 

LEDYARD,  John,  an  adventurous  traveller,  was  born  at  Groton,  in 
Connecticut,  and  was  educated  at  Dartmouth  college,  in  New  Hampshire. 
After  having  lived  for  some  time  among  the  Indians,  he  came  to  England, 
and  sailed  with  Cook,  on  his  second  voyage,  as  a  marine.  On  his  return, 
he  resolved  to  penetrate  on  foot  across  Northern  Asia,  and  proceed  to  the 
opposite  coast  of  America.  He  was,  however,  seized  at  Yakutz,  and  sent 
out  of  the  Russian  dominions.  He  was  next  employed  by  the  African 
association  to  explore  the  interior  of  Africa  ;  but  he  died  at  Cairo,  in  1789. 

LEE,  Arthur,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in  1740,  and  received  his  education 
in  England,  taking  his  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
He  then  returned  to  his  native  state,  and  for  some  years  practised  physic 
at  Williamsburg  ;  but  political  affairs  were  then  assuming  so  interesting  an 
aspect,  that  he  again  went  to  England  and  entered  on  the  study  of  law  in 
the  Temple.  In  1770,  he  visited  London,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
famous  society  of  the  supporters  of  the  bill  of  rights.  His  political  publica- 
tions at  this  period,  under  the  signature  of  Junius  Americanus,  were 
numerous,  and  procured  for  him  the  acquaintance  of  the  leaders  of  the 
popular  party.  In  1776,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  France,  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Franklin  and  Mr.  Deane,  and  assisted  in  negotiating  the  treaty 
with  that  nation.  In  1779,  in  consequence  of  the  false  accusations  of  Mr. 
Deane,  complaints  of  his  political  conduct  were  freely  circulated  at  home, 
and  in  the  following  year,  he  resigned  his  appointments  and  returned. 
In  1781,  he  was  elected  to  the  assembly  of  Virginia,  and  by  this  body 
returned  to  congress,  where  he  continued  to  represent  the  state  till  1785. 
In  1784,  he  was  employed  to  arrange  a  treaty  with  the  six  Indian  nations. 
He  was  next  called  to  the  board  of  treasury,  where  he  continued  till  1789, 
when  he  went  into  retirement.     He  died  in  1792. 

LEE,  Charles,  a  major-general  in  the  army  of  the  revolution,  was 
67  45 


530  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

born  in  North  Wales,  and  entered  the  army  while  very  young.  He 
served  at  an  early  age  in  America,  and  afterwards  distinguished  him- 
self under  general  Burgoyne,  in  Portugal.  He  subsequently  entered  the 
Polish  service,  wandered  all  over  Europe,  killed  an  Italian  officer  in  a  duel, 
and  in  1773,  sailed  for  New  York.  Espousing  the  cause  of  the  colonies, 
he  received  a  commission  from  congress  in  1775,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  In  1776,  he  was  invested  with  the  command  at  New  York,  and 
afterwards  with  the  chief  command  in  the  southern  department.  In 
December,  1776,  he  was  made  prisoner  by  the  English,  as  he  lay  care- 
lessly guarded  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  main  body  of  the  army 
in  New  Jersey*  He  was  kept  prisoner  till  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  in 
1777,  and  treated  in  a  manner  unworthy  of  a  generous  enemy.  In  1778, 
he  was  arraigned  before  a  court  martial,  in  consequence  of  his  misconduct 
at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  and  was  suspended  from  any  commission  in 
the  army  of  the  United  States  for  one  year.  He  retired  to  a  hovel  in 
Virginia,  living  in  entire  seclusion,  surrounded  by  his  books  and  his  dogs. 
In  1782,  he  went  to  reside  at  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  in  obscurity,  in 
October  of  the  same  year.  He  was  a  man  of  much  energy  and  courage, 
With  considerable  literary  attainments,  but  morose  and  avaricious.  He 
published  essays  on  military,  literary,  and  political  subjects,  which,  with 
his  extensive  correspondence,  were  collected  in  a  volume,  in  1792.  The 
authorship  of  the  Letters  of  Junius  has  been  ascribed  to  him. 

LEE,  Henry,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  revolutionary  army,  was 
born  in  Virginia,  in  1756,  and  was  graduated  at  the  college  in  Princeton. 
In  1776,  he  was  a  captain  of  one  of  the  six  companies  of  cavalry,  raised 
by  Virginia,  and  afterwards  incorporated  into  one  regiment,  and  in  1777, 
added  to  the  main  body  of  the  provincials.  At  the  battle  of  Germantown, 
Lee  was  selected  with  his  company  to  attend  Washington  as  his  body- 
guard. In  1780,  being  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  he  was 
sent  with  his  legion  to  the  army  of  the  south,  under  general  Greene,  and 
continued  with  it  till  the  end  of  the  war.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Eutaw  springs,  and  in  the  ensuing  October  was  sent  on  a  special 
commission  to  the  commander-in-chief,  then  employed  in  the  siege  of 
Yorktown.  In  1786,  he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  congress,  from  the 
state  of  Virginia,  and  remained  in  that  body  till  the  adoption  of  the  present 
constitution.  He  was  a  member  of  the  state  convention  which  ratified  that 
instrument,  and  in  1792,  he  was  raised  to  the  chair  of  governor  of  Virginia. 
In  1799,  he  was  again  a  member  of  congress,  and  while  there  selected  to 
pronounce  a  funeral  oration  on  the  death  of  Washington.  The  latter 
years  of  his  life  were  embarrassed  by  want,  and  it  was  while  confined  for 
debt  in  the  limits  of  Spottsylvania  county,  that  he  prepared  for  publication 
his  excellent  Memoirs  of  the  Southern  Campaign.  He  was  severely 
Wounded  during  the  riot  in  Baltimore,  in  1814,  and  his  health  rapidly 
declined.     He  died  on  Cumberland  island,  Georgia,  in  1818. 

LEE,  Francis  Lightfoot,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence, 
Was  born  in  Virginia,  in  1734.  He  inherited  a  large  fortune,  and  in  1765, 
became  a  member  of  the  house  of  burgesses  of  his  native  state,  and  con- 
tinued in  that  body  till  1775,  when  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  con- 
tinental congress.  He  remained  in  this  assembly  till  1779,  when  he 
entered  the  legislature  of  his  native  state.     He  died  in  1797. 

LEE,  Richard  Henry,  an  eminent  patriot,  and  signer  of  the  declaration 


BIOGRAPHY.  531 

of  independence,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in  1732,  and  received  his  education 
in  England.  He  returned  to  his  native  country  when  in  his  nineteenth 
year,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  general  study  of  history,  politics,  law, 
and  polite  literature,  without  engaging  in  any  particular  profession.  In 
his  twenty-fifth  year,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  house  of  burgesses, 
where  he  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  powers  in  debate.  In  1764, 
he  was  appointed  to  draught  an  address  to  the  king,  and  a  memorial  to  the 
house  of  lords,  which  are  among  the  best  state  papers  of  the  period.  His 
efforts  in  resisting  the  various  encroachments  of  the  British  government 
were  indefatigable,  and  in  1774,  he  attended  the  first  general  congress  at 
Philadelphia,  as  a  delegate  from  Virginia.  He  was  a  member  of  most  of 
the  important  committees  of  this  body,  and  labored  with  unceasing  vigilance 
and  energy.  The  memorial  of  congress  to  the  people  of  British  America, 
and  the  second  address  of  congress  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  were 
both  from  his  pen.  In  June,  1776,  he  introduced  the  measure  that  declared 
the  colonies  free  and  independent  states,  and  supported  it  by  a  speech  of 
the  most  brilliant  eloquence.  He  continued  to  hold  a  seat  in  congress  till 
June,  1777,  when  he  solicited  leave  of  absence,  on  account  of  the  delicate 
state  of  his  health.  In  August  of  the  next  year,  he  was  again  elected  to 
congress,  and  continued  in  that  body  till  1780,  when  he  declined  a  re- 
election till  1784.  In  that  year  he  was  chosen  president  of  congress,  but 
retired  at  the  close  of  it,  and  in  1786,  was  again  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Virginia  assembly.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  adopted 
the  present  constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  one  of  the  first  senators 
under  it.     In  1792,  he  again  retired  from  public  life,  and  died  in  1794. 

LEWIS,  Meriwether,  a  celebrated  explorer,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in 
1774,  and,  after  receiving  a  good  school  education,  engaged  in  agriculture. 
When  general  Washington  called  out  a  body  of  militia  in  consequence  of 
the  discontent  produced  by  the  excise  taxes,  young  Lewis  entered  as  a 
volunteer,  and  from  that  situation  was  removed  to  the  regular  service.  In 
1803,  he  was  sent  by  president  Jefferson  on  an  exploring  expedition  to  the 
north-western  part  of  our  continent ;  and  of  this  expedition,  which  was 
completed  in  about  three  years,  and  in  which  he  was  accompanied  by  Mr. 
Clarke,  a  highly  interesting  account  was  afterwards  published.  Lewis 
was  subsequently  appointed  governor  of  the  Louisiana  territory.  He  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life  in  1809.  He  was  a  man  of  energy,  perseverance, 
and  of  a  sound  understanding. 

LINCOLN,  Benjamin,  a  major-general  in  the  revolutionary  army,  was 
born  in  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1733,  and  until  the  age  of  forty  years 
was  engaged  in  the  pursuits  of  agriculture.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
revolution,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  provincial  congress,  in  1776, 
received  the  commission  of  major-general,  and  employed  himself  vigor- 
ously to  improve  the  discipline  of  the  militia.  He  was  second  in  command 
in  the  army  which  compelled  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne.  On  the  day 
after  the  battle  of  Stillwater,  he  received  a  dangerous  wound  in  his  leg, 
and  was  confined  for  several  months  by  its  effects.  In  the  following  year, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  southern  department,  and  while 
in  this  post  he  attempted  the  defence  of  Charleston,  but  was  compelled  to 
capitulate  in  May,  1780.  He  was  exchanged  in  November,  and  in  the 
spring  following  joined  the  army  on  the  North  river.  At  the  siege  of 
Yorktown  he  commanded  a  central  division,  and  shared  largely  in  the 


532  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

dangers  and  honors  of  the  day.  In  1781,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  war  department,  and  afterwards  on  several  occasions  commissioner  to 
treat  with  the  Indians.  On  the  establishment  of  peace,  he  returned  to  his 
native  state,  and  in  1787,  was  appointed  to  command  the  troops  employed 
in  the  suppression  of  the  insurgents  in  Massachusetts.  In  1788,  he  was 
chosen  lieutenant  governor,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  which  ratified  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  1810.  He  was  the  author  of  several  published  letters  and  essays ; 
a  member  of  the  American  Academy  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences ;  and  presi- 
dent of  the  society  of  Cincinnati  of  Massachusetts. 

LIVINGSTON,  Robert  R.,  a  celebrated  statesman  and  lawyer,  was 
born  in  New  York,  and  was  educated  at  King's  college.  He  engaged  in 
the  profession  of  the  law,  and  was  elected  to  the  first  general  congress  of 
the  colonies,  where  he  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed  to  prepare  the 
declaration  of  independence.  In  1780,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
foreign  affairs,  and  at  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  at  New  York,  chan- 
cellor of  that  state.  This  last  office  he  held  till  1801,  when  he  was  sent 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  France.  It  was  in  Paris  that  he  formed  a  per- 
sonal friendship  with  Robert  Fulton,  whom  he  materially  assisted.  In 
1805,  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  devoted  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  the  promotion  of  agriculture  and  the  arts.     He  died  in  1813. 

LOWELL,  John,  an  eminent  lawyer,  was  born  at  Newbury,  in  1744, 
and  was  educated  at  Harvard  college.  He  studied  law,  and  rising  to 
reputation,  in  1761,  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  soon  distinguished  himself 
by  his  political  knowledge  and  eloquence.  In  1781,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  congress,  and  on  the  establishment  of  the  federal  government, 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  circuit  court  of  the  United  States.  In  these 
situations  he  was  much  respected  for  his  legal  knowledge  and  dignity. 
He  died  in  1802. 

LOWNDES,  William,  a  celebrated  statesman,  was  a  native  of  South 
Carolina,  and  was  for  many  years  a  distinguished  member  of  congress. 
His  mind  was  vigorous,  comprehensive,  and  logical ;  and  his  disposition 
eminently  kind,  frank,  and  generous.  He  was  in  a  high  degree  ardent 
and  patriotic.  He  entered  congress  in  1812,  and  retained  his  seat  for 
about  ten  years,  when  ill  health  compelled  him  to  resign.  In  1818,  he  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means.  He  died  at  sea,  in 
October,  1822,  at  the  age  of  forty-two.  It  was  said  of  him  in  the  house, 
by  Mr.  Taylor  of  New  York,  that  'the  highest  and  best  hopes  of  the 
country  looked  to  William  Lowndes  for  their  fulfilment.  The  most  ho- 
norable office  in  the  civilized  world,  the  chief  magistracy  of  this  free  people, 
would  have  been  illustrated  by  his  virtues  and  talents.' 

M'KEAN,  Thomas,  an  eminent  judge,  and  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of 
independence,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1734,  and,  after  a  course  of  aca- 
demic and  professional  studies,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years.  His  political  career  commenced  in  1762,  when  he  was  return- 
ed a  member  of  the  assembly  from  the  county  of  Newcastle.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  congress  which  assembled  in  New  York,  in  1765,  to  obtain 
relief  of  the  British  government  for  the  grievances  under  which  the  colo- 
nies were  suffering.  In  this  body  he  behaved  with  much  decision  and 
energy.  In  1774,  he  was  appointed  to  the  general  congress,  a  delegate 
from  the  lower  counties  in  Delaware,  and  was  the  only  man  who,  without 


BIOGRAPHY.  533 

intermission,  was  a  member  during  the  whole  period.  Of  this  body  he 
was  president  in  1781.  In  1777,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  discharged  the  duties  of  this  office  with  impartiality  and  dig- 
nity, for  twenty-two  years.  In  1799,  he  was  elected  governor  of  the  state 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  his  administration  continued  for  nine  years.  In 
1808,  he  retired  from  public  life,  and  died,  much  respected  and  honor- 
ed, in  1817. 

MARION,  Francis,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  revolutionary  army, 
was  born  in  South  Carolina,  in  1732,  and  first  served  in  1761,  as  a  lieu- 
tenant against  the  Cherokees.  Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  revo- 
lution, he  received  a  major's  commission,  and  in  1780,  he  obtained  that  of 
brigadier-general.  He  continually  surprised  and  captured  parties  of  the 
British  and  the  royalists,  by  the  secrecy  and  rapidity  of  his  movements. 
On  the  evacuation  of  Charleston,  he  retired  to  his'  plantation,  where  he 
died  in  1795.     He  was  bold,  generous,  and  severe  in  his  discipline. 

MASON,  George,  a  statesman,  was  a  member  of  the  general  conven- 
tion, which,  in  1787,  framed  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  but 
refused  to  sign  his  name  as  one  of  that  body  to  the  instrument  which  they 
had  produced.  In  the  following  year,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
convention,  to  consider  the  proposed  plan  of  federal  government.  In 
union  with  Henry,  he  opposed  its  adoption  with  great  energy,  and  is  the 
author  of  one  of  the  articles  inserted  among  the  amendments  of  that 
instrument.  So  averse  was  he  to  the  section  which  allowed  the  slave-trade 
for  twenty  years,  that  he  declared  his  vote  should  be  cast  against  the 
admission  of  the  southern  states  into  the  Union,  unless  they  would  agree 
to  discontinue  the  traffic.  He  died  at  his  seat  in  Virginia,  in  the  autumn 
of  1792,  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven. 

MASON,  John  Mitchell,  a  divine  and  pulpit  orator,  was  born  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  in  1770,  and  after  graduating  at  Columbia  college,  pre- 
pared himself  for  the  sacred  ministry.  His  theological  studies  were  com- 
pleted in  Europe.  In  1792,  he  returned  to  New  York,  and  was  establish- 
ed in  the  ministry  at  that  place  till  1811,  when  he  accepted  the  appoint- 
ment of  provost  in  Columbia  college.  This  situation  his  ill  health 
obliged  him  to  resign,  and  he  visited  Europe  to  repair  his  constitution. 
On  his  return,  in  1817,  he  again  resumed  his  labors  in  preaching,  and  in 
1821,  undertook  the  charge  of  Dickinson  college,  in  Pennsylvania.  In 
1824,  he  returned  to  New  York,  and  died  in  1829.  He  was  the  author 
of  Letters  on  Frequent  Communion  ;  A  Plea  for  Sacramental  Communion 
on  Catholic  Principles  ;  and  a  number  of  essays,  reviews,  orations,  and 
eermons,  published  at  different  times. 

MATHER,  Increase,  a  learned  divine,  was  born  at  Dorchester,  in 
1639,  was  educated  to  the  ministry,  and  was  settled  in  the  North  church, 
Boston,  in  1664.  He  continued  there  for  sixty-two  years,  discharging  the 
duties  of  his  sacred  office  with  zeal  and  ability.  In  1685,  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  presidency  of  Harvard  college,  which  he  resigned  in  1701.  He 
died  in  1723.  He  was  an  indefatigable  student,  and  published  a  variety 
of  works  on  religion,  politics,  history,  and  philosophy. 

MATHER,  Cotton,  a  celebrated  divine,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  February,  1663,  and  was  educated  for  the  profession  of  theology.  In 
1684,  he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  North  church  in  Boston,  as  col- 
league with  his  father.     He  died  in  1728.     His  learning  was  marvellous, 

45* 


534  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

hut  his  taste  was  eccentric,  and  he  was  very  pedantic  and  credulous.  His 
publications  are  382  in  number  ;  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is  Magna- 
lia  Christi  Americani. 

M'DONOUGH,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  in  New- 
castle county,  Delaware,  and  after  his  father's  death  in  1796,  he  obtained 
a  midshipman's  warrant,  and  went  out  with  our  fleet  to  the  Mediterranean. 
In  1812,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  he  commanded  the  American  forces 
on  lake  Champlain.  In  the  battle  of  September  11,  1814,  after  an  action 
of  two  hours  and  twenty  minutes,  he  obtained  a  complete  victory,  which 
he  announced  to  the  war  department  in  the  following  terms  : — '  The 
Almighty  has  been  pleased  to  grant  us  a  signal  victory  on  lake  Cham- 
plain,  in  the  capture  of  one  frigate,  one  brig,  and  two  sloops  of  war  of  the 
enemy.'  The  state  of  New  York  gave  him  a  thousand  acres  of  land  on 
the  bay  in  which  the  battle  was  fought.  He  died  in  November,  1825,  at 
about  the  age  of  thirty-nine  years. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence, 
was  born  in  South  Carolina,  in  1743,  and  received  his  education  in  Eu- 
rope. Soon  after  his  return  home,  he  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
revolutionary  movements,  and  in  1776,  was  chosen  one  of  the  delegates 
from  his  native  state  to  the  American  congress.  At  the  close  of  the  year 
1777,  he  resigned  his  seat,  leaving  behind  a  character  for  the  purest  patri- 
otism and  unwavering  resolution.  In  the  year  1779,  many  of  the  south- 
ern plantations  were  ravaged,  and  that  of  Mr.  Middleton  did  not  escape. 
On  the  surrender  of  Charleston,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  kept  in  con- 
finement for  nearly  a  year.  In  1781,  he  was  appointed  a  representative  to 
congress,  and  again  in  1782.  In  the  latter  year  he  went  into  retirement, 
and  died  in  1787. 

MONROE,  James,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in  1759,  and  was  educated  in 
William  and  Mary  college.  He  entered  the  revolutionary  war,  in  1776, 
as  a  cadet,  was  at  the  battles  of  Haerlem  Heights  and  White  Plains,  and 
in  the  attack  on  Trenton,  and  rose  through  the  rank  of  lieutenant  to  that 
of  captain.  He  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  Germantown, 
and  Monmouth,  as  aid  to  lord  Sterling.  Resuming  the  study  of  the  law, 
he  entered  the  office  of  Mr.  Jefferson,  and  after  being  a  member  of  the 
assembly  of  Virginia  and  the  council,  he  was  elected,  in  1783,  a  member 
of  the  old  congress.  In  1790,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  senate  of 
the  United  States,  in  1794,  went  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  France, 
and  in  1799,  was  appointed  governor  of  Virginia.  In  1803,  he  was  appoint- 
ed minister  extraordinary  to  France,  in  the  same  year  minister  to  London, 
and  in  the  next  minister  to  Spain.  In  1806,  he  was  again  appointed,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  William  Pinkney,  minister  to  London.  He  was 
subsequently  governor  of  Virginia;  in  1811,  was  appointed  secretary  of 
state,  and  continued  to  exercise  the  duties  of  this  department,  and  for  some 
time  those  of  the  department  of  war  till  1817.  In  that  year  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Union,  and  in  1821,  was  re-elected  by  a  vote 
unanimous,  with  the  single  exception  of  one  vote  in  New  Hampshire.  He 
died  in  New  York,  on  the  fourth  of  July,  1831. 

MONTGOMERY,  Richard,  a  major-general  in  the  army  of  the  revo- 
lution, was  born  in  Ireland,  in  1737.  He  entered  the  British  army,  and 
fought  with  Wolfe  at  the  siege  of  Quebec,  in  1759.  He  subsequently  left 
the  army  and  settled  in  New  York.     Joining  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  he 


BIOGRAPHY.  535 

was  appointed  a  general  in  the  northern  army,  and  fell  at  the  assault  on 
Quebec,  in  1775.  By  a  vote  of  congress,  a  monument  of  white  marble, 
with  emblematical  devices,  was  executed  by  Mr.  Cassiers,  at  Paris,  and  is 
erected  to  his  memory  in  front  of  St.  Paul's  church,  New  York.  His 
remains,  in  pursuance  of  a  resolve  of  the  New  York  legislature,  were 
disinterred  by  his  nephew,  colonel  Livingston,  in  June,  1818,  the  place  of 
their  burial  having  been  pointed  out  by  an  old  soldier,  who  attended  their 
burial  forty-two  years  before.  They  were  removed  to  New  York,  and 
again  interred  in  St.  Paul's  church,  with  the  highest  civil  and  military 
honors.     His  widow  was  then  living. 

MORGAN,  Daniel,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  army  of  the  American 
revolution,  was  born  in  New  Jersey,  and  removed  to  Virginia  in  1755. 
He  enlisted  in  Braddock's  expedition  as  a  private  soldier,  and  on  the  defeat 
of  that  general,  returned  to  his  occupation  as  a  farmer.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  revolution  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  troop  of 
horse,  and  joined  the  army  under  Washington,  then  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Boston.  He  distinguished  himself  very  much  in  the  expedition  against 
Quebec,  where  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  On  the  exchange  of 
prisoners,  he  rejoined  the  American  army,  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  a  select  rifle  corps,  and  detached  to  assist  general  Gates  on  the  northern 
frontier,  where  he  contributed  materially  to  the  capture  of  general  Bur- 
goyne.  After  a  short  retirement  from  service,  on  account  of  ill  health,  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  by  brevet,  and  commanded  the  force 
by  which  colonel  Tarleton  was  routed  at  the  battle  of  Cowpens.  He  soon 
after  resigned  his  commission.  In  1794,  he  commanded  the  militia  of 
Virginia  called  out  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in  Pennsylvania,  and  con- 
tinued in  the  service  till  1795.  He  afterwards  was  elected  to  a  seat  in 
congress.     He  died  in  1799. 

MORRIS,  Gouverneur,  an  eminent  statesman  and  orator,  was  born  at 
Morrisania,  near  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1752,  was  graduated  at  King's 
college  t»  1768,  and  licensed  to  practice  law  in  1771.  In  1775,  he  was  a 
member  ot  me  provincial  congress  of  New  York,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee which  drafted  a  constitution  for  the  state  of  New  York.  In  1777,  he 
was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress,  and  in  the  following 
year  wrote  the  celebrated  Observations  on  the  American  Revolution.  In 
1781,  he  accepted  the  post  of  assistant  superintendent  of  finance,  as  colleague 
of  Robert  Morris  ;  and  in  1787,  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1792,  he  was  appointed 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  France,  and  held  this  station  till  his  recall  by 
the  request  of  the  French  government,  in  1794.  In  1800,  he  was  elected 
a  senator  in  congress  from  the  state  of  New  York,  and  in  this  body  was 
very  conspicuous  for  his  political  information  and  his  brilliant  eloquence. 
Many  of  his  speeches  in  congress  and  orations  have  been  published ;  and 
a  selection  from  his  correspondence  and  other  valuable  papers,  with  a 
biographical  sketch,  by  Mr.  Jared  Sparks,  was  issued  in  1832. 

MORRIS,  Lewis,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence,  was  born 
at  the  manor  of  Morrisania,  near  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1726.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  college,  and  took  an  early  part  in  the  cause  of  the  colonies. 
In  1775,  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress,  and  while 
in  this  body  served  on  several  of  the  most  important  committees.  His 
rich  estates  were  laid  waste  by  the  British  army  in  1776.     He  left  congress 


636  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

in  1777,  and  died  in  1798.  Three  of  his  sons  served  with  distinction  in 
the  revolutionary  army. 

MORRIS,  Robert,  a  celebrated  financier,  was  a  native  of  England, 
removed  with  his  father  to  America,  at  an  early  age,  and  subsequently 
established  himself  as  a  merchant  in  Philadelphia.  In  1775,  he  was 
appointed  a  delegate  to  congress,  and  signed  the  declaration  of  indepen- 
dence in  the  following  year.  In  1781,  he  was  appointed  superintendent 
of  finance,  and  rendered  incalculable  service  by  his  wealth  and  credit  dur- 
ing the  exhausted  state  of  our  public  funds.  It  has  been  said,  and  with 
much  truth,  that  'the  Americans  owed,  and  still  owe,  as  much  acknow- 
ledgment to  the  financial  operations  of  Robert  Morris,  as  to  the  negotiations 
of  Benjamin  Franklin,  or  even  to  the  arms  of  George  Washington.'  Ha 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  framed  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  in  1787,  and  afterwards  a  senator  in  congress.  In  his  old 
age  he  lost  his  ample  fortune,  by  unfortunate  land  speculations,  and  passed 
the  last  years  of  his  life  confined  in  prison  for  debt.     He  died  in  1806. 

MOULTRIE,  William,  a  major-general  in  the  army  of  the  revolution, 
was  born  in  England,  but  emigrated  to  South  Carolina  at  an  early  age. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Cherokee  war,  in  1760,  and  in  its  last 
campaign  commanded  a  company.  At  the  commencement  of  the  revolu- 
tion, he  was  a  member  of  the  provincial  congress,  and  a  colonel  of  the 
second  regiment  of  South  Carolina.  For  his  brave  defence  of  Sullivan's 
island,  in  1776,  he  received  the  thanks  of  congress,  and  the  fort  was  after- 
wards called  by  his  name.  In  1779,  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  British 
at  Beaufort.  He  afterwards  received  the  commission  of  major-general, 
and  was  second  in  command  to  general  Lincoln  at  the  siege  of  Charleston. 
After  the  close  of  the  war,  he  was  repeatedly  elected  governor  of  South 
Carolina.  He  published  Memoirs  of  the  Revolution  in  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia,  consisting  chiefly  of  official  letters.  He  died  at  Charleston,  in 
1805. 

MURRAY,  Alexander,  a  distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  in 
Maryland,  in  1755.  He  went  early  to  sea,  and  being  appointed  a  lieuten- 
ant in  the  navy,  obtained  a  correspondent  rank  in  the  army,  and  distinguish- 
ed himself  at  the  battles  of  White  Plains,  Flatbush,  and  New  York.  Being 
promoted  to  a  captaincy,  he  served  with  gallantry  to  the  close  of  the 
campaign  of  1777.  During  the  war  he  was  engaged  in  thirteen  battles  by 
sea  and  land,  and  was  once  taken  prisoner.  On  the  organization  of  the 
new  government,  he  was  one  of  the  first  officers  recalled  into  service,  and 
was  engaged  for  a  while  to  defend  the  American  trade  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. His  last  appointment  was  that  of  commander  of  the  navy-yard  in 
Philadelphia,  a  post  which  he  held  till  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1821.  He 
was  a  brave  officer  and  much  respected. 

MURRAY,  William  Vans,  an  American  statesman,  was  born  in 
Maryland,  in  1761,  and  received  his  legal  education  in  London.  On 
returning  to  his  native  state,  he  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law,  and  in 
1791  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  congress,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
by  his  ability  and  eloquence.  He  was  appointed  by  Washington  minister 
to  the  republic  of  Batavia,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  the  office  with 
much  ability.  He  was  subsequently  envoy  extraordinary  to  the  French 
republic,  and  assisted  in  making  the  convention  which  was  signed  at  Paris 
in  1800,  between  France  and  the  United  States.     Returning  to  his  station 


BIOGRAPHY.  537 

at  the  Hague,  he  embarked  in  1801  for  his  native  country,  where  he  died 
in  1803. 

OTIS,  James,  a  distinguished  statesman,  was  born  at  West  Barnstable, 
Massachusetts,  in  1725,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1743. 
He  pursued  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  establishing  himself  in  Boston, 
soon  rose  to  eminence.  His  public  career  may  be  said  to  have  opened 
with  his  celebrated  speech  against  writs  of  assistance.  At  the  next  election 
he  was  chosen  a  representative  to  the  legislature,  and  soon  became  the 
leader  of  the  popular  party.  In  1765,  he  was  a  member  of  the  congress 
which  assembled  at  New  York.  In  1769,  he  was  severely  wounded  in  an 
assault  committed  upon  him  by  some  British  officers ;  from  one  of  whom 
he  recovered  large  damages,  which  he  remitted  on  receiving  a  written 
apology.  In  1772,  he  retired  from  public  life,  and  in  May  of  the  following 
year  was  killed  by  a  stroke  of  lightning.  He  was  a  good  scholar,  a  learned 
and  able  lawyer,  a  bold  and  commanding  orator,  and  possessed  infinite 
powers  of  humor  and  wit. 

PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  an  eminent  lawyer,  and  a  signer  of  the  declara* 
tion  of  American  independence,  was  born  at  Boston,  in  1731,  and  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1749.  After  a  visit  to  Europe  of  some 
years,  he  commenced  the  study  of  the  law,  and  about  1759,  settled  in  its 
practice  in  Taunton.  He  took  an  early  and  active  interest  in  public  affairs, 
and  in  1774,  was  appointed  a  delegate  from  Massachusetts  to  the  general 
congress.  He  was  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the  convention  that 
drafted  the  constitution  of  his  native  state.  Under  the  government  that 
was  organized  he  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and  held  this  office  till 
1790,  when  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court.  He  remained 
on  the  bench  till  1804.  He  died  at  Boston,  in  1814.  His  legal  attainments 
and  his  general  acquirements  were  extensive,  and  he  was  a  man  of  much 
brilliancy  of  wit. 

PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  a  poet,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Taunton,  in  1773,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1792.  On  leaving 
college  he  was  placed  in  a  counting-house,  but  soon  turned  his  attention 
to  literature  and  theatricals,  and  published  several  orations  and  poems. 
His  poems  were  very  popular  and  profitable,  and  by  the  sale  of  the  song 
of  Adams  and  Liberty,  he  received  the  sum  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars.  In  1800,  he  began  the  practice  of  law,  but  failed  of  success  from 
the  want  of  industry,  and  passed  the  close  of  his  life  in  poverty.  He  died 
in  1811.  His  works  have  been  collected  and  published  in  one  volume 
8vo,  prefaced  by  a  biographical  sketch. 

PARKER,  Isaac,  an  eminent  lawyer,  was  born  in  Bo^on,  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1786.  He  studied  law  in  the  office  of  judge  Tudor, 
and  commenced  practice  at  Castine,  in  Maine,  then  an  integral  part  of 
Massachusetts.  Removing  to  Portland,  he  was  sent  for  one  term  to 
congress  as  a  representative  from  Cumberland  county.  He  also  held  for 
a  short  time  the  office  of  United  States'  marshal  for  that  district.  In  1806, 
he  was  appointed  by  governor  Strong  associate  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Massachusetts,  and  soon  after  took  up  his  residence  at  Boston.  In 
1814,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  and  held  that 
office  till  his  sudden  death,  in  July,  1830,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three  years. 
He  was  distinguished  for  urbanity,  and  his  legal  opinions  are  very  highly 
respected. 

6S 


538  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PARSONS,  Theophilus,  a  distinguished  lawyer,  was  born  at  Byefield, 
Massachusetts,  in  1750,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in  1769.  He 
studied,  and  pursued  the  practice  of  the  law,  for  some  years,  in  Falmouth , 
now  Portland  ;  but  when  that  town  was  destroyed  by  the  British,  he  retired 
to  the  house  of  his  father  in  Newbury.  About  a  year  afterwards  he  opened 
an  office  in  Newburyport.  He  soon  rose  to  the  highest  rank  in  his  pro- 
fession, and  made  immense  acquisitions  in  legal  knowledge.  His  profes- 
sional services  were  sought  for  in  all  directions,  and  after  thirty-five  years 
of  extensive  practice,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Massachusetts.  In  1780,  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
formed  the  constitution  of  the  state,  and  of  the  convention  which  accepted 
the  federal  constitution.  He  was  a  powerful  speaker,  without  a  rival  in 
knowledge  of  law,  and  surpassed  by  few  in  his  acquaintance  with  science 
and  classical  literature.  He  continued  in  the  seat  of  chief  justice  till  his 
death,  in  1813. 

PENN,  William,  the  founder  and  legislator  of  Pennsylvania,  whom 
Montesquieu  denominates  the  modern  Lycurgus,  was  the  son  of  admiral 
Penn  ;  was  born,  in  1644,  in  London  ;  and  was  educated  at  Christ  church, 
Oxford.  At  college  he  imbibed  the  principles  of  Quakerism,  which,  a  few 
years  afterwards  he  publicly  professed.  He  was,  in  consequence,  twice 
turned  out  of  doors  by  his  father.  In  1668,  he  began  to  preach  in  public, 
and  to  write  in  defence  of  the  doctrines  which  he  had  embraced.  For  this 
he  was  thrice  imprisoned,  and  once  brought  to  trial.  It  was  during  his 
first  imprisonment  that  he  wrote  No  Cross,  No  Crown.  In  1677,  he  visited 
Holland  and  Germany,  to  propagate  Quakerism.  In  March,  1680-81,  he 
obtained  from  Charles  II.  a  grant  of  that  territory  which  now  bears  the 
name  of  Pennsylvania ;  in  1682,  he  embarked  for  his  new  colony ;  and 
in  the  following  year  he  founded  Philadelphia.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1684.  So  much  was  he  in  favor  with  James  II.,  that,  after  the  revolu- 
tion, he  was  more  than  once  arrested  on  suspicion  of  plotting  to  restore 
the  exiled  monarch  ;  but  he  at  length  succeeded  in  establishing  his  inno- 
cence. The  rest  of  his  life  was  passed  in  tranquillity.  He  died  July  30, 
1718.     His  works  have  been  collected  in  two  folio  volumes. 

PERRY,  Oliver  Hazard,  a  naval  officer  of  distinction,  was  born  at 
Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  August,  1785.  He  entered  the  navy  of  the 
United  States  as  a  midshipman,  and  in  1812,  was  advanced  to  the  office 
of  master  commandant.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  squadron  on  lake  Erie.  On  the  tenth  of  September,  he 
achieved  a  complete  victory  over  the  enemy  under  commodore  Barclay, 
after  an  action  of  three  hours,  and  captured  the  whole  squadron.  He 
commanded  the  Java  in  the  expedition  to  the  Mediterranean,  under  com- 
modore Decatur.     He  died  in  the  West  Indies,  in  1820. 

PETERS,  Richard,  an  eminent  judge,  was  born  in  June,  1744,  and 
received  his  education  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  He  adopted  the  pro- 
fession of  the  law,  and  soon  obtained  an  extensive  practice.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  hostilities  with  the  mother  country,  Mr.  Peters  joined  the 
side  of  the  colonies,  and  in  1776,  was  appointed  by  congress  secretary  of 
the  board  of  war.  His  exertions  in  this  department  were  highly  meri- 
torious and  useful,  and  on  resigning  the  post,  in  1781,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  congress,  and  assisted  in  closing  the  business  of  the  war.  On 
the  organization  of  the  new  government,  Mr.  Peters  was  appointed  judge 


BIOGRAPHY.  539 

of  the  district  court  of  Pennsylvania,  and  performed  the  duties  of  this 
office  for  thirty-six  years.  During  this  time  he  was  engaged  in  several 
objects  of  public  improvement,  and  issued  several  valuable  publications  in 
relation  to  agriculture.  As  a  judge,  he  possessed  powers  of  a  high  order, 
and  his  decisions  on  admiralty  law  form  the  ground  work  of  this  branch 
of  our  jurisprudence.  Their  principles  were  not  only  sanctioned  by  our 
own  courts,  but  were  simultaneously  adopted  by  lord  Stowell,  the  distin- 
guished maritime  judge  of  Great  Britain.  Judge  Peters  died  in  August, 
1828. 

PICKERING,  Timothy,  a  statesman,  was  born  in  Salem,  in  1746,  and 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in  1763.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  popular  cause,  and,  in  organizing  the  provisional  government  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1775,  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
for  Essex,  and  sole  judge  of  the  maritime  court  for  the  middle  district. 
During  the  war,  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general,  and  subsequently  a 
member  of  the  board  of  war.  From  1790  to  1798,  at  different  intervals, 
he  was  employed  on  various  negotiations  with  the  Indians.  He  was  suc- 
cessively postmaster-general,  secretary  of  war,  and  secretary  of  state. 
From  the  last  office  he  was  removed  by  president  Adams,  in  1800.  From 
1803  to  1811,  he  was  a  senator  in  congress  from  his  native  state,  and 
fiom  1814  to  1817,  a  representative  in  that  body.  In  public  life  he  was 
distinguished  for  firmness,  energy,  activity  and  disinterestedness.  He 
died  in  Salem,  in  1829. 

PIKE,  Zebulon  Montgomery,  brigadier-general,  was  born  at  Lamber- 
ton,  New  Jersey,  on  the  fifth  of  January,  1779.  After  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana,  he  was  appointed  by  Mr.  Jefferson,  in  1805,  to  explore  the 
sources  of  the  Mississippi.  On  his  return,  he  was  sent  on  a  similar 
expedition  to  the  interior  of  Louisiana,  and  on  the  Rio  del  Norte  was 
seized  by  a  Spanish  force,  and  deprived  of  his  papers.  He  returned  in 
1807.  During  the  late  war,  he  was  made  brigadier-general,  and  com- 
manded the  land  forces  in  the  attack  upon  York,  in  Upper  Canada,  on  the 
twenty-seventh  of  April,  1813.  In  the  explosion  of  the  British  magazine, 
he  was  struck  by  a  large  stone,  and  died  in  a  few  hours.  When  the 
British  standard  was  brought  to  him,  he  caused  it  to  be  placed  under  his 
head,  and  thus  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-four. 

PINCKNEY,  Charles  Cotesworth,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the 
revolutionary  army,  was  born  in  South  Carolina,  received  his  education 
in  England,  and  studied  law  in  the  Temple.  On  returning  to  his  native 
province,  in  1769,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  successful  practice  of  his 
profession.  On  the  commencement  of  hostilities,  he  renounced  law  for 
the  study  of  military  tactics,  and  was  soon  promoted  to  the  command  of 
the  first  regiment  of  Carolina  infantry.  He  was  subsequently  aid-de- 
camp to  Washington,  and  in  this  capacity  at  the  battles  of  Brandywine 
and  Germantown.  On  the  surrender  of  Charleston,  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  remained  so  till  all  opportunity  of  gaining  fresh  reputation  in  the  field 
had  passed.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  formed  the  fed- 
eral constitution,  and  in  1796  was  appointed  minister  to  France.  When 
preparations  were  making  for  war  on  account  of  the  expected  French 
invasion,  Mr.  Pinckney  was  nominated  a  major-general,  but  he  soon  had 
an  opportunity  of  retiring  to  the  quiet  of  private  life.  He  was  afterwards 
president  of  the  Cincinnati  society  of  the  United  States.     He  died  in  1825. 


540  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PINKNEY,  William,  an  eloquent  lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born  in 
Maryland,  in  1764,  and  prepared  himself  for  the  bar,  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  judge  Chase.  He  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1786,  and  soon 
gave  indications  of  possessing  superior  powers.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  of  Maryland,  which  ratified  the  federal  constitution.  In  1796, 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  under  the  British  treaty.  The 
state  of  Maryland  also  employed  him  to  procure  a  settlement  of  its  claims 
on  the  bank  of  England,  and  he  recovered  for  it  the  sum  of  eight  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars.  This  detained  him  in  England  till  the  year  1804, 
when  he  returned  and  resumed  his  professional  labors.  In  1806,  he  was 
sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  to  London,  and  in  1808,  received  the  authori- 
ty of  minister  plenipotentiary.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1811, 
and  soon  after  was  appointed  attorney-general.  This  office  he  held  till 
1814.  During  the  incursion  of  the  British  into  Maryland,  he  command- 
ed a  battalion,  and  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Bladensburgh,  in  August, 
1814.  He  was  afterwards  representative  in  congress,  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  Russia,  envoy  to  Naples,  and  in  1819,  senator  in  congress.  In 
the  last  office  he  continued  till  his  death,  in  1822. 

PINKNEY,  Edward  Coate,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in  London, 
in  1802,  passed  his  infancy  in  England,  and  was  placed  as  a  student  in 
Baltimore  college  at  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven.  He  entered  the  navy  as  a 
midshipman,  and  continued  in  the  service  for  several  years.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  quitted  the  navy  and  devoted  himself  to  the  practice  of 
the  law.  He  published,  in  1825,  a  volume  of  poems,  which  possess  much 
beauty.     He  died  in  1828. 

PREBLE,  Edward,  a  distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  at  Falmouth, 
in  Maine,  in  1761,  and  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman,  in  1779.  He 
soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and  during  the  revolutionary  war 
distinguished  himself  by  capturing  a  British  vessel  at  Penobscot.  In 
1798,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  brig  Pickering,  and  soon 
after  to  the  Essex.  He  commanded,  in  1803,  a  fleet  sent  against  the 
Barbary  powers,  and  repeatedly  attacked  Tripoli  with  considerable  success. 
In  1804,  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  died  in  1807. 

PUTNAM,  Israel,  an  officer  in  the  army  of  the  revolution,  was  born 
in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  1718.  He  received  but  a  meagre  education,  and 
removing  to  Connecticut,  engaged  in  agriculture.  In  the  French  war  he 
commanded  a  company,  and  was  engaged  in  several  contests  -with  the 
enemy.  In  1756,  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  savages,  and  was  exposed 
to  the  most  cruel  tortures.  He  obtained  his  release  in  1759,  and  returned 
to  his  farm.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Lexington  he  joined  the  army  at 
Cambridge,  was  appointed  major-general,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Bunker's  hill.  In  1776,  he  was  sent  to  complete  the  fortifications  at  New 
York,  and  afterwards  to  fortify  Philadelphia.  In  the  winter  of  1777,  he 
was  stationed  with  a  small  body  at  Princeton,  and  in  the  spring  appointed 
to  a  command  in  the  Highlands,  where  he  remained  most  of  the  time  till 
the  close  of  1779,  when  he  was  disabled  by  an  attack  of  paralysis.  He 
died  in  1790.  He  was  brave,  energetic,  and  one  of  the  most  efficient  offi- 
cers of  the  revolution. 

QUINCY,  Josiah,  a  distinguished  lawyer  and  patriot,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, in  1743,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college.  He  soon  became 
eminent  in  the  practice  of  law,  and  distinguished  by  his  active  exertions 


BIOGRAPHY.  541 

in  the  popular  cause.  His  powers  of  eloquence  were  of  a  very  high  order. 
In  1774,  he  took  a  voyage  to  Europe  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  and  to 
advance  the  interests  of  the  colonies.  He  died  on  his  return,  on  the  25th 
of  April,  1775,  the  day  the  vessel  reached  the  harbor  of  cape  Ann. 

RAMSAY,  David,  an  historian,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1749, 
was  educated  at  Princeton  college,  and  commenced  the  study  of  medicine. 
After  practising  a  short  time  in  Maryland,  he  removed  to  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  in  1773,  and  soon  rose  to  an  extensive  practice.  He  took 
an  active  and  early  part  in  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  and  was  for  some 
time  a  surgeon  in  the  revolutionary  army.  In  1782,  he  was  chosen  to  a 
seat  in  congress.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Revolution  in  South  Caroli- 
na ;  a  History  of  the  American  Revolution  ;  a  Life  of  Washington ;  a 
History  of  South  Carolina ;  and  a  History  of  the  United  States.  He  died 
in  181*5. 

RANDOLPH,  Edmund,  governor  of  Virginia,  was  educated  to  the  law. 
After  seeing  a  little  military  service  in  the  suite  of  Washington,  he  applied 
himself  to  his  professional  pursuits.  He  succeeded  Patrick  Henry  to 
the  gubernatorial  chair  of  Virginia,  and  occupied  it  from  1786  to  1788.  In 
1790,  he  received  from  Washington  the  appointment  of  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States ;  and  in  1794,  he  succeeded  Mr.  Jefferson  as  secretary 
of  state.  In  consequence  of  some  difficulties  with  the  administration,  he 
resigned  in  August,  1795.  He  died  in  Frederic  county,  Virginia,  in 
September,  1813. 

REED,  Joseph,  a  patriot  of  the  revolution,  was  graduated  at  the  college 
in  New  Jersey,  in  1757.  While  a  member  of  congress,  in  1778,  the 
British  commissioner  endeavored  to  procure  his  influence  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  between  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country ;  he  rejected 
their  offers  with  the  reply, — 4  That  he  was  not  worth  purchasing ;  but 
such  as  he  was,  the  king  of  Great  Britain  was  not  rich  enough  to  buy 
him.'  In  1778,  he  was  chosen  president  of  Pennsylvania,  and  retained 
that  office  till  his  death,  in  1781. 

REEVE,  Tapping,  an  eminent  lawyer,  was  born  at  Brook-Haven,  in 
1744,  and  was  graduated  at  Princeton  college.  He  established  himself  as 
a  lawyer  in  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  where  he  founded  the  law  school,  of 
which,  for  nearly  thirty  years,  he  was  the  principal  instructer.  He  was 
for  many  years  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  that  state,  and  some  time 
chief  justice.  His  legal  attainments  were  of  a  high  order,  and  as  a  man 
he  possessed  the  esteem  and  respect  of  the  community. 

RITTENHOUSE,  David,  a  celebrated  mathematician,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  1732.  During  his  early  life  he  was  employed  in  agri- 
culture, but  as  his  constitution  was  feeble,  he  became  a  clock  and  mathe- 
matical instrument  maker.  In  1770,  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and 
practised  his  trade.  He  was  elected  a  member,  and  for  some  time  president 
of  the  Philosophical  society,  and  one  of  the  commissioners  employed  to 
determine  the  boundary  line  between  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  and 
between  New  York  and  Massachusetts.  He  was  treasurer  of  Pennsylvania 
from  1777  to  1789,  and  from  1792  to  1795,  director  of  the  United  States 
mint.  His  death  took  place  in  1796.  His  mathematical  talents  were  of 
the  highest  order. 

RUSH,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  physician,  was  born,  in  1745,  at  Bristol, 
in  Pennsylvania ;  was  educated  at  Princeton  college,  and  took  his  degree 

46 


042  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Jit  Edinburgh ;  was  chosen,  in  1776,  a  member  of  congress,  and  signed  the 
declaration  of  independence ;  was  professor  of  medicine  and  clinical  practice 
at  the  Pennsylvanian  university ;  and  died  in  1813.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  and  best  men  who  have  adorned  his  country.  Among  his  works 
are  Essays,  literary,  moral,  and  philosophical;  Medical  Inquiries  and 
Observations  ;  and  a  History  of  the  Yellow  Fever. 

RUTLEDGE,  Edward,  an  eminent  lawyer,  and  a  signer  of  the  declara- 
tion of  independence,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1749. 
His  legal  education  was  completed  in  England,  and  in  1773  he  returned 
to  his  native  country,  and  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  profession.  In 
1774,  he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  the  congress  at  Philadelphia,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  discussions  of  the  day.  After  a  successful 
practice  of  his  profession  for  seventeen  years,  in  1798  he  relinquished  his 
station  at  the  bar,  and  was  elected  chief  magistrate  of  South  Carolina. 
He  died  in  1800. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  Arthur,  born  at  Edinburgh,  was  a  lieutenant  under 
general  Wolfe,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  and  became  a 
naturalized  citizen.  On  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  he  embraced 
the  cause  of  the  American  army,  and  in  February,  1777,  was  appointed 
major-general.  He  served  with  distinction,  and  in  1783,  was  elected 
president  of  the  Cincinnati  society  of  his  adopted  state.  In  1785,  he  was 
elected  a  delegate  to  congress,  and  in  1787,  was  chosen  president  of  that 
body.  He  Was  afterwards  governor  of  the  North-west  territory,  and  in 
1790,  commanded  an  army  against  the  Miami  Indians.  He  resigned  his 
commission  of  major-general  in  1792.  His  latter  years  were  passed  in 
poverty.     He  died  in  1818. 

SANDS,  Robert  C,  a  man  of  letters,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  on  the  eleventh  of  May,  1799.  He  was  graduated  at  Columbia 
college,  in  1815,  and  soon  after  commenced  the  study  of  law,  in  the  office 
of  David  B.  Ogden,  a  distinguished  advocate  of  New  York.  In  1817,  he 
published  the  Bridal  of  Vaumond,  an  irregular  metrical  romance,  after  the 
fashion  which  Scott  had  made  so  popular.  Subsequently,  in  conjunction 
With  his  friend  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Eastburn,  he  wrote  the  poem  Yamoyden, 
which  appeared  in  New  York  in  1820,  and  acquired  for  the  authors  a 
high  reputation.  In  the  same  year  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  opened 
an  office  in  the  city  of  New  York.  In  1822  and  1823,  he  wrote  many- 
articles  for  the  Literary  Review,  a  monthly  periodical,  then  published  in 
New  York,  which  received  great  increase  of  reputation  from  his  contribu- 
tions. Shortly  after  this  he  was  engaged  in  a  burlesque  publication, 
entitled  the  St.  Tammany  Magazine.  In  May,  1824,  the  Atlantic  Maga- 
zine was  established  in  New  York,  and  placed  under  his  care;  at  the  end 
of  six  months  he  gave  up  this  work,  but  subsequently  resumed  its 
charge,  when  it  changed  its  name  and  character,  and  appeared  as  the  New 
York  Review.  During  the  same  period,  he  assisted  in  .editing  various 
compilations  on  legal  subjects.  Having  now  become  an  author  by  pro- 
fession, and  looking  to  his  pen  for  support,  he  became  the  assistant  editor 
of  the  New  York  Commercial  Advertiser,  and  remained  in  this  situation 
to  the  close  of  his  life.  While  engaged  in  the  laborious  and  incessant 
'duties  of  a  daily  journal,  Mr.  Sands  prosecuted  various  other  literary  un- 
dertakings with  much  success.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to 
Uie  Talisman*  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  friends  Bryant  and  Ver- 


BIOGRAPHY.  543 

planck.  He  edited  a  new  Life  of  Paul  Jones,  and  wrote  two  stories  in  the 
Tales  of  Glauber  Spa.  His  death  occurred  suddenly, in  the  thirty-fourth 
year  of  his  age.  His  collected  works  have  been  recently  published,  in 
two  volumes  octavo. 

SCHUYLER,  Philip,  an  officer  in  the  revolutionary  army,  was  appoint- 
ed major-general  in  1775,  and  was  dispatched  to  the  fortifications  in  the 
north  of  New  York,  to  prepare  for  the  invasion  of  Canada.  He  afterwards 
fell  under  some  suspicion,  and  was  superseded  in  the  chief  command  by 
general  Gates.  He  was  a  member  of  congress  before  the  adoption  of  the 
present  constitution,  and  afterwards  twice  a  senator.  He  died  in  1804,  in 
the  seventy-third  year  of  his  age. 

SEDGWICK,  Theodore,  was  born  at  Hartford,  in  1746,  was  educated 
at  Yale  college,  and  removing  to  Massachusetts,  pursued  the  study  of  the 
law.  He  embarked  with  spirit  in  the  cause  of  the  popular  party  before 
the  revolution,  held  a  seat  several  years  in  the  state  legislature,  and  was 
a  member  of  congress  under  the  old  confederation.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  convention  to  decide  on  the  adoption  of  the  federal  con- 
stitution, was  a  representative  and  senator  to  congress,  and  in  1802  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  supreme  judicial  court  of  Massachusetts.  In  this 
office  he  remained  till  his  death,  in  1813. 

SEWALL,  Samuel,  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Boston, 
in  1757,  and,  after  graduating  at  Harvard  college,  entered  on  the  profession 
of  the  law.  He  soon  became  eminent ;  in  1797,  was  elected  a  member  of 
congress,  and  in  1800,  was  placed  on  the  bench  of  the  supreme  judicial 
court.  In  1813,  he  wTas  appointed  chief  justice,  but  died  suddenly  in  the 
following  year.  He  was  a  lawyer  of  ability  and  learning,  and  highly 
popular. 

SHERMAN,  Roger,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence,  was 
born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1721,  and  with  only  a  common  school 
education,  rose  to  distinction  as  a  lawyer  and  statesman.  His  early  life 
was  passed  in  the  occupation  of  a  shoemaker.  Removing  to  Connecticut, 
in  1743,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1754,  and  soon  became  distinguish- 
ed as  a  counsellor.  In  1761,  he  removed  to  New  Haven,  four  years  after 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  county  court,  and  in  1776,  advanced  to  the 
bench  of  the  superior  court.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  celebrated  congress 
of  1774,  and  was  a  member  of  that  body  for  the  space  of  nineteen  years. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  formed  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States.     He  died  in  1793. 

SHIPPEN,  William,  an  eminent  physician,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  was  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1754.  His  medical  studies 
were  completed  at  Edinburgh,  and  on  his  return,  in  1764,  he  began  at 
Philadelphia  the  first  course  of  lectures  on  anatomy  ever  delivered  in  the 
country.  He  assisted  in  establishing  the  medical  school  of  that  city,  and 
was  appointed  one  of  its  professors.  In  1777,  he  was  appointed  director 
general  of  the  medical  department  in  the  army.     He  died  in  1808. 

SMITH,  John,  one  of  the  early  settlers  of  Virginia,  was  born  in  Lin- 
colnshire, in  1579.  After  passing  through  a  variety  of  wonderful  adven- 
tures, he  resolved  to  visit  North  America ;  and  having,  with  a  number  of 
other  persons,  procured  a  charter  of  South  Virginia,  he  came  over  thither 
in  1607.  Being  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians,  and  condemned  to  death, 
his  life  was  saved  by  the  daughter  of  the  savage  chief,  the  celebrated 


544  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Pocahontas.  He  published  an  account  of  several  of  his  voyages  to  Vir- 
ginia, a  history  of  that  colony,  and  an  account  of  his  own  life.  He  died 
at  London,  in  1631. 

SMITH,  James,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence,  was  a 
native  of  Ireland,  removed  with  his  father  to  this  country  at  an  early  age, 
and  established  himself  in  the  practice  of  law  at  York,  in  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  a  delegate  from  York  county  to  the  continental  congress.  His 
death  took  place  in  1806. 

STANDISH,  Miles,  the  first  captain  at  Plymouth,  New  England,  was 
born  at  Lancashire,  in  1584,  and  accompanied  Mr.  Robinson's  congrega- 
tion to  Plymouth,  in  1620.  His  services  in  the  wars  with  the  Indians 
were  highly  useful,  and  many  of  his  exploits  were  daring  and  extraordi- 
nary.    He  died  in  1656. 

STARK,  John,  a  general  in  the  army  of  the  revolution,  was  born  in 
Londonderry,  New  Hampshire,  in  1728.  -During  the  French  war,  he  was 
captain  of  a  company  of  rangers  in  the  provincial  service,  in  1755,  and 
was  with  lord  Howe  when  that  general  was  killed,  in  storming  the  French 
lines  at  Ticonderoga,  in  1758.  On  receiving  the  report  of  the  battle  of 
Lexington,  he  was  engaged  at  work  in  his  saw-mill ;  and,  fired  with  in- 
dignation, seized  his  musket,  and  immediately  proceeded  to  Cambridge. 
He  was  at  the  battles  of  Bunker's  hill  and  of  Trenton,  and  achieved  a 
glorious  victory  at  Bennington.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general, 
and  was  distinguished  throughout  the  war  for  enterprise  and  courage.  He 
died  in  1822. 

STEUBEN,  Feederick  William  Augustus,  Baron  de,  was  a  Prussian 
officer,  aid-de-camp  to  Frederick  the  Great,  and  lieutenant-general  in  the 
army  of  that  distinguished  commander.  He  arrived  in  America  in  1777, 
and  immediately  offered  his  services  to  the  continental  congress.  In  1778, 
he  was  appointed  inspector  general,  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
rendered  the  most  efficient  services  in  the  establishment  of  a  regular  sys- 
tem of  discipline.  During  the  war  he  wras  exceedingly  active  and  useful, 
and  after  the  peace  he  retired  to  a  farm  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York, 
where,  with  the  assistance  of  books  and  friends,  he  passed  his  time  as 
agreeably  as  a  frequent  want  of  funds  would  permit.  The  state  of  New 
York  afterwards  gave  him  a  tract  of  sixteen  thousand  acres  in  the  county 
of  Oneida,  and  the  general  government  made  him  a  grant  of  two  thousand 
five  hundred  dollars  per  annum.  He  died  in  1795,  and  at  his  own  request 
was  wrapped  in  his  cloak,  placed  in  a  plain  coffin,  and  hid  in  the  earth, 
without  a  stone  to  tell  where  he  was  laid. 

STRONG,  Caleb,  governor  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Northampton, 
in  1744,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  college.  He  pursued  the  profession  of 
the  law,  and  established  himself  in  his  native  town.  Taking  an  early  and 
active  part  in  the  revolutionary  movements,  he  was  appointed,  in  1775,  one 
of  the  committee  of  safety,  and  in  the  following  year  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  formed  the  con- 
stitution of  the  state,  and  of  that  which  formed  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States.  Subsequently  he  was  senator  to  congress,  and  for  eleven 
years,  at  different  periods,  chief  magistrate  of  Massachusetts.  He  died  in 
1820. 

STUART,  Gilbert,  a  celebrated  painter,  was  born  in  Newport,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1755.     Soon  after  becoming  of  age,  he  went  to  England,  where 


BIOGRAPHY.  545 

he  became  the  pupil  of  Mr.  West.  He  soon  rose  to  eminence&s  a  portrait 
painter,  and  obtained  a  high  reputation  both  in  England  and  Ireland.  In 
1794,  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  chiefly  residing  in  Philadelphia 
and  Washington,  in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  till  about  the  year  1801, 
when  he  removed  to  Boston.  Here  he  remained  till  his  death,  in  1828. 
Mr.  Stuart  was  not  only  one  of  the  first  painters  of  his  time,  but  was  also 
a  very  extraordinary  man  out  of  his  profession. 

SULLIVAN,  John,  an  officer  in  the  army  of  the  revolution,  was  born 
in  Maine,  and  established  himself  in  the  profession  of  law  in  New  Hamp- 
shire. Turning  his  attention  to  military  affairs,  he  received,  in  1772,  the 
commission  of  major,  and,  in  1775,  that  of  brigadier-general.  The  next 
year  he  was  sent  to  Canada,  and  on  the  death  of  general  Thomas,  the 
command  of  the  army  devolved  on  him.  In  this  year  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  major-general,  and  was  soon  after  captured  by  the  British,  in 
the  battle  on  Long  island.  He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  at  the 
battles  of  Trenton,  Brandywine,  and  Germantown  ;  and  was  the  sole  com- 
mander of  an  expedition  to  the  island  of  Newport,  which  failed  through 
want  of  co-operation  from  the  French  fleet.  In  1779,  he  commanded  an 
expedition  against  the  Indians.  He  was  afterwards  a  member  of  congress, 
and  for  three  years  president  of  New  Hampshire.  In  1789,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  judge  of  the  district  court,  and  continued  in  that  office  till  his 
death,  in  1795. 

SULLIVAN,  James,  was  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1744,  and  after 
passing  the  early  part  of  his  life  in  agricultural  pursuits,  adopted  the  pro- 
fession of  the  law.  He  took  an  early  part  in  the  revolutionary  struggle, 
and  in  1775,  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  provincial  congress.  In  1776, 
he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court.  He  was  subsequently 
a  member  of  congress,  a  member  of  the  executive  council,  judge  of  probate, 
and  in  1790,  was  appointed  attorney-general.  In  1807,  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  again  in  the  following  year,  in  the  De- 
cember of  which  he  died.  He  was  the  author  of  a  History  of  Land  Titles, 
a  History  of  the  District  of  Maine,  and  an  Essay  on  Banks.  His  rank  at 
the  bar  was  in  the  very  first  class,  and  in  his  private  character  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  piety,  patriotism,  and  integrity. 

THOMAS,  Isaiah,  a  distinguished  printer,  was  born  in  Boston,  in  1749, 
and  at  a  very  early  age  was  bound  apprentice  to  the  craft,  in  which  he 
afterwards  became  so  famous.  In  1770,  he  published  the  Massachusetts 
Spy  in  Boston.  Five  years  afterwards  he  was  obliged  to  remove  it  to 
Worcester.  He  afterwards  entered  extensively  into  the  publishing  and 
bookselling  business,  having  at  one  time  sixteen  presses  in  operation,  and 
eight  bookstores  at  different  places.  He  was  the  founder  and  president  of 
the  American  Antiquarian  society,  and  the  author  of  a  valuable  History 
of  Printing.     He  died  in  1831. 

THORNTON,  Matthew,  was  born  in  Ireland,  in  1714,  and  when 
about  two  or  three  years  old  his  father  emigrated  to  America,  and  finally 
eettled  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  Young  Thornton  pursued  the  study 
of  medicine,  and  commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Londonderry, 
New  Hampshire.  In  1776,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
congress,  and  affixed  his  name  to  the  declaration  of  independence.  He 
was  afterwards  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and  judge  of 
the  superior  court  of  his  adopted  state.  He  died  in  1803. 
69  46* 


546  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

TILGHMAN,  William,  an  eminent  jurist,  was  born,  in  1756,  in  Talbot 
count)',  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland.  In  1772,  he  began  the  study 
of  law  in  Philadelphia,  but  was  not  admitted  to  the  practice  of  the  profes- 
sion till  1783.  In  178S,  and  for  some  successive  years,  he  was  elected  a 
representative  to  the  legislature  of  Maryland.  In  1793,  he  returned  to 
Philadelphia,  and  pursued  the  practice  of  the  law  in  that  eity  till  1801, 
when  he  was  appointed  chief  judge  of  the  circuit  court  of  the  United 
States  for  the  third  circuit.  After  the  abolition  of  this  court,  he  resumed 
his  profession,  and  continued  it  till  1805,  when  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  courts  of  common  pleas  in  the  first  district  of  Pennsylvania.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  commissioned  as  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  that  state.     He  died  in  1827. 

TOMPKINS,  Daniel  D.,  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  June,  1774,  graduated  at  Columbia  college,  in  1795,  and  settled 
in  New  York  in  the  profession  of  the  law.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  party  struggles  of  1799 — 1801,  and  in  1807  was  elected  governor  of 
the  state.  During  the  late  war,  he  was  active  and  efficient  in  the  cause 
of  the  administration  and  the  dominant  party.  In  1817,  he  was  elected 
vice-president.     He  died  at  Staten  island,  in  June,  1825. 

TRUMBULL,  John,  the  author  of  McFingal,  was  born  in  Connecticut, 
in  1750,  and  was  educated  at  Yale  college,  where  he  entered  at  a  very 
early  age.  In  1772,  he  published  the  first  part  of  his  poem,  The  Progress 
of  Dullness.  In  the  following  year,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Con- 
necticut, and,  removing  to  Boston,  continued  his  legal  studies  in  the  office 
of  John  Adams.  He  returned  to  his  native  state  in  1774,  and  commenced 
practice  at  New  Haven.  The  first  part  of  McFingal  was  published  at 
Philadelphia,  in  1775 ;  the  poem  was  completed  and  published  in  1782, 
at  Hartford,  where  the  author  at  that  time  lived.  More  than  thirty  editions 
of  this  work  have  been  printed.  In  1789,  he  was  appointed  state  attorney 
for  the  county  of  Hartford,  and  in  1801,  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  su- 
perior court  of  errors,  and  held  this  appointment  till  1819.  In  1820,  a 
collection  of  his  poems  was  published  in  two  volumes  8vo.  In  1825,  he 
removed  to  Detroit,  where  he  died,  in  May,  1831. 

TRUXTON,  Thomas,  a  naval  officer,  was  born  on  Long  island,  in  1755. 
In  1775,  he  commanded  a  vessel,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  depre- 
dations on  British  commerce  during  the  revolution.  He  subsequently 
engaged  in  commerce,  till  the  year  1794,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the 
frigate  Constitution.  In  1799,  he  captured  the  French  frigate  L'lnsur- 
gente;  and  in  the  following  year  he  obtained  a  victory  over  the  La  Ven- 
geance. On  the  close  of  the  French  war  he  retired  from  the  navy,  and 
died  at  Philadelphia,  in  1822. 

TUDOR,  William,  a  man  of  letters,  was  born  in  the  state  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1796.  He  soon  after  visit- 
ed Europe,  and  passed  several  years  there.  After  having  been  some  time 
a  member  of  the  legislature  of  his  native  state,  he  was  appointed,  in  1823, 
consul  at  Lima,  and  for  the  ports  of  Peru.  In  1827,  he  was  appointed 
charge  d'affaires  of  the  United  States  at  the  court  of  Brazil.  He  died  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  1830.  Mr.  Tudor  was  the  founder,  and  for  two  years 
the  sole  editor  of  the  North  American  Review.  He  was  the  author  of 
Letters  on  the  Eastern  States,  and  a  Life  of  James  Otis,  and  left  a  numbef 
of  volumes  in  manuscript,  nearly  prepared  for  the  press. 


BIOGRAPHY.  &4T 

TYLER,  Royal,  a  lawyer  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, and  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in  1776.  In  1790,  he  removed  his 
residence  to  Vermont,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  in  his  profession  of 
law.  For  six  years  he  was  an  associate  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
that  state,  and  for  six  years  more  chief  justice.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  dramatic  pieces  of  considerable  merit ;  a  novel  called  The  Alge- 
rine  Captive  ;  and  numerous  pieces  in  prose  and  verse  published  in  the 
Farmer's  Museum,  when  edited  by  Dennie.  In  addition  to  these,  he  pub- 
lished two  volumes,  entitled  Vermont  Reports.  He  died  at  Brattleboro', 
in  1825. 

WALN,  Robert,  a  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  and 
was  liberally  educated,  but  adopted  no  profession.  He  was  the  author  of 
The  Hermit  in  Philadelphia,  a  satire ;  The  American  Bards,  a  satire ; 
Sisyphi  Opus,  or  Touches  at  the  Times;  a  History  of  China;  some  of 
the  lives  in  the  Biography  of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence ;  a  Life  of  Lafayette ;  and  an  account  of  the  Quaker  hospital  at 
Frankford,  near  Philadelphia.     He  died  in  1S24,  at  the  age  of  thirty-one. 

WARREN,  Joseph,  a  patriot  of  the  revolution,  was  born  in  Roxbury, 
near  Boston,  in  1741,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  in  1759. 
He  pursued  the  profession  of  medicine,  and  soon  after  commencing  the 
practice,  distinguished  himself  by  his  successful  treatment  of  the  small 
pox.  Early  engaging  in  politics,  he  obtained  great  influence,  and  rendered 
efficient  service  by  his  writings  and  addresses.  He  was  twice  elected  to 
deliver  the  oration  in  commemoration  of  the  massacre  on  the  fifth  of  March. 
In  June,  1775,  the  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts,  of  which  he  was 
at  this  time  president,  made  him  a  major-general  of  their  forces.  At  the 
battle  of  Bunker's  hill  he  fought  as  a  volunteer,  and  was  slain  within  a  few 

Sards  of  the  breast-work,  as  he  was  among  the  last  slowly  retiring  from  it. 
[e  was  a  man  of  the  most  generous  and  intrepid  spirit,  much  elegance  of 
manners,  and  of  commanding  eloquence.  His  loss  was  deeply  felt  and 
regretted.  In  1776,  his  remains  were  removed  from  the  battle  ground, 
and  interred  in  Boston. 

WARREN,  James,  was  born  at  Plymouth,  in  1726,  and  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  college,  in  1745.  He  took  an  early  and  active  part  in  the 
cause  of  the  colonies  against  the  aggressions  of  the  mother  country,  was  a 
member  of  the  general  court,  proposed  the  establishment  of  committees  of 
correspondence,  and,  after  the  death  of  general  Warren,  was  appointed 
president  of  the  provincial  congress.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  a 
major-general  of  the  militia.  On  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, he  was  for  manv  years  speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives. 
He  died  at  Plymouth,  in  1808. 

WASHINGTON,  George,  was  born  in  1732,  in  the  county  of  Fairfax, 
in  Virginia,  where  his  father  was  possessed  of  great  landed  property.  He 
was  educated  under  the  care  of  a  private  tutor,  and  paid  much  attention  to 
the  study  of  mathematics  and  engineering.  He  was  first  employed  officially 
by  general  Dinwiddie,  in  1753,  in  remonstrating  to  the  French  command- 
er on  the  Ohio,  for  the  infraction  of  the  treaty  between  the  two  nations. 
He  subsequently  negotiated  a  treaty  of  amity  with  the  Indians  on  the 
back  settlements,  and  for  his  honorable  services  received  the  thanks  of  the 
British  government.  In  the  unfortunate  expedition  of  general  Braddock, 
he  served  as  aid-de-camp ;  and  on  the  fall  of  that  brave  but  rash  command- 


548  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

er,  he  conducted  the  retreat  to  the  corps  under  colonel  Dunbar,  in  a  man- 
ner that  displayed  great  military  talent.  He  retired  from  the  service  with 
the  rank  of  colonel ;  but  while  engaged  in  agriculture  at  his  favorite  seat 
of  Mount  Vernon,  he  was  elected  senator  in  the  national  council  for  Fred- 
eric county,  and  afterwards  for  Fairfax.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
revolutionary  war,  he  was  selected  as  the  most  proper  person  to  take  the 
chief  command  of  the  provincial  troops.  From  the  moment  of  taking  upon 
himself  this  important  office,  in  June  1775,  he  employed  the  great  powers 
of  his  mind  to  his  favorite  object,  and  by  his  prudence,  his  valor,  and 
presence  of  mind,  he  deserved  and  obtained  the  confidence  and  gratitude 
of  his  country,  and  finally  triumphed  over  all  opposition.  The  record  of 
his  services  is  the  history  of  the  whole  war.  He  joined  the  army  at  Cam- 
bridge in  July,  1775.  On  the  evacuation  of  Boston,  in  March,  1776,  he 
proceeded  to  New  York.  The  battle  of  Long  island  was  fought  on  the 
27th  of  August,  and  the  battle  of  White  Plains  on  the  28th  of  October.  On 
the  25th  of  December  he  crossed  the  Delaware,  and  soon  gained  the  victo- 
ries at  Trenton  and  Princeton.  The  battle  of  Brandy  wine  was  fought  on 
September  11th,  1777;  of  Germantown,  October  4th;  of  Monmouth, 
February  28th,  1778.  In  1779  and  1780,  he  continued  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York,  and  closed  the  important  military  operations  of  the  war  by  the 
capture  of  Cornwallis,  at  Yorktown,  in  1781.  When  the  independence 
of  his  country  was  established  by  the  treaty  of  peace,  Washington  resigned 
his  high  office  to  the  congress,  and,  followed  by  the  applause  and  the 
grateful  admiration  of  his  fellow-citizens,  retired  into  private  life.  His 
high  character  and  services  naturally  entitled  him  to  the  highest  gifts  his 
country  could  bestow,  and  on  the  organization  of  the  government  he  was 
called  upon  to  be  the  first  president  of  the  states  which  he  had  preserved 
and  established.  It  was  a  period  of  great  difficulty  and  danger.  The 
unsubdued  spirit  of  liberty  had  been  roused  and  kindled  by  the  revolution 
of  France,  and  many  Americans  were  eager  that  the  freedom  and  equality 
which  they  themselves  enjoyed,  should  be  extended  to  the  subjects  of  the 
French  monarch.  Washington  anticipated  the  plans  of  the  factious,  and 
by  prudence  and  firmness  subdued  insurrection,  land  silenced  discontent, 
till  the  parties  which  the  intrigues  of  Genet,  the  French  envoy,  had  roused 
to  rebellion,  were  convinced  of  the  wildness  of  their  measures  and  of  the 
wisdom  of  their  governor.  The  president  completed,  in  1796,  the  business 
of  his  office,  by  signing  a  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  and  then 
voluntarily  resigned  his  power,  at  a  moment  when  all  hands  and  all  hearts 
were  united,  again  to  confer  upon  him  the  sovereignty  of  the  country. 
Restored  to  the  peaceful  retirement  of  Mount  Vernon,  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture  ;  and  though  he  accepted  the  command  of  the 
army  in  1798,  it  was  merely  to  unite  the  affections  of  his  fellow-citizens 
to  the  general  good,  and  was  one  more  sacrifice  to  his  high  sense  of  duty. 
He  died  after  a  short  illness,  on  the  14th  of  December,  1799.  He  was 
buried  with  the  honors  due  to  the  noble  founder  of  a  happy  and  prosperous 
republic.  History  furnishes  no  parallel  to  the  character  of  Washington. 
He  stands  on  an  unapproached  eminence  ;  distinguished  almost  beyond 
humanity  for  self-command,  intrepidity,  soundness  of  judgment,  rectitude 
of  purpose,  and  deep,  ever-active  piety. 

WASHINGTON,  Bushrod,  an  eminent  judge,  was  born  in  Westmore- 
land county,  Virginia,  and  was  educated  at  William  and  Mary's  college. 


BIOGRAPHY.  549 

He  pursued  the  study  of  the  law  in  the  office  of  Mr.  Wilson,  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  commenced  its  practice  with  great  success  in  his  native  county. 
In  1781,  he  was  a  member  of  the  house  of  delegates  of  Virginia.  He 
afterwards  removed  to  Alexandria,  and  thence  to  Richmond,  where  he  pub- 
lished two  volumes  of  the  decisions  of  the  supreme  court  of  Virginia.  In 
1798,  he  was  appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  and^  continued  to  hold  this  situation  till  his  death,  in  No- 
vember, 1829.  He  was  the  favorite  nephew  of  president  Washington,  and 
was  the  devisee  of  Mount  Vernon. 

WAYNE,  Anthony,  major-general,  was  born,  in  1745,  in  Chester 
county,  Pennsylvania.  He  entered  the  army  as  colonel,  in  1775,  served 
under  Gates  at  Ticonderoga,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  engaged  in  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  Germantown, 
and  Monmouth ;  in  1779,  captured  the  fortress  at  Stony  Point,  and  render- 
ed other  important  services  during  the  war.  In  1787,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Pennsylvanian  convention  which  ratified  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States.  In  1792,  he  succeeded  St.  Clair  in  the  command  of  the 
western  army,  and  gained  a  complete  victory  at  the  battle  of  the  Miamis, 
in  1794.     He  died  at  Presque  isle,  in  1796. 

WEST,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  painter,  was  born,  in  1738,  at  Springfield, 
near  Philadelphia,  of  Quaker  parents.  At  the  age  of  seven  years  he  began 
to  manifest  his  pictorial  talents,  by  sketching  with  pen  and  ink  an  infant 
sleeping  in  a  cradle.  From  some  Indians  he  obtained  red  and  yellow,  and 
his  mother  gave  him  a  piece  of  indigo ;  and  as  camel's  hair  pencils  were 
wanting,  he  supplied  the  want  by  clipping  the  fur  of  the  cat.  Improving 
as  he  advanced  in  years,  he  became  a  portrait  painter  of  considerable  re- 
pute, and  produced  some  meritorious  historical  pictures.  In  his  twenty- 
second  year  he  visited  Italy,  where  he  remained  for  some  time.  In  1763, 
he  settled  in  England,  where  he  soon  acquired  reputation.  Among  his 
patrons  was  archbishop  Drummond,  of  York,  by  whose  means  he  was  in- 
troduced to  George  the  Third,  who  immediately  gave  him  a  commission 
to  paint  the  Death  of  Regulus,  and  continued  ever  afterwards  to  employ 
him.  In  1791,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal  academy.  Among 
his  last,  and  perhaps  his  best  works,  are,  Death  on  the  Pale  Horse,  and 
Christ  healing  the  Sick.     He  died  March  18,  1820. 

WHITNEY,  Eli,  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin,  was  born  at  We s thorough, 
Massachusetts,  in  1765.  He  received  a  liberal  education,  and  displayed 
at  an  early  age  great  mechanical  genius.  While  a  student  of  law,  he  in- 
vented the  cotton-gin,  a  machine  for  separating  the  seed  from  the  cotton; 
an  invention  of  vast  importance  to  the  cotton  growing  states.  It  has  been 
worth  to  them  a  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  In  1798,  he  commenced 
the  manufacture  of  firearms,  for  the  United  States.  In  perseverance  and 
inventive  power,  he  has  scarcely  a  parallel  among  mechanicians.  He  died 
in  1825. 

WILKINSON,  Jemima,  a  bold  and  artful  religious  impostor,  was  born 
in  Cumberland,  Rhode  Island,  about  the  year  1753.  Recovering  sudden- 
ly from  an  apparent  suspension  of  life,  in  1773,  she  gave  out  that  she  had 
been  raised  from  the  dead,  and  laid  claim  to  supernatural  power  and 
authority.  Making  a  few  proselytes,  she  removed  with  them  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Crooked  lake,  in  New  York,  where  she  died  in  1819. 

WILLIAMS,  Roger,  one  of  the  founders  of  Rhode  Island,  was  born  in 


550  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Wales,  in  1599,  and  received  his  education  at  Oxford.  He  was,  for  some 
time,  a  minister  of  the  established  church,  but  dissenting,  he  removed,  in 
1631,  to  New  England,  and  preached  till  1636,  at  Salem  and  Plymouth. 
Being  banished  from  the  colony  on  aceount  of  his  religious  opinions,  he 
removed  with  several  others  to  Rhode  Island,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
Providence.  They  there  established  the  first  society  in  which  was  enjoy- 
ed perfect  liberty  of  conscience.  For  several  years,  Williams  was  presi- 
dent of  the  colony.     He  died  in  1683. 

WILLIAMS,  Otho  Holland,  an  officer  in  the  American  army,  was 
born  in  Maryland,  in  1748,  served  in  various  capacities  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  and  fought  at  the  battles  of  Guilford,  Hobkirk's  hill,  and  the 
Eutavvs.  Before  the  disbanding  of  the  army,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general.  For  several  years  he  was  collector  at  Baltimore.  He  died  in 
1794. 

WILSON,  Jabies,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  American  indepen- 
dence, was  born  in  Scotland,  about  the  year  1742.  He  was  well  educat- 
ed, and  after  completing  his  studies,  emigrated  to  America.  Settling  at 
Philadelphia,  he  received  an  offer  to  enter  the  office  of  Mr.  John  Dickin- 
son, and  pursue  the  study  of  the  law.  He  soon  distinguished  himself, 
and  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress,  where  he  con- 
tinued from  1775  to  1777.  He  was  a  member  of  the  conventions  which 
framed  the  constitution  of  Pennsylvania,  and  that  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  1789,  was  appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States.  In  1797,  he  was  made  professor  of  law  in  the  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  this  capacity  delivered  a  course  of  lectures,  after- 
wards published  in  three  volumes  8vo.     He  died  in  1798. 

WINDER,  William  H.,  an  officer  in  the  army,  was  born  in  Maryland, 
in  1775,  was  educated  for  the  bar,  and  pursued  his  profession  in  Balti- 
more with  great  success.  In  1812,  he  received  a  colonel's  commission, 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  served  with  reputa- 
tion during  the  war  with  Great  Britain.  He  commanded  the  troops  at  the 
battle  of  Bladensburg.  On  the  declaration  of  peace,  he  resumed  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession.     He  died  in  1824. 

WISTAR,  Caspar,  a  celebrated  physician,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
in  1761.  He  studied  medicine  under  Dr.  John  Redman,  and  completed 
his  professional  course  at  the  schools  in  London  and  Edinburgh.  Return- 
ing in  1787  to  his  native  city,  he  soon  distinguished  himself  in  his  pro- 
fession, and  in  1789,  was  elected  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  college  of 
Philadelphia.  In  1792,  he  became  adjunct  professor  of  anatomy,  mid' 
wifery,  and  surgery,  with  Dr.  Shippen  ;  and  on  the  decease  of  that  gen- 
tleman, in  1808,  sole  professor.  His  acquirements  in  professional  know- 
ledge were  very  extensive,  and  he  obtained  much  popularity  as  a  lecturer. 
He  died  in  1818.  His  chief  work  is  a  valuable  System  of  Anatomy,  in 
two  volumes. 

WOLCOTT,  Oliver,  governor  of  Connecticut,  was  born  in  1727,  and 
received  his  education  at  Yale  college.  He  served  as  captain  in  the 
French  war,  and  studied  medicine,  though  he  never  practised.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  congress  of  1776,  signed  the  declaration  of  indepen- 
dence, and  the  articles  of  confederation,  and  remained  a  member  till  1785. 
In  1785,  he  was  elected  deputy-governor,  and  was  re-elected  till  1796, 
when  he  was  made  governor.     He  died  in  1797. 


BIOGRAPHY.  551 

WYTHE,  George,  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence,  was 
born  in  Virginia,  in  1726.  His  early  course  was  dissipated,  but  at  the 
age  of  thirty  he  reformed,  turned  his  attention  to  literature,  studied  law, 
and  commenced  its  practice.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  he 
was  a  distinguished  leader  of  the  popular  party.  He  was  for  some  time 
speaker  of  the  house  of  burgesses,  and  in  1775,  was  elected  a  member  of 
congress.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  to  revise  the  laws  of  Virginia, 
in  1776,  and  had  a  principal  share  in  preparing  the  code  adopted  in  1779. 
Soon  after,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  three  judges  of  the  high  court  of 
chancery,  and  subsequently,  sole  counsellor.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  of  Virginia  to  consider  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 
His  death,  which  was  attributed  to  poison,  took  place  in  1806. 


552 


CHAPTER  XX.— HISTORY. 


DISCOVERY   AND  COLONIZATION. 


It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  science  and  energy  of  Italian  navigators 
opened  the  new  world  to  Europe,  though  adventurers  from  other  countries 
derived  the  benefit  of  their  discoveries,  and  established  colonies  on  its 
shores.  Columbus,  Cabot,  Verazzani,  and  Americo  Vespucci,  were  all 
Italians ;  and  though  the  latter  gave  his  name  to  a  hemisphere,  he  acquired 
no  particular  advantage  for  himself  or  his  native  country. 

The  exploits  of  Columbus  had  excited  a  spirit  of  enterprise  among  the 
English  merchants,  and  a  commission  was  granted  by  Henry  VII.  to  John 
Cabot  and  his  three  sons,  giving  them  full  liberty  to  sail  to  all  parts  of  the 
east,  west  and  north ;  to  discover  countries  of  the  heathen  ;  to  occupy  all 
countries  they  could  subdue,  and  set  up  the  king's  banners  in  them ;  to 
exercise  jurisdiction  over  them,  and  pay  to  the  king  one  fifth  part  of  all 
their  gains.  A  small  fleet  was  thus  equipped,  with  about  three  hundred 
men.  Cabot  sailed  north-west  a  few  weeks,  till  his  course  was  arrested 
by  icebergs ;  he  then  steered  south,  subsequently  changed  his  course,  and 
again  resumed  it,  till  further  prosecution  of  the  voyage  was  finally  aban- 
doned in  consequence  of  a  mutiny  which  broke  out  on  board.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  he  ever  landed  in  the  new  world.  From  this  voyage,  the 
English  derived  their  claims  to  the  territory  which  they  subsequently 
acquired  in  this  continent.  For  a  period  of  sixty  successive  years,  the 
English  monarchs  gave  themselves  no  further  trouble  about  the  progress  of 
discoveries  in  America. 

During  this  time,  France  and  Spain  were  on  the  alert.  In  a  voyage 
patronized  by  Francis  I.,  the  Florentine  navigator  Verazzano  discovered 
and  described  with  considerable  accuracy  the  coast  of  Florida.  In  a 
second  voyage,  undertaken  in  the  following  year,  he  landed  with  some  of 
his  crew,  was  killed  by  the  savages,  and  devoured  in  the  presence  of  his 
companions.  This  melancholy  event  for  a  time  damped  the  spirit  of 
discovery,  and  it  was  not  till  after  a  lapse  of  ten  years  that  any  other 
French  expedition  was  fitted  out  to  America.  In  1534,  Jacques  Cartier 
was  supplied  with  two  ships  under  the  direction  of  the  vice-admiral  of 
France,  and  discovered  the  Baye  des  Chaleurs  and  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence. In  the  following  spring  a  larger  expedition  was  equipped  under 
the  same  direction,  and  they  proceeded  direct  to  Newfoundland.  They  sail- 
ed up  the  river  of  Canada  three  hundred  leagues,  formed  alliances  with  the 
natives,  built  a  fort,  and  wintered  in  the  country.  This  colony  was  after- 
wards broken  up,  and  for  fifty  years  the  French  made  no  effort  to  establish 
themselves  in  Canada. 

To  trace  the  course  of  Spanish  discovery — in  the  year  1528,  Pamphilc 
de  Narvaez  received  from  Charles  V.  of  Spain,  a  grant  of  all  the  lands 
extending  from  the  river  of  Palms  to  the  cape  of  Florida,  with  a  commis- 
sion to  conquer  and  govern  all  the  provinces  within  these  limits.     Landing 


HISTORY.  553 

at  Florida,  he  marched  to  Apalache,  and  lost  many  of  his  troops  in  en- 
counters with  the  natives.  Being  forced  to  direct  his  course  towards  the 
sea,  and  sailing  to  the  westward,  he  was  lost  in  a  violent  storm,  and  the 
enterprise  frustrated.  Calamitous  as  was  the  issue  of  this  expedition,  it 
did  not  deter  others  from  pursuing  the  same  course.  In  May,  1539, 
Fernando  de  Soto  sailed  from  Havana  on  an  exploring  expedition,  and 
landed  on  the  western  coast  of  Florida.  Of  nine  hundred  men  engaged 
in  this  voyage,  but  three  hundred  and  eleven  survived  it;  the  remainder 
perished  in  battles  with  the  natives.  Poverty  and  ruin  involved  all  who 
were  concerned  in  it.  Soto  died  at  the  confluence  of  the  Guacoya  and 
Mississippi ;  and  to  prevent  the  Indians  from  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  his 
death,  his  body  was  deposited  in  a  hollowed  oak  and  sunk  in  the  river. 

About  the  year  1562,  a  party  of  Huguenots,  under  the  command  of 
Ribault,  sailed  with  a  view  of  colonizing  Florida.  After  a  favorable  voy- 
age, he  arrived  at  the  entrance  of  a  river  which  he  called  May,  from  the 
month  in  which  he  reached  the  coast.  Here  he  erected  a  fort,  and  then 
sailed  for  France  to  bring  out  a  reinforcement.  Two  years  afterwards  a 
fresh  expedition  was  fitted  out,  under  M.  Rene  Laudonniere,  who  arrived 
in  the  river  May  in  the  latter  part  of  June.  He  proved  incompetent  to 
manage  the  affairs  of  the  new  colony,  and  he  was  on  the  point  of  leaving 
for  Europe,  when  a  new  expedition  under  the  command  of  Ribault  entered 
the  river.  That  officer  superseded  Laudonniere  only,  however,  to  expe- 
rience more  melancholy  disasters.  Scarcely  a  week  had  passed  after  his 
arrival,  when  eight  Spanish  ships  were  seen  in  the  river.  After  a  variety 
of  misfortunes  which  befell  Laudonniere,  he  escaped  with  some  of  his 
followers  in  a  French  shallop,  and  finally  reached  in  a  miserable  condition 
the  port  of  Bristol.  A  more  tragic  end  awaited  Ribault.  His  vessels 
were  dashed  to  pieces  during  a  storm,  and  their  crews  with  great  difficulty 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  shore.  They  directed  their  steps  towards  the 
fort,  and  found  it  to  their  great  surprise  in  the  hands  of  their  inveterate 
enemies,  the  Spaniards.  It  was  determined  to  open  a  parley,  and  the 
Spanish  commander  pledged  his  honor  that  they  should  be  unharmed. 
Notwithstanding  this  pledge  they  were  inhumanly  massacred,  and  their 
dead  bodies  treated  with  the  most  shocking  indignities.  A  number  of  the 
mangled  limbs  of  the  victims  were  then  suspended  to  a  tree,  to  which  was 
attached  the  following  inscription  :  '  Not  because  they  are  Frenchmen, 
but  because  they  are  heretics  and  enemies  of  God.' 

This  outrage  was  fully  avenged  by  Dominique  de  Gourgues,  who  de- 
voted himself  and  his  fortune  to  effect  a  signal  retribution.  Finding 
means  to  equip  three  small  vessels,  he  crossed  the  Atlantic,  sailed  along 
the  coast  of  Florida,  and  landed  at  a  river  about  fifteen  leagues  distant 
from  the  May.  The  Spaniards  to  the  number  of  four  hundred  were  well 
stationed  in  different  fortresses  ;  they  were  all  slain  or  taken  captive. 
The  surviving  prisoners  were  led  away,  and  were  hung  on  the  boughs  of 
the  same  trees  from  which  the  Frenchmen  had  before  been  suspended. 
Gourgues  attached  to  them  the  retaliatory  label — 'I  do  not  this  as  to 
Spaniards,  nor  as  to  mariners,  but  as  to  traitors,  robbers,  and  murderers.' 
Thus  terminated  the  attempts  of  the  French  Protestants  to  colonize  Florida. 

In  1578,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  conjunction  with  his  half-brother  and 
kindred  spirit,  Sir  Humphry  Gilbert,  projected  the  establishment  of  a  colony 
in  that  quarter  of  America  which  the  Cabots  had  visited  in  the  reign  oY 
70  47 


554  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Henry  VII. ;  and  a  patent  for  this  purpose  was  procured  without  difficulty 
in  favor  of  Gilbert,  from  Elizabeth.  As  this  is  the  first  charter  to  a  colony 
granted  by  the  crown  of  England,  the  articles  in  it  merit  particular  atten- 
tion, as  they  unfold  the  ideas  of  that  age  with  respect  to  the  nature  cf 
such  settlements.  Elizabeth  authorizes  him  to  discover  and  take  posses- 
sion of  all  remote  and  barbarous  lands,  unoccupied  by  any  Christian  prince 
or  people ;  invests  in  him  the  full  right  of  property  in  the  soil  of  those 
countries  whereof  he  shall  take  possession ;  empowers  him,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  to  dispose  of  whatever  portion  of  those  lands  he  shall  judge  meet, 
to  persons  settled  there,  in  fee  simple,  according  to  the  laws  of  England ; 
and  ordains,  that  all  the  lands  granted  to  Gilbert  shall  hold  of  the  crown 
of  England  by  homage,  on  payment  of  the  fifth  part  of  the  gold  or  silver 
ore  found  there.  The  charter  also  gave  Gilbert,  his  heirs  and  assigns, 
full  power  to  convict,  punish,  pardon,  govern,  and  rule,  by  their  good 
discretion  and  policy,  as  well  in  causes  capital  or  criminal  as  civil,  both 
marine  and  other,  all  persons  who  shall,  from  time  to  time,  settle  within 
the  said  countries ;  and  declared,  that  all  who  settled  there  should  have 
and  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  free  denizens  and  natives  of  England,  any 
law,  custom,  or  usage  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  And,  finally,  it 
prohibited  all  persons  from  attempting  to  settle  within  two  hundred  leagues 
of  any  place  which  Sir  Humphry  Gilbert,  or  his  associates,  shall  have 
occupied  during  the  space  of  six  years. 

Invested  with  these  extraordinary  powers,  Gilbert  began  to  collect  asso- 
ciates, and  to  prepare  for  embarkation.  The  first  equipment,  however,  of 
Sir  Humphry,  may  be  said  to  have  failed,  even  before  it  set  out.  Being 
composed  in  a  great  measure  of  '  voluntary  men  of  diverse  dispositions,' 
there  was  a  great  falling  off  when  it  came  to  the  point,  and  Sir  Humphry 
was  at  last  obliged  to  set  out  with  only  a  few  of  his  own  tried  friends. 
He  encountered  the  most  adverse  weather,  and  was  obliged  to  return, 
*  with  the  loss  of  a  tall  ship,  and,  more  to  his  grief,  of  a  valiant  gentleman, 
Miles  Morgan,'  This  was  a  severe  blow,  as  Sir  Humphry  had  embarked 
a  large  portion  of  his  property  in  this  undertaking.  However,  his  deter- 
mination continued  unshaken  ;  and  by  the  aid  of  Sir  George  Peckham, 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  other  persons  of  distinction,  he  was  enabled  to 
equip  another  expedition,  with  which,  in  the  year  1583,  he  again  put  to 
sea. 

On  the  30th  of  July,  Gilbert  discovered  land  in  about  fifty-one  degrees 
north  latitude ;  but,  finding  nothing  but  bare  rocks,  he  shaped  his  course 
to  the  southward,  and  on  the  3d  of  August  arrived  at  St.  John's  harbor,  at 
"Newfoundland.  There  were  at  that  time  in  the  harbor  thirty-six  vessels, 
belonging  to  various  nations,  and  they  refused  him  entrance ;  but,  on 
sending  his  boat  with  the  assurance  that  he  had  no  ill  design,  and  that  he 
had  a  commission  from  queen  Elizabeth,  they  submitted,  and  he  sailed 
into  the  port.  Having  pitched  his  tent  on  shore  in  sight  of  all  the  shipping, 
and  being  attended  by  his  own  people,  he  summoned  the  merchants  and 
masters  of  vessels  to  be  present  at  the  ceremony  of  his  taking  possession 
of  the  island.  When  assembled  his  commission  was  read  and  interpreted 
to  the  foreigners.  A  turf  and  twig  was  then  delivered  to  him;  and  procla- 
mation was  immediately  made,  that,  by  virtue  of  his  commission  from  the 
queen,  he  took  possession  of  the  harbor  of  St.  John,  and  two  hundred 
leagues  every  way  around  it,  for  the  crown  of  England. 


HISTORY.  555 

This  formal  possession,  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  by  the  Cabots, 
*s  considered  the  foundation  of  the  right  and  title  of  the  crown  of  England 
to  the  territory  of  Newfoundland,  and  to  the  fishery  on  its  banks.  Gilbert, 
intending  to  bring  the  southern  parts  of  the  country  within  his  patent,  the 
term  of  which  had  now  nearly  expired,  hastened  to  make  further  discove- 
ries before  his  return  to  England.  He  therefore  embarked  from  St.  John's 
harbor  with  his  little  fleet,  and  sailed  for  the  isle  of  Sable  by  the  way  of 
cape  Breton.  After  spending  eight  days  in  the  navigation  from  cape  Race 
towards  cape  Breton,  the  ship  Admiral  was  cast  away  on  some  shoals  be- 
fore any  discovery  of  land,  and  nearly  one  hundred  persons  perished; 
among  these  was  Stephen  Parmenius  Budeius,  a  learned  Hungarian,  who 
had  accompanied  the  adventurers,  to  record  their  discoveries  and  exploits. 
Two  days  after  this  disaster,  no  land  yet  appearing,  the  waters  being 
shallow,  the  coast  unknown,  the  navigation  dangerous,  and  the  provisions 
scanty,  it  was  resolved  to  return  to  England.  Changing  their  course  ac- 
cordingly, they  passed  in  sight  of  cape  Race  on  the  2d  of  September ;  but 
when  they  had  sailed  more  than  three  hundred  leagues  on  their  way 
home,  the  frigate,  commanded  by  Sir  Humphry  Gilbert  himself,  foundered 
in  a  violent  storm,  at  midnight,  and  every  soul  on  board  perished. 

VIRGINIA,  FROM  ITS  SETTLEMENT  TO  1756. 

Terrible  as  was  the  fate  of  Gilbert  and  his  associates,  the  ardor  of 
Raleigh  was  not  daunted,  nor  his  energies  depressed.  High  in  favor  with 
Elizabeth,  he  found  no  difficulty  in  procuring  a  patent  similar  to  that 
which  had  been  granted  to  his  unfortunate  brother.  Prompt  in  the  execu- 
tion, as  intrepid  in  the  projection  of  his  plans,  he  speedily  equipped  two 
small  vessels,  under  Amadas  and  Barlow,  to  obtain  further  information  of 
the  coasts,  the  soil,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  regions  he  designed  to  colo- 
nize. Approaching  America  by  the  gulf  of  Florida,  they  touched  first  at 
the  island  of  Ocakoke,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  greater  part  of  North 
Carolina,  and  then  at  Roanoke,  near  the  mouth  of  Albemarle  sound.  In 
both  they  had  some  intercourse  with  the  natives,  whom  they  found  to  be 
savages,  with  all  the  characteristic  qualities  of  uncivilized  life—bravery, 
aversion  to  labor,  hospitality,  a  propensity  to  admire  and  a  willingness  to 
exchange  their  rude  productions  for-  English  commodities,  especially  for 
iron,  or  any  of  the  useful  metals  of  which  they  were  destitute.  After 
spending  a  few  weeks  in  this  traffic,  and  in  visiting  some  parts  of  the  ad- 
jacent continent,  Amadas  and  Barlow  returned  to  England,  and  gave  a 
most  fervid  description  of  the  country  they  had  been  sent  to  explore. 

Delighted  with  the  prospect  of  possessing  a  territory  so  far  superior  to 
any  hitherto  visited  by  her  subjects,  Elizabeth  was  pleased  to  honor  both 
the  newly  discovered  country  and  herself,  by  bestowing  upon  it  the  title 
of  Virginia. 

These  favorable  circumstances  not  only  encouraged  the  enterprising 
spirit  of  Raleigh,  but,  by  their  effect  on  public  opinion,  assisted  him  in  his 
arrangements  to  form  a  permanent  settlement  ;  and  he  was  soon  enabled 
to  dispatch  seven  ships,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  one 
of  the  most  valorous  spirits  of  the  age,  with  Ralph  Lane,  as  governor  of 
the  colony,  accompanied  by  Heriot,  a  mathematician  of  celebrity,  and 
some  other  men  of  science. "  Sailing  from  Plymouth  on  the  9th  of  April, 


556  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

they  proceeded  to  Virginia  by  the  way  of  the  West  Indies,  and,  having 
narrowly  escaped  shipwreck  at  cape  Fear,  anchored  at  Wocokon,  on  tho 
26th  of  June.  From  this  island  Grenville  went  to  the  continent,  accom- 
panied by  several  gentlemen,  and  discovered  various  Indian  towns.  He 
then  proceeded  to  cape  Hatteras,  where  he  was  visited  by  Granganimo, 
the  prince  seen  by  Amadas  and  Barlow  the  preceding  year ;  and  having 
viewed  the  island  of  Roanoke,  he  embarked  for  England,  leaving  one  hun- 
dred and  seven  persons  under  the  government  of  Mr.  Lane,  to  form  a  plan 
tation,  and  to  commence  the  first  English  colony  ever  planted  in  America. 

The  chief  employment  of  this  party,  during  their  year's  residence  in  the 
'"  ew  world,  consisted  in  obtaining  a  more  correct  and  extensive  knowledge 
of  the  country ;  a  pursuit  in  which  the  persevering  abilities  of  Heriot  were 
exercised  with  peculiar  advantage.  His  unremitting  endeavors  to  instruct 
the  savages,  and  diligent  inquiries  into  their  habits  and  character,  by  adding 
to  the  stock  of  human  knowledge,  rendered  the  expedition  not  wholly  un- 
productive of  benefit  to  mankind.  He  endeavored  to  avail  himself  of  the 
admiration  expressed  by  the  savages  for  the  guns,  the  clock,  the  telescopes, 
and  other  implements  that  attested  the  superiority  of  the  colonists,  in 
order  to  lead  their  minds  to  the  great  source  of  all  sense  and  science. 
But,  unfortunately,  the  majority  of  the  colonists  were  much  less  distin- 
guished by  piety  or  prudence,  than  by  a  vehement  impatience  to  acquire 
sudden  wealth;  their  first  pursuit  was  gold;  and,  eagerly  listening  to  the 
agreeable  fictions  of  the  natives,  the  adventurers  consumed  their  time, 
and  endured  amazing  hardships,  in  pursuit  of  a  phantom,  to.  the  utter 
neglect  of  the  means  of  providing  for  their  future  subsistence.  The  stock 
of  provisions  brought  from  England  was  exhausted;  and  the  colony,  reduced 
to  the  utmost  distress,  was  preparing  to  disperse  into  different  districts  of 
the  country  in  quest  of  food,  when  Sir  Francis  Drake  appeared  with  his 
fleet,  returning  from  a  successful  expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in  the 
West  Indies.  A  scheme  which  he  formed,  of  furnishing  Lane  and  his 
associates  with  such  supplies  as  might  enable  them  to  remain  with  comfort 
in  their  station,  was  disappointed  by  a  sudden  storm,  in  which  the  vessel 
he  had  destined  for  their  service  was  dashed  to  pieces ;  and  as  he  could 
not  supply  them  with  another,  at  their  joint  request,  as  they  were  worn 
out  with  fatigue  and  famine,  he  carried  them  home  to  England. 

Had  the  Virginia  adventurers,  however,  remained  but  a  little  time  longer 
at  their  plantation,  they  would  have  received  supplies  from  home ;  for,  a 
few  days  after  their  departure,  a  ship,  sent  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  to  their 
relief,  arrived  at  Hatteras,  and  made  diligent  search  for  them,  but,  not 
finding  them,  returned  to  England.  Within  a  few  days  after  this  ship 
had  left  the  coast,  Sir  Richard  Grenville  arrived  at  Virginia  with  three 
new  vessels  laden  with  provisions.  Searching  in  vain  for  the  colony  that 
he  planted,  but  yet  unwilling  to  lose  possession  of  the  country,  he  left 
fifty  of  his  crew  to  keep  possession  of  the  island  of  Roanoke,  and  returned 
to  England.  This  was,  indeed,  but  an  inauspicious  commencement  for 
English  attempts  at  transatlantic  colonization  ;  but,  though  its  immediate 
results  did  not  realize  the  high  expectations  which  had  been  formed,  its 
consequences  were  indirectly  very  beneficial.  It  gave  Heriot  opportunity 
to  describe  its  soil,  climate,  productions,  and  the  manners  of  its  inhabitants, 
with  a  degree  of  accuracy  which  merits  no  inconsiderable  praise,  when 
compared  with  the  childish  and  marvellous  tales  published  by  several  of 
the  early  visitants  of  the  new  world. 


HISTORY. 


557 


Another  consequence  of  this  abortive  colony  is  important  enough  to 
entitle  it  to  a  place  in  history.  Lane  and  his  associates,  by  their  constant 
intercourse  with  the  Indians,  had  acquired  a  relish  for  their  favorite  enjoy- 
ment of  smoking  tobacco  ;  to  the  use  of  which,  the  credulity  of  that  people 
not  only  ascribed  a  thousand  imaginary  virtues,  but  their  superstition  con- 
sidered the  plant  itself  as  a  gracious  gift  of  the  gods,  for  the  solace  of 
huma»  kind,  and  the  most  acceptable  offering  which  man  can  present  to 
heaven.  They  brought  with  them  a  specimen  of  this  new  commodity  to 
England,  and  taught  their  countrymen  the  method  of  using  it  ;  which 
Raleigh  and  some  young  men  of  fashion  fondly  adopted.  From  its  being 
deemed  a  fashionable  acquirement,  and  from  the  favorable  opinion  of  its 
salutary  qualities  entertained  by  several  physicians,  the  practice  of  smoking- 
spread  rapidly  among  the  English  ;  and  by  a  singular  caprice  of  the  human 
6pecies.  no  less  inexplicable  than  unexampled,  it  has  become  almost  as 
universal  as  the  demands  of  those  appetites  originally  implanted  in  our 
nature. 

Amidst  all  the  discouraging  circumstances  with  which  the  settlement  of 
Virginia  was  attended,  Raleigh  still  remained  devotedly  attached  to  the 
object;  and  early  in  the  year  1587,  equipped  another  company  of  adven- 
turers, incorporated  by  the  title  of  the  Borough  of  Raleigh,  in  Virginia. 
John  White  was  constituted  governor,  in  whom,  with  a  council  of  twelve 
persons,  the  legislative  power  was  vested.  They  were  directed  to  plant 
at  the  bay  of  Chesapeak,  and  to  erect  a  fort  there.  This  expedition  sailed 
from  Plymouth  on  the  8th  of  May,  and  about  the  16th  of  July  fell  in  with 
the  Virginian  coast.  Arriving  at  Hatteras  on  the  22d  of  July,  the  govern- 
or, with  a  select  party,  proceeded  to  Roanoke,  and  landed  at  that  part  of 
the  island  where  the  men  were  left  the  year  preceding;  but  discovered  no 
signs  of  them,  excepting  the  bones  of  one  man,  who  had  been  slain  by  the 
savages.  The  next  day  the  governor  and  several  of  his  company  went  to 
the  north  end  of  the  island,  where  Lane  had  erected  his  fort,  and  had  built 
several  decent  dwelling  houses,  hoping  to  obtain  some  intelligence  of  his 


Virginian  Colony. 

fellow-countrymen  ;  but,  on  coming  to  the  place,  and  finding  the  fort 
razed,  and  all  the  houses,  though  standing  unhurt,  overgrown  with  weeds 

47* 


558  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  vines,  and  deer  feeding  within  them,  they  returned,  in  despair  of 
ever  seeing  the  objects  of  their  research  alive.  Orders  were  given  the 
same  day  for  the  repair  of  the  houses,  and  for  the  erection  of  new  cotta- 
ges ;  and  all  the  colony,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  seventeen  persons, 
soon  after  landed,  and  commenced  a  second  plantation. 

Before  the  close  of  the  month  of  August,  the  governor  was  compelled  to 
sail  to  England  for  supplies  ;  but  war  in  Europe  interfered  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  the  colonists,  and  it  was  not  till  1590  that  another  expedition 
reached  Virginia.  They  beheld  a  scene  similarly  dreadful  with  that  which 
had  been  before  presented.  The  houses  were  demolished,  though  still 
surrounded  by  a  palisade,  and  a  great  part  of  the  stores  was  found  buried 
in  the  earth;  but,  as  no  trace  was  ever  found  of  this  unfortunate  colony, 
there  is  every  reason  to  apprehend  that  they  must  have  miserably  perished. 
Thus  after  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  six  years  from  the  time  that  Cabot 
discovered  North  America,  in  the  service  of  Henry  VII.,  not  a  single 
Englishman  remained  in  the  new  world. 

In  the  last  year  of  Elizabeth  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  spirit  of 
emigration  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold.  He  sailed  in  a  small  bark  from 
Falmouth,  steering  directly  west,  and  was  the  first  Englishman  who  came 
in  a  direct  course  to  this  part  of  America.  He  anchored  at  a  point  which 
he  called  cape  Cod.  Attempting  a  settlement  on  an  island  which  they 
named  Elizabeth,  they  built  a  fort  and  storehouse,  but  shortly  abandoned 
their  design  and  returned  to  England.  Two  vessels  were  afterwards  fitted 
out  by  the  merchants  of  Bristol,  to  examine  the  discoveries  of  Gosnold, 
and  ascertain  the  correctness  of  his  statements.  They  were  also  subse- 
quently confirmed  by  a  similar  expedition  equipped  and  despatched  by 
lord  Arundel. 

An  association  of  able  and  influential  men  was  now  formed  to  attempt  a 
settlement,  and  a  petition  for  leave  was  favorably  received  by  king  James. 
But  as  the  extent  as  well  as  value  of  the  American  continent  began  now 
to  be  better  known,  a  grant  of  the  whole  of  such  a  vast  region  to  any  one 
body  of  men,  however  respectable,  appeared  to  him  an  act  of  impolitic  and 
profuse  liberality.  For  this  reason  he  divided  that  portion  of  North 
America,  which  stretches  from  the  thirty-fourth  to  the  fifty-fifth  degree  of 
latitude,  into  two  districts  nearly  equal ;  the  one  called  the  first  or  south 
colony  of  Virginia,  the  other,  the  second  or  north  colony.  He  authorized 
Sir  Thomas  Gates,  Sir  George  Summers,  Richard  Hakluyt,  and  their 
associates,  mostly  resident  in  London,  to  settle  any  part  of  the  former 
which  they  should  choose,  and  vested  in  them  a  right  of  property  to  the 
land  extending  along  the  coast  fifty  miles  on  each  side  of  the  place  of  their 
first  habitation,  and  reaching  into  the  interior  country  a  hundred  miles. 
The  latter  district  he  allotted,  as  the  place  of  settlement  to  sundry  knights, 
gentlemen,  and  merchants  of  Bristol,  Plymouth,  and  other  parts  of  the 
west  of  England,  with  a  similar  grant  of  territory.  The  supreme  govern- 
ment of  the  colonies  that  were  to  be  settled,  wTas  vested  in  a  council,  resi- 
dent in  England,  named  by  the  king,  with  laws  and  ordinances  given 
under  his  sign  manual;  and  the  subordinate  jurisdiction  was  committed 
to  a  council,  resident  in  America,  which  was  also  nominated  by  the  king, 
and  to  act  conformably  to  his  instructions. 

The  charter,  while  it  thus  restricted  the  emigrants  in  the  important 
article  of  internal  regulation,  secured  to  them  and  their  descendants  all  the 


HISTORY.  559 

rights  of  denizens,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  remained  or  had 
been  born  in  England;  and  granted  them  the  privilege  of  holding  their 
lands  in  America  by  the  freest  and  least  burdensome  tenure.  The  king 
permitted  whatever  was  necessary  for  the  sustenance  or  commerce  of  the 
new  colonies  to  be  exported  from  England,  during  the  space  of  seven 
years,  without  paying  any  duty ;  and,  as  a  farther  incitement  to  industry, 
he  granted  them  liberty  of  trade  with  other  nations ;  and  appropriated  the 
duty  to  be  levied  on  foreign  commodities,  as  a  fund  for  the  benefit  of  the 
colonies,  for  the  period  of  twenty-one  years.  He  also  granted  them  li- 
berty of  coining  for  their  own  use,  of  repelling  enemies,  and  of  detaining 
ships  that  should  trade  there  without  their  permission. 

We  may  regard  the  colonies  of  North  and  South  Virginia,  or  Virginia 
and  New  England,  as  they  were  subsequently  denominated,  as  forming, 
from  this  period,  the  subject  of  two  distinct  and  continuous  histories ;  that 
of  the  former,  being  earliest  in  point  of  time,  will  continue  to  occupy  our 
attention  during  the  remainder  of  this  division. 

The  proprietors  of  the  royal  patent  lost  no  time  in  carrying  their  plans 
into  effect.  It  cannot,  however,  be  said,  that  they  commenced  their  ope- 
rations on  a  scale  at  all  worthy  of  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking,  as 
their  fleet  consisted  only  of  three  ships,  conveying  one  hundred  emigrants  ; 
and,  although  some  persons  of  rank  were  among  the  number  of  proprietors, 
their  pecuniary  resources  were  but  scanty.  The  charge  of  this  embarka- 
tion was  committed  to  Christopher  Newport,  already  famous  for  his  skill 
in  western  navigation.  He  sailed  from  the  Thames  on  the  20th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1606,  having,  in  a  sealed  box,  the  royal  instructions,  and  the  names 
of  the  intended  colonial  council,  with  orders  not  to  break  the  seal  till  twen- 
ty-four hours  after  the  expedition  had  effected  a  landing ;  to  which  singu- 
lar policy,  maybe  attributed  the  dissensions  which  soon  commenced  among 
the  leaders,  and  which  continued  to  distract  them  during  a  voyage  long 
and  disastrous. 

Captain  Newport  had  designed  to  land  at  Roanoke ;  but  fortunately, 
being  driven  by  a  storm  to  the  northward,  he  stood  into  the  spacious  bay 
of  Chesapeak,  that  grand  reservoir  into  which  are  poured  almost  countless 
tributaries,  which  not  only  fertilize  the  country  through  which  they  flow,  but 
open  to  it  a  commercial  intercourse  which  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  sur- 
passed in  any  portion  of  the  globe.  The  promontory  on  the  south  of  the 
bay  was  named  cape  Henry,  in  honor  of  the  prince  of  Wales  ;  and  that  on 
the  north,  cape  Charles,  after  the  then  duke  of  York.  At  night  the  box, 
containing  the  sealed  instructions,  was  opened,  in  which  Bartholomew 
Gosnold,  John  Smith,  Edward  Wingfield,  Christopher  Newport,  John 
RatclifFe,  John  Martin,  and  George  Kendall,  were  constituted  the  council 
of  government,  with  power  to  elect  a  president  from  among  their  number. 
The  adventurers  were  employed  in  seeking  a  place  for  settlement  until  the 
thirteenth  of  May,  when  they  took  possession  of  a  peninsula,  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river  Powhatan,  called  by  the  emigrants  James  river,  about 
forty  miles  from  its  mouth. 

To  make  room  for  their  projected  town,  they  commenced  clearing  away 
the  forest,  which  had  for  centuries  afforded  shelter  and  food  to  the  natives. 
The  members  of  the  council,  while  they  adhered  to  their  orders  in  the 
choice  of  their  president,  on  the  most  frivolous  pretences  excluded  from  a 
-seat  among  them,  the  individual,  who  was  probably  of  all  others  the  best 


560  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

fitted  for  the  office,  captain  Smith,5*  though  nominated  by  the  same  instru- 
ment from  which  they  derived  their  authority.  His  superior  talents,  and 
the  fame  he  had  previously  acquired  in  war,  excited  their  envy,  while 
possibly  they  induced  him  to  assume,  that  a  greater  deference  was  due  to 
his  opinion  than  his  coadjutors  were  willing  to  admit.  At  length,  how- 
ever, by  the  prudent  exhortations  of  Mr.  Hunt,  their  chaplain,  the  animo- 
sities which  had  arisen  were  composed,  Smith  was  admitted  into  the 
council,  and  they  all  turned  their  undivided  attention  to  the  government 
of  the  colony.  In  honor  of  their  monarch,  they  called  the  town,  the  erec- 
tion of  which  they  now  commenced,  Jamestown.  Thus  was  formed 
the  first  permanent  colony  of  the  English  in  America. 

The  vicinity  of  the  settlement  was  a  vast  wilderness,  though  a  luxuriant 
one,  inhabited  by  a  race  of  Indian  savages,  possessing  both  the  virtues  and 
the  vices  peculiar  to  their  state.  At  first,  they  treated  the  colonists  with 
kindness;  but  misunderstandings,  from  various  causes,  ere  Jong  interrupted 
the  peace,  and  annoyed  the  proceedings  of  the  English.  Nor  was  the 
hostility  of  the  natives  the  only  occasion  of  discomfort;  the  extreme  heat 
of  the  summer,  and  the  intense  cold  of  the  succeeding  winter,  were  alike 
fatal  to  the  colonists.  From  May  to  September,  fifty  persons  died,  among 
whom  was  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  a  member  of  the  council.  The  store- 
house at  Jamestown  accidentally  taking  fire,  the  town,  thatched  with 
reeds,  burned  with  such  violence,  that  the  fortifications,  arms,  apparel, 
bedding,  and  a  great  quantity  of  private  goods  and  provision,  were 
consumed. 

These  distresses  naturally  led  them  to  reflect  upon  their  situation ;  and 
having  become  sensible  of  their  injustice  to  Smith,  his  personal  talents  and 
activity  were,  in  their  adversity,  appealed  to  with  that  regard  and  deference 
which,  in  prosperous  times,  are  yielded  only  to  vested  authority  and  offi- 
cial station.  From  some  unaccountable  jealousy  on  the  part  of  the  gover- 
nor, the  fort  had  been  left  in  an  unprotected  state,  but,  by  the  advice  of 
Smith,  it  was  now  put  into  a  state  to  defend  them  against  the  attacks  of 
the  Indians.  To  procure  provisions  and  explore  the  country,  he  made 
frequent  and  distant  excursions  into  the  wilderness.  In  one  of  these,  he 
seized  an  Indian  idol,  made  with  skins  stuffed  with  moss,  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  which  as  much  corn  was  brought  him  as  he  required.  Some  tribes 
he  gained  by  caresses  and  presents,  and  procured  from  them  a  supply  of 
provisions ;  others  he  attacked  with  open  force,  and  defeating  them  on 
every  occasion,  whatever  their  superiority  in  numbers  might  be,  compelled 
them  to  impart  to  him  some  portion  of  their  winter  stores.  As  the  recom- 
pense  of  all  his  toils  and  dangers,  he  saw  abundance  and  contentment 

*  '  It  would  perhaps  be  difficult  to  find  any  individual  who  experienced  more  gallant 
adventures,  and  daring  enterprises,  of  a  highly  romantic  character,  in  various  countries, 
than  captain  Smith.  His  life,  without  any  fictitious  additions,  might  easily  be  taken 
for  a  mere  romance.  He  appears  to  have  possessed  many  great  qualities,  and  to  have 
been  deficient  in  nothing  but  that  mean  cunning  and  sordid  spirit,  by  the  aid  of  which 
inferior  men  were  able  to  thwart  his  views,  and  deprive  him  of  those  stations  and 
rewards  which  his  services  amply  merited.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  roost  ardent 
of  those  who  undertook  the  settlement  of  Virginia;  his  bravery  and  capacity  more  than 
once  saved  that  infant  colony  from  destruction,  and  kept  the  enterprise  from  being 
abandoned  for  several  years,  though  the  absurdity  of  the  schemes,  and  the  profligacy, 
folly,  and  dishonesty  of  those  who  were  to  execute  them,  exposed  the  colony  for  many 
years  to  every  calamity,  and  often  brought  it  to  the  brink  of  ruin.' — North  Am.  Review. 


HISTORY.  561  • 

re-established  in  the  colony,  and  hoped  that  he  should  be  able  to  maintain 
them  in  that  happy  state,  until  the  arrival  of  ships  from  England  in  the 
spring.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  energetic  measures,  while  exploring  the 
source  of  the  river  Chickahominy,  he  was  surprised  and  attacked  by  a 
party  of  Indians.  He  defended  himself  bravely  until  his  companions 
were  killed,  when  he  took  to  flight;  but  running  incautiously,  he  sunk  up 
to  his  shoulders  in  a  swamp,  and  was  taken  prisoner. 

The  exulting  savages  conducted  him  in  triumph  through  several  towns 
to  Werowocomoco,  where  Powhatan,  their  king,  resided  in  state,  with  a 
strong  guard  of  Indians  around  him.  When  the  prisoner  entered  the 
apartment  of  the  sovereign,  all  the  people  gave  a  shout.  The  queen  of 
Appamatuck  was  appointed  to  bring  him  water  to  wash  his  hands ;  and 
mother  person  brought  a  bunch  of  feathers,  instead  of  a  towel,  to  dry 
them.  Having  feasted  him  in  their  best  manner,  they  held  a  long  consul- 
tation, at  the  conclusion  of  which,  two  great  stones  were  brought  before 
Powhatan.  Smith  had  now  reason  to  consider  his  career  as  drawing  to  a 
close  ;  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  attendants,  he  was  forcibly  dragged,  his 
head  laid  upon  one  of  the  stones,  and  the  mighty  club  upraised,  a  few 
blows  from  which  were  to  terminate  his  existence.  But  a  very  unexpected 
interposition  now  took  place.  Pocahontas,  the  favorite  daughter  of  Pow- 
hatan, was  seized  with  emotions  of  tender  pity,  and  ran  up  to  her  father, 
pathetically  pleading  for  the  life  of  the  stranger.  When  all  entreaties 
were  lost  on  that  stern  and  savage  potentate,  she  hastened  to  Smith, 
snatched  his  head  in  her  arms,  and  laid  her  own  on  his,  declaring  that  the 
first  blow  must  fall  upon  her.  The  heart  even  of  a  savage  father  was  at 
last  melted,  and  Powhatan  granted  to  his  favorite  daughter  the  life  of 
Smith. 

It  appears  at  first  to  have  been  the  intention  of  the  savage  monarch  to 
have  detained  the  captive,  and  employed  him  in  manufacturing  utensils 
and  ornaments  for  his  majesty's  use ;  but  from  some  cause  he  speedily 
changed  his  mind,  and  in  two  days  after  his  deliverance,  sent  him,  to  his 
high  gratification,  with  a  guard  of  twelve  of  his  trusty  followers,  to  James- 
town, upon  condition  that  he  should  remit  two  culverins  and  a  millstone 
as  his  ransom. 

After  an  absence  of  seven  weeks,  Smith  arrived  barely  in  time  to  save 
the  colony  from  being  abandoned.  His  associates,  reduced  to  the  number 
of  thirty-eight,  impatient  of  farther  stay  in  a  country  where  they  had  met 
with  so  many  discouragements,  were  preparing  to  return  to  England  ;  and 
it  was  not  without  the  utmost  difficulty,  and  alternately  employing  persua- 
sion, remonstrance,  and  even  violent  interference,  that  Smith  prevailed 
with  them  to  relinquish  their  design.  Pocahontas,  persevering  in  her 
generous  designs,  continued  to  supply  the  colony  with  provisions  till  a 
vessel  arrived  from  England  with  supplies.  Having  preserved  the  settle- 
ment during  the  winter  by  his  active  exertions  and  his  careful  management, 
Smith  embraced  the  earliest  opportunity,  in  the  following  summer,  to  ex- 
plore the  extensive  and  multifarious  ramifications  of  the  Chesapeak. 

In  an  open  barge,  with  fourteen  persons,  and  but  a  scanty  stock  of  pro- 
visions, he  traversed  the  whole  of  that  vast  extent  of  water,  from  cape 
Henry,  where  it  meets  the  ocean,  to  the  river  Susquehannah ;  trading 
with  some  tribes  of  Indians,  and  fighting  with  others.  He  discovered  and 
named  many  small  islands,  creeks,  and  inlets ;  sailed  up  many  of  the 


662  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

great  rivers ;  and  explored  the  inland  parts  of  the  country.  During  this! 
enterprise,  the  Susquehannah  Indians  visited  him,  and  made  him  presents. 
At  this  early  period  they  had  hatchets,  and  utensils  of  iron  and  brass, 
which,  by  their  own  account,  originally  came  from  the  French  of  Canada. 
After  sailing  about  three  thousand  miles,  Smith  returned  to  Jamestown. 
Having  made  careful  observations  during  this  excursion  of  discovery,  he 
drew  a  map  of  Chesapeak  bay,  with  its  tributary  rivers,  annexing  to  it  a 
description  of  the  countries,  and  of  the  nations  inhabiting  them,  and  sent 
it  to  the  council  in  England. 

The  superior  abilities  of  Smith  had  now  been  so  manifestly  subservient 
to  the  general  welfare,  that  they  had  silenced,  at  least,  the  malignity  of 
envy  and  faction ;  and  although  it  was  comparatively  a  short  period  since 
he  had  been  so  unjustly  calumniated,  and  deprived  of  his  seat  at  the  coun- 
cil-board, immediately  after  his  return  from  his  voyage,  he  was,  by  the 
election  of  the  council  and  the  request  of  the  settlers,  invested  with  the 
government,  and  received  letters-patent  to  be  president  of  the  colony.  The 
wisdom  of  his  administration  inspired  confidence,  its  vigor  commanded 
obedience,  and  the  military  exercises,  which  he  obliged  all  to  perform, 
struck  the  Indians  with  astonishment,  and  inspired  them  with  awe. 

Under  the  administration  of  president  Smith,  the  colony  continued  to 
prosper ;  as  far  as  it  could  prosper,  under  the  circumstances  of  its  organi- 
zation. Its  elements,  however,  were  not  of  the  best  description,  and  the 
number  of  '  poor  gentlemen,  tradesmen,  serving  men,  libertines  and  such 
like,'  is  represented  to  have  been  ten  times  more  fit  to  spoil  a  commonwealth 
than  either  to  begin  or  maintain  one.  They  were  lazy,  avaricious,  and 
disappointed.  The  Indians  too  became  suspicious  and  troublesome;  and 
the  company  in  England  were  unjustly  discontented  with  the  management 
of  captain  Smith.  A  new  charter  was  therefore  treated  for  by  the  company 
of  South  Virginia,  and  obtained ;  and  among  the  new  proprietors  were 
many  of  the  most  wealthy  and  influential  commoners  and  peers  of  the 
land.  Lord  Delaware  was  appointed  governor  of  Virginia  for  life,  though 
he  did  not  accompany  the  expedition,  which  was  immediately  fitted  out. 
A  fleet  of  nine  vessels  sailed  for  the  colony,  one  of  wrhich  was  wrecked  at 
the  Bermudas,  and  one  lost  in  a  violent  storm.  On  board  of  this  fleet 
were  five  hundred  emigrants  ;  chiefly  young  and  licentious,  indigent  and 
haughty,  who  soon  involved  the  colony  in  anarchy  and  confusion. 

A  systematic  design  was  now  meditated  against  the  whole  colony  by 
the  sovereign  of  the  country ;  but  it  was  providentially  discovered  and 
frustrated.  Pocahontas,  the  tutelary  friend  of  Virginia,  though  but  a  child 
of  thirteen  years  of  age,  went  in  a  very  dark  and  dreary  night  to  James 
town,  and,  at  the  hazard  of  her  life,  disclosed  to  the  president  a  plot  of 
her  father  to  kill  him  and  all  the  English.  This  timely  notice  put  the 
colony  on  its  guard  ;  and  some  favorable  occurrences  soon  after  contri- 
buted still  farther  towards  its  preservation.  An  Indian,  apparently  dead 
through  the  effect  of  a  charcoal  fire  in  a  close  room,  was,  on  the  applica- 
tion of  vinegar  and  aqua  vitse  by  the  president,  reanimated.  This  supposed 
miracle,  with  an  explosion  of  powder,  which  killed  two  or  three  Indians 
and  scorched  and  wounded  others,  excited  such  astonishment,  mingled 
with  such  admiration  of  English  power  and  art,  that  Powhatan  and  his 
people  came  to  them  with  presents  of  peace ;  and  the  whole  country, 
during  the  remainder  of  Smith's  administration,  was  entirely  free  from 


HISTORY.  563 

molestation,  and  the  colonists  pursued  their  plans  of  improvement,  both  in 
agriculture  and  in  some  of  the  manufactures,  with  tolerable  success.  Un- 
happily, however,  the  president,  while  exerting  himself  with  his  usual 
energy  in  the  concerns  of  the  settlement,  received  a  dangerous  wound 
from  the  accidental  explosion  of  a  quantity  of  gunpowder.  Completely 
disabled  by  this  misfortune,  and  destitute  of  surgical  aid,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign  his  command,  and  take  his  departure  (and  it  was  a  final  one)  for 
England. 

The  departure  of  Smith  was  in  every  respect  inauspicious  for  the  colony. 
It  was  the  signal  for  a  general  revolt  among  the  Indians.  Many  of  the  co- 
lonists were  slain,  their  provisions  were  wasted  by  imprudence,  and  they 
were  threatened  with  absolute  starvation.  There  numbers  were  reduced 
from  five  hundred  to  about  sixty,  in  the  course  of  half  a  year.  In  this 
extremity  they  received  unexpected  relief  from  Sir  Thomas  Gates  and  the 
party  which  had  been  wrecked  the  year  before  at  Bermudas,  and  who  had 
been  enabled  to  build  two  small  vessels,  and  succeed  in  reaching  Virginia. 
It  was  determined  to  abandon  the  colony,  and  sail  for  Newfoundland, 
and  every  thing  was  prepared  for  embarkation,  when  lord  Delaware,  with 
three  ships  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  men,  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  By  the  energetic  discipline  of  this  nobleman,  the  affairs  of  the 
colony  were  soon  restored  to  order.  He  erected  forts,  allotted  to  each  man 
his  respective  duty,  and  appointed  the  necessary  officers  to  enforce  obedi- 
ence to  his  commands.  His  health  not  permitting  him  to  remain  in  office, 
he  returned  to  England,  leaving  about  two  hundred  people  in  health  and 
tranquillity. 

Not  long  after  his  departure,  Sir  Thomas  Dale  arrived  at  Virginia  with 
three  ships  and  three  hundred  emigrants.  Other  additions  to  the  colony 
were  made  within  a  short  interval.  New  settlements  were  commenced 
farther  up  the  river,  and  a  town  was  built,  and  called  Henrico,  in  honor  of 
prince  Henry.  In  1612,  application  was  made  to  the  king  by  the  patentees 
for  a  new  charter,  with  increased  privileges,  and  it  was  accordingly  granted. 

It  was  in  the  year  following  the  grant  of  the  new  charter,  that  the  mar- 
riage of  Pocahontas,  the  famed  daughter  of  Powhatan,  was  celebrated;  an 
alliance  which  secured  peace  to  Virginia  many  years.  Having  been 
carefully  instructed  in  the  Christian  religion,  it  was  not  long  before  she 
renounced  the  idolatry  of  her  country,  made  profession  of  Christianity, 
and  was  baptized  by  the  name  of  Rebecca.  In  some  measure  connected 
with  this  event,  by  the  influence  so  powerful  an  alliance  was  calculated 
to  have  upon  the  minds  of  the  natives  in  the  vicinity,  was  the  treaty  which 
Sir  Thomas  Dale  effected  with  the  Chickahominy  tribe  of  Indians,  a  bold 
and  free  people,  who  now  voluntarily  relinquished  their  name,  for  that  of 
Tassantessus,  or  Englishmen;  and  solemnly  engaged  to  be  faithful  sub- 
jects to  king  James. 

During  the  interval  of  tranquillity  procured  by  the  alliance  with  Pow- 
hatan, an  important  change  was  made  in  the  state  of  the  colony.  Hitherto 
no  right  of  private  property  in  land  had  been  established.  The  fields  that 
were  cleared  had  been  cultivated  by  the  joint  labor  of  the  colonists ;  their 
product  was  carried  to  the  common  storehouses,  and  distributed  weekly  to 
every  family,  according  to  its  number  and  exigencies.  However  suitable 
such  an  arrangement  might  have  been  deemed  for  the  commencement  of 
a  colony,  experience  proved  that  it  was  decidedly  opposed  to  its  progress 


564 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


in  a  more  advanced  state.  In  order  to  remedy  this,  Sir  Thomas  Dale 
divided  a  considerable  portion  of  the  land  into  small  lots,  and  granted  one 
of  these  to  each  individual  in  full  property.  From  the  moment  that  indus- 
try had  the  certain  prospect  of  a  recompense,  it  advanced  rapidly.  The 
articles  of  primary  necessity  were  cultivated  with  so  much  attention  as 
secured  the  means  of  subsistence  ;  and  such  schemes  of  improvement  were 
formed  as  prepared  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  opulence  into  the 
colony. 

The  increased  industry  of  the  colonists  was  not  long  before  it  found 
a  new  and  somewhat  singular  channel — the  cultivation  of  tobacco  ;  indeed, 
eo  inconsiderately  and  exclusively  were  their  energies  directed  to  that-  ob- 
ject at  this  time,  that  the  most  fatal  consequences  were  rendered  almost 
inevitable.  The  land  which  ought  to  have  been  reserved  for  raising  pro- 
visions, and  even  the  streets  of  Jamestown,  were  planted  with  tobacco. 
Various  regulations  were  framed  to  restrain  this  ill-directed  activity ;  but, 
from  eagerness  for  present  gain,  the  planters  disregarded  every  admonition. 
Tobacco,  however,  had  many  trials  to  pass  through  before  it  reached  its 
present  established  station.  King  James  declared  himself  its  open  enemy^ 
and  drew  against  it  his  royal  pen.  In  the  work  which  he  entitled  '  Coun- 
terblast to  Tobacco,'  he  poured  the  most  bitter  reproaches  on  this  '  vile 
and  nauseous  weed.'  He  followed  it  up  by  a  proclamation  to  restrain  the 
disorderly  trading  in  tobacco,  as  tending  to  a  general  and  new  corruption 
of  both  men's  bodies  and  minds.  Yet  tobacco,  like  other  proscribed  ob- 
jects, throve  under  persecution,  and  achieved  a  final  triumph  over  all  its 
enemies. 

Financially,  the  colony  was  now  in  a  flourishing  state ;  politically,  it 
was  badly  administered.  Its  president  was  captain  Argal,  a  rigid  master, 
and  absurd  tyrant.  One  of  his  edicts  is  worth  quoting :  it  ordered  '  That 
every  person  should  go  to  church  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  or  be  kept 
confined  the  night  succeeding  the  offence,  and  be  a  slave  to  the  colony  for 
the  following  week ;  for  the  second  offence,  a  slave  for  a  month ;  and  for 
the  third,  a  year  and  a  day.'  From  the  representations  made  to  him  of 
the  misrule  of  this  man,  lord  Delaware  embarked  a  second  time  for  Ame- 
rica ;  but  died  on  the  voyage,  in  or  near  the  bay  which  bears  his  name. 
His  death  was  the  signal  for  renewed  outrages  on  the  part  of  the  colonial 
tyrant,  and  the  office  of  captain-general  was  transferred  to  Mr.  Yeardley. 
He  arrived  in  April,  and  immediately  convoked  a  colonial  assembly,  which 
met  at  Jamestown  on  the  19th  of  June,  and  was  the  first  representative 
legislature  which  assembled  in  the  transatlantic  states. 

The  full  tide  of  prosperity  was  now  enjoyed  by  the  colony.  Its  num- 
bers greatly  increased,  and  its  settlements  became  widely  extended.  At 
peace  with  the  Indians,  it  reposed  in  perfect  security,  and  realized  the 
happiness  its  fortunate  situation  and  favorable  prospects  afforded,  without 
suspecting  the  sudden  and  terrible  reverse  of  fortune  it  was  doomed  to 
experience.  Opechankanough,  the  successor  of  Powhatan,  had  adopted 
with  ardor  all  the  early  enmity  of  his  native  tribe  against  the  settlers  ;  and 
he  formed  one  of  those  dreadful  schemes,  so  frequent  in  Indian  annals,  of 
exterminating  the  whole  race  at  one  blow.  Such  was  the  fidelity  of  his 
people,  and  so  deep  the  power  of  savage  dissimulation,  that  this  dire 
scheme  was  matured  without  the  slightest  intimation  reaching  the  Eng- 
lish, who  neither  attended  to  the  movements  of  the  Indians,  nor  suspected 


HISTORY  565 

tlieir  machinations ;  and  though  surrounded  by  a  people  whom  they 
might  have  known  from  experience  to  be  both  artful  and  vindictive,  they 
neglected  those  precautions  for  their  own  safety  that  were  requisite  in 
such  circumstances. 

All  the  tribes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  English  settlements  were  successively 
gained,  except  those  on  the  eastern  shore,  from  whom,  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  attachment  to  their  new  neighbors,  every  circumstance  that  might 
discover  what  they  intended  was  carefully  concealed.  To  each  tribe  its 
station  was  allotted,  and  the  part  it  was  to  act  prescribed.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  day  consecrated  to  vengeance,  each  was  at  the  place  of  rendez- 
vous appointed;  and  at  mid-day,  the  moment  they  had  previously  fixed  for 
this  execrable  deed,  the  Indians,  raising  a  universal  yell,  rushed  at  once  on 
the  English  in  all  their  scattered  settlements,  butchering  men,  women,  and 
children,  with  undistinguishing  fury,  and  every  aggravation  of  brutal  out- 
rage and  savage  cruelty.  In  one  hour,  three  hundred  and  forty-seven 
persons  were  cut  off,  almost  without  knowing  by  whose  hands  they  fell. 
Indeed,  the  universal  destruction  of  the  colonists  was  prevented  only  by 
the  consequences  of  an  event,  which  perhaps  appeared  but  of  little  impor- 
tance in  the  colony  at  the  time  when  it  took  place — the  conversion  of  an 
Indian  to  the  Christian  faith.  On  the  night  before  the  massacre,  this  man 
was  made  privy  to  it  by  his  own  brother  ;  but  as  soon  as  his  brother  left 
him  he  revealed  the  dreadful  secret  to  an  English  gentleman  in  whose 
house  he  was  residing,  who  immediately  carried  the  tidings  to  James 
town,  and  communicated  them  to  some  of  the  nearest  settlers,  scarcely  in 
time  to  prevent  the  last  hour  of  the  perfidious  truce  from  being  the  last 
hour  of  their  lives. 

A  bloody  and  exterminating  war  followed,  in  which  the  English  were 
victorious,  but  by  which  they  were  much  reduced  in  numbers.  Famine 
came  in  the  train  of  battle,  and  made  additional  devastation.  A  writ  of 
quo  warranto  was  issued  against  the  company,  under  whose  rule  these  ca- 
lamities had  been  suffered.  It  was  brought  to  trial  in  the  court  of  king's 
bench,  and  their  charter  was  vacated.  A  new  commission  was  issued  for 
the  government  of  Virginia,  in  which  the  republican  tendencies  of  the  pre- 
vious government  were  duly  restrained. 

Charles  I.  on  the  demise  of  his  predecessor  reduced  the  colony  under 
the  immediate  direction  of  the  crown,  appointing  a  governor  and  council, 
and  ordering  all  patents  and  processes  to  issue  in  his  own  name.  His  first 
appointment  of  governor  elevated  Sir  George  Yeardley  to  that  office,  but 
he  died  early,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  despotic  Sir  John  Harvey,  who 
managed  to  make  himself  perfectly  odious  to  the  people  whom  he  was  sent 
to  govern.  The  public  mind  became  finally  so  much  excited,  that  even 
the  despotic  Charles  thought  it  prudent  to  recall  his  minion,  and  Sir  Wil- 
liam Berkeley  was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 

Sir  William  was  as  eminent,  as  his  predecessor  had  been  deficient,  in 
all  popular  virtues;  and  he  was  the  bearer  of  instructions  which  directed 
him  to  restore  the  colonial  assembly,  and  invite  it  to  enact  a  body  of  laws 
for  the  province.  Thus  unexpectedly  the  colonists  were  restored  to  their 
old  system  of  freedom,  and  the  consequence  was  universal  gratitude  and 
joy.  The  king  became  universally  popular,  and  during  the  civil  wars, 
the  colony  continued  faithful  to  the  royal  cause. 

The  next  incident  of  great  interest  in  the  history  of  Virginia,  is  th* 

4S 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

t ebellion  consequent  on  the  passage  of  the  navigation  act ;  by  which  the 
plan  of  monopolizing  to  England  the  commerce  of  the  colonies  was  per- 
fected and  reduced  into  a  complete  system. 

This  oppressive  system  excited  great  indignation  in  Virginia,  where  the 
extensive  commerce  and  pre-eminent  loyalty  of  the  people  rendered  the 
pressure  of  the  burden  more  severe,  and  the  infliction  of  it  more  exaspe 
rating.  The  excitement  became  general,  and  was  worked  up  to  such  a 
pitch,  that  nothing  was  wanting  to  precipitate  the  people  into  the  most 
desperate  acts,  but  some  leader  qualified  to  unite  and  to  direct  their  opera 
tions.  Such  a  leader  they  found  in  Nathaniel  Bacon.  He  was  a  lawyer, 
educated  in  London,  and  Was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  a  short 
time  after  his  emigration  to  Virginia.  Young,  bold,  ambitious,  With  an 
engaging  address,  and  commanding  eloquence,  he  harangued  the  colonists 
upon  their  grievances  ;  inflamed  their  resentment  against  their  rulers  ;  de- 
claimed particularly  against  the  languor  with  which  the  war,  then  existing 
with  the  Indians,  had  been  conducted ;  and  such  was  the  effect  of  his 
representations,  that  he  was  elected  general  by  the  people.  To  give  some 
color  of  legitimacy  to  the  authority  he  had  acquired,  and  perhaps  expect- 
ing to  precipitate  matters  to  the  extremity  which  his  interest  required  that 
they  should  speedily  reach,  he  applied  to  the  governor  for  an  official  con- 
firmation of  the  popular  election,  and  offered  instantly  to  march  against  the 
common  enemy.  This  Sir  William  Berkeley  firmly  refused,  and  issued  a 
proclamation  commanding  the  dispersion  of  the  insurgents.  Bacon  had 
advanced  too  far  to  recede  ;  and  he  hastened,  at  the  head  of  six  hundred 
armed  followers,  to  Jamestown,  surrounded  the  house  where  the  governor 
and  council  were  assembled,  and  repeated  his  demand. 

Intimidated  by  the  threats  of  the  enraged  multitude,  the  council  hastily 
prepared  a  commission,  and,  by  their  entreaties,  prevailed  on  the  governor 
to  sign  it.  Bacon  and  his  troops  then  began  their  march  against  the  In- 
dians ;  but  no  sooner  were  the  council  relieved  from  their  fears,  than  they 
declared  the  commission  void,  and  proclaimed  Bacon  a  rebel.  Enraged 
at  this  conduct,  he  instantly  returned,  with  all  his  forces,  to  Jamestown. 
The  aged  governor,  unsupported,  and  almost  abandoned,  fled  precipitately 
to  Accomack,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  colony ;  collecting  those  who 
Were  well  affected  towards  his  administration,  he  began  to  oppose  the  in- 
surgents, and  several  skirmishes  were  fought,  with  various  success.  A 
party  of  the  insurgents  burned  Jamestown,  laid  waste  those  districts  of 
the  colony  which  adhered  to  the  old  administration,  and  confiscated  the 
property  of  the  loyalists.  The  governor,  in  retaliation,  seized  the  estates 
of  many  of  the  insurgents,  and  executed  several  of  their  leaders.  In  the 
midst  of  these  calamities  Bacon  sickened  and  died.  Destitute  of  a  leader 
to  conduct  and  animate  them,  their  sanguine  hopes  of  success  subsided  ;  all 
began  to  desire  an  accommodation;  and  after  a  brief  negotiation  with  the  go- 
vernor they  laid  down  their  arms,  on  obtaining  a  promise  of  general  pardon. 

On  hearing  of  the  disturbances  in  Virginia,  Charles  despatched,  though 
with  no  great  haste,  a  fleet  with  some  troops  for  its  pacification.  These 
did  not  arrive,  however,  till  they  might  well  have  been  dispensed  with. 
With  them  came  colonel  Jeffreys,  appointed  to  recall  and  replace  Sir 
William  Berkeley  in  the  government  of  the  colony.  This  brave  and  be- 
nevolent man  did  not  long  survive  his  dismissal,  and  may  justly  be  said  to 
have  lived  and  died  in  the  service  of  Virginia. 


HISTORY.  567 

A  succession  of  weak  and  tyrannical  rulers  followed  the  recall  of  Sir 
William  Berkeley.  Notwithstanding  the  unfavorable  circumstances  under 
which  it  labored,  the  colony  continued  to  increase.  Tobacco  grew  in 
demand  in  Europe,  and  its  cultivation  gave  constant  employment  to  the 
planters.  The  situation  of  the  colony,  removed  alike  from  the  French  in 
Canada,  and  the  Spaniards  in  Florida,  saved  it  from  their  hostile  incursions, 
and  procured  for  it  a  comparative  repose. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

In  the  order  of  time,  the  settlement  of  the  northern  states  followed  next 
after  that  of  Virginia.  In  the  year  1614,  captain  Smith  explored  the  coast 
with  much  care  between  Penobscot  and  cape  Cod.  He  presented  a  chart 
and  description  of  it  to  Charles,  prince  of  Wales,  who  was  so  well  pleased 
with  the  country  that  he  called  it  New  England  ;  a  name  which  has  since 
been  applied  to  the  provinces  east  of  the  Hudson. 

In  1620,  that  country  began  to  be  colonized  by  a  body  of  Puritans  ;  who 
had  been  first  driven  to  Holland,  by  the  mad  intolerance  of  the  English 
government,  and  afterwards  determined  to  emigrate  to  America.  They 
applied  to  the  Virginia  company  for  a  patent,  and  it  was  not  unwilling  to 
favor  their  views.  They  solicited  full  freedom  of  conscience,  but  this  the 
king  declined  granting  under  the  great  seal :  he  promised,  however,  not 
to  molest  them,  so  long  as  they  behaved  themselves  peaceably. 

The  first  band  of  these  Puritans,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  one  per- 
sons, reached  cape  Cod  at  break  of  day  on  the  9th  of  November,  1620. 
Observing  that  they  were  beyond  the  limits  of  the  company's  patent,  they 
had  no  powers  of  government  derived  from  authority  ;  and,  therefore,  even 
before  landing,  they  formed  themselves  into  a  '  civil  body  politic,  under 
the  crown  of  England,  for  the  purpose  of  framing  just  and  equal  laws, 
ordinances,  acts,  constitutions,  and  offices,'  to  which  they  promised  all  due 
submission  and  obedience.  Forty-one  persons  signed  this  contract.  It 
contained  the  elements  of  those  forms  of  government  peculiar  to  the  new 
world.  Under  this  system,  John  Carver  was,  by  general  consent,  chosen 
their  first  governor,  '  confiding,'  as  the  electors  say,  ■  in  his  prudence, 
that  he  would  not  adventure  upon  any  matter  of  moment  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  rest,  or,  at  least,  advice  of  such  as  were  known  to  be  the  wisest 
among  them.' 

Government  being  thus  established,  sixteen  men,  well  armed,  with  a 
few  others,  were  sent  on  shore  the  same  day,  to  fetch  wood  and  make  dis- 
coveries ;  but  they  returned  at  night  without  having  found  any  person  or 
habitation.  The  company,  having  rested  during  the  Sabbath,  disembarked 
on  Monday,  the  13th  of  November  ;  and  soon  after  proceeded  to  explore 
the  interior  of  the  country.  In  their  researches  they  discovered  heaps  of 
earth,  one  of  which  they  dug  open,  but,  finding  within  implements  of 
war,  they  concluded  these  were  Indian  graves  ;  and  therefore,  replacing 
what  they  had  taken  out,  they  left  them  inviolate.  In  different  heaps  of 
sand  they  also  found  baskets  of  corn,  a  large  quantity  of  which  they  car- 
ried away  in  a  great  kettle,  found  at  the  ruins  of  an  Indian  house.  This 
providential  discovery  gave  them  seed  for  a  future  harvest,  and  preserved 
the  infant  colony  from  famine.  On  the  6th  of  December  the  shallop  was 
gent  out  with  several  of  the  principal  men,  to  sail  round  the  bay  in  search 


568  BOOK   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  a  place  for  settlement.  During  their  researches,  part  of  the  company 
travelled  along  the  shore,  where  they  were  surprised  by  a  flight  of  arrows 
from  a  party  of  Indians  ;  but,  on  the  discharge  of  the  English  muskets, 
the  Indians  instantly  disappeared.  The  shallop,  after  imminent  hazard  from 
the  loss  of  its  rudder  and  mast  in  a  storm,  and  from  shoals,  which  it  nar- 
rowly escaped,  reached  a  small  island  on  the  night  of  the  8th ;  here  the 
company  reposed  themselves,  grateful  for  their  preservation  during  the 
week;  and  on  this  island  they  kept  the  Sabbath.  The  day  following  they 
sounded  the  harbor,  and  found  it  fit  for  shipping ;  went  on  shore,  and  ex- 
plored the  adjacent  land,  where  they  saw  various  corn-fields  and  brooks  ; 
and,  judging  the  situation  to  be  convenient  for  a  settlement,  they  returned 
with  the  welcome  intelligence  to  the  ship. 

On  the  23d,  as  many  of  the  company  as  could,  with  convenience,  went 
on  shore,  and  felled,  and  carried  timber  to  the  spot  appropriated  for  the 
erection  of  a  building  for  common  use.  On  the  25th,  they  commenced  the 
erection  of  the  first  house.  A  platform  for  their  ordnance  demanding  the 
earliest  attention,  they  formed  one  upon  a  hill,  which  commanded  an  ex- 
tensive prospect  of  the  plain  beneath,  of  the  expanding  bay,  and  of  the 
distant  ocean.  They  divided  their  whole  company  into  nineteen  families ; 
measured  out  the  ground ;  and  assigned  to  every  person  by  lot  half  a  pole 
in  breadth,  and  three  poles  in  length,  for  houses  and  gardens.  In  grateful 
remembrance  of  the  Christian  friends  whom  they  found  at  the  last  town 
they  left  in  their  native  country,  they  called  their  settlement  Plymouth. 
Thus  was  founded  the  first  British  town  of  New  England. 

The  climate  was  found  much  more  severe  than  the  colonists  had  antici- 
pated ;  and  they  had  arrived  when  winter  was  nearly  one-third  advanced. 
They  had  every  thing  to  do,  and  in  this  season  could  do  very  little,  even 
of  what  was  indispensable.  Their  shelter  was  wretched  ;  their  sufferings 
were  intense ;  their  dangers  were  not  small,  and  were  rendered  painful  by 
an  absolute  uncertainty  of  their  extent.  All  these  evils  they  encountered 
with  resolution,  and  sustained  with  fortitude.  To  each  other  they  were 
kind  :  to  the.  savages  they  were  just:  they  loved  the  truth  of  the  gospel; 
embraced  it, in  its  purity;  and  obeyed  it  with  an  excellence  of  life,  which 
added  a  new  wreath  to  the  character  of  man. 

Among  the  attempts  at  forming  settlements  at  this  time  was  one  of  a 
character  as  peculiar  as  it  was  undesirable.  Captain  Wollaston  began  a 
plantation,  which  he  named  after  himself.  One  Morton,  of  Furnival's  inn, 
was  of  this  company.  He  was  not  left  in  command,  but  contrived  to  make 
himself  chief,  changed  the  name  of  mount  Wollaston  to  Merry  mount,  set 
all  the  servants  free,  erected  a  may-pole,  and  lived  a  life  of  dissipation, 
until  all  the  stock  intended  for  trade  was  consumed.  He  was  charged 
with  furnishing  the  Indians  with  guns  and  ammunition,  and  teaching  them 
the  use  of  them.  At  length,  he  made  himself  so  obnoxious  to  the  planters 
in  all  parts,  that,  at  their  general  desire,  the  people  of  New  Plymouth 
seized  him  by  an  armed  force,  and  confined  him,  until  they  had  opportunity 
of  sending  him  to  England. 

The  time  was  now  at  hand,  when  the  causes  which  had  induced  the 
voluntary  exile  of  the  Leyden  congregation,  should  produce  an  effect  far 
more  extensive.  Applications  to  the  Plymouth  company  from  Puritan  con- 
gregations were  now  becoming  frequent ;  and,  in  the  year  1628,  the  coun- 
cil of  Plymouth  sold  to  Sir  Henry  Roswell  and  others,  their  heirs  and 


HISTORY.  569 

associates,  that  part  of  New  England  which  lies  between  two  boundaries, 
one  three  miles  north  of  the  Merrimac,  and  the  other  three  miles  south  of 
Charles  river,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  South  sea.  The  same  year  Mr. 
Endicot,  one  of  the  patentees,  came  to  New  England,  and  planted  himself, 
with  a  small  colony,  in  Naumkeag,  now  Salem.  The  following  year  they 
were  joined  by  about  two  hundred  others,  making  three  hundred  in  the 
whole,  one  hundred  of  whom,  however,  removed  the  same  year,  and  set- 
tled themselves,  with  the  consent  of  Mr.  Endicot,  governor  of  the  colony, 
at  Mishawum,  now  Charlestown.  The  second  Salem  company  brought 
with  them  a  considerable  number  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats  ;  which 
after  a  little  period,  became  so  numerous  as  to  supply  all  the  wants  of  the 
inhabitants.  Powers  of  government  were  granted  to  these  colonists  by 
Charles  I.,  which  constituted  them  a  corporation,  by  the  name  of  The  Go- 
vernor and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  New  England,  with  power 
to  elect  annually  a  governor,  deputy  governor,  and  eighteen  assistants ; 
four  great  and  general  courts  were  to  be  held  every  year,  to  consist  of  the 
governor,  or,  in  his  absence,  the  deputy  governor,  the  assistants,  or  at  least 
six  of  them,  and  the  freemen  of  the  company. 

The  arbitrary  proceedings  of  the  British  court,  in  affairs  both  of  church 
and  state,  continued  without  any  abatement,  and  induced  many  gentlemen 
of  wealth  and  distinction  to  join  the  Plymouth  company,  and  remove  to 
New  England.  In  1629,  many  persons  of  this  character,  and  among  them 
the  distinguished  names  of  Isaac  Johnson,  John  Winthrop,  Thomas  Dud- 
ley, and  Sir  Richard  Saltonstall,  proposed  to  the  company  to  remove  with 
their  families,  on  condition  that  the  charter  and  government  should  be 
transferred  to  New  England.  To  this  the  company  assented,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  next  year,  John  Winthrop,  who  had  been  chosen  governor, 
with  about  one  thousand  five  hundred  persons,  embarked.  The  fleet  con- 
sisted of  ten  sail,  one  of  which  was  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  tons,  and, 
from  lady  Arabella  Johnson,  who  sailed  in  her,  was  called  the  Arabella. 
Among  the  passengers  were  a  number  of  eminent  non-conformist  minis- 
ters. The  most  highly  esteemed  was  Mr.  Wilson,  the  son  of  a  dignitary 
of  the  church,  who,  by  his  connexions  and  talents,  might  have  aspired  to 
its  highest  honors,  but  chose  to  renounce  all,  in  order  to  suffer  with  those 
whom  he  accounted  the  people  of  God.  But  the  circumstance  which 
threw  a  greater  lustre  on  the  colony  than  any  other,  was  the  arrival  of 
Mr.  John  Cotton,  the  most  esteemed  of  all  the  Puritan  ministers  in  Eng'- 
land.  Becoming  an  object  of  the  persecuting  fury  of  Laud,  he  left  Bos- 
ton in  disguise,  and  spent  some  time  in  London,  seeking  a  proper  opportu- 
nity to  emigrate.  There  went  out  with  him  Mr.  Hooker  and  Mr.  Stone, 
who  were  esteemed  to  make  a  glorious  triumvirate,  and  were  received  in 
New  England  with  the  utmost  exultation.  Mr.  Cotton  was  appointed  to 
preach  at  Boston,  now  the  principal  town  in  Massachusetts  bay,  and  was 
mainly  employed  in  drawing  up  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  of  the 
colony. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  principal  ships  of  the  fleet  at  Charlestown,  the 
governor  and  several  of  the  patentees,  having  viewed  the  bottom  of  the 
bay  of  Massachusetts,  and  pitched  down  on  the  north  side  of  Charles 
river,  took  lodgings  in  the  great  house  built  there  the  preceding  year,  and 
the  rest  of  the  company  erected  cottages,  booths,  and  tents,  cfbout^the  town 
hill.  Their  place  of  assembling  for  divine  service  was  under  a  tree. 
72  48* 


570  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

When  the  fleet  had  safely  arrived,  a  day  of  thanksgiving  was  kept  in  all 
the  plantations.  Early  attention  was  paid  to  the  great  object  of  the  en- 
terprise. On  the  30th  of  July,  a  day  of  solemn  prayer  and  fasting  was 
kept  at  Charlestown,  when  governor  Winthrop,  deputy  governor  Dudley, 
and  Mr.  Wilson,  first  entered  into  church  covenant;  and  at  this  time  was 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Charlestown,  and  of  the  first  church 
in  Boston.  On  the  27th  of  August,  the  congregation  kept  a  fast,  and  chose 
Mr.  Wilson  their  teacher.  '  We  used  imposition  of  hands,'  says  governor 
Winthrop,  '  but  with  this  protestation  by  all,  that  it  was  only  a  sign  of 
election  and  confirmation,  not  of  any  intent  that  Mr.  Wilson  should  re- 
nounce the  ministry  he  received  in  England.' 

The  colony  was  now  gaining  strength  from  its  numbers  and  organiza- 
tion ;  but  it  had  also  its  trials  to  contend  with,  not  the  least  of  which  was 
the  sickness  arising  from  the  severity  of  the  climate,  or,  more  truly,  from 
the  means  of  counteracting  the  injurious  tendencies  of  the  climate  not  be- 
ing yet  properly  understood.  Among  those  who  fell  an  early  sacrifice, 
none  were  lamented  more  than  lady  Arabella  Johnson  and  her  husband, 
who  had  left  the  abodes  of  abundance  and  of  social  comfort  for  the  Ame- 
rican wilderness,  purely  from  religious  principle.  As  soon  as  the  severity 
of  the  winter  was  abated  sufficiently  to  admit  of  assemblies  being  convened, 
the  colonists  proceeded  to  enact  laws  for  their  internal  regulation.  It  has 
been  before  observed,  that  those  who  so  resolutely  ventured  to  cross  the 
ocean,  and  to  brave  the  hardships  attendant  on  clearing  the  American 
forests,  sought  rather  to  establish  churches,  than  to  found  a  kingdom ;  it 
will  naturally  be  supposed,  therefore,  that  their  legislation  partook  largely 
of  an  ecclesiastical  character.  Indeed,  the  history  of  this  colony  presents 
more  matter  for  the  ecclesiastical  than  the  civil  historian.  At  the  very 
first  court  of  election  a  law  was  passed,  enacting  that  none  should  here- 
after be  admitted  freemen,  or  be  entitled  to  any  share  in  the  government, 
or  be  capable  of  being  chosen  magistrates,  or  even  of  serving  as  jurymen, 
but  such  as  had  been  or  should  hereafter  be  received  into  the  church  as 
members.  '  This  was  a  most  extraordinary  order  or  law,'  says  Hutchinson, 
'  and  yet  it  continued  in  force  until  the  dissolution  of  the  government,  it 
being  repealed  in  appearance  only  after  the  restoration  of  king  Charles  II. 
Had  they  been  deprived  of  their  civil  privileges  in  England  by  an  act  of 
parliament,  unless  they  would  join  in  communion  with  the  churches  there, 
it  might  very  well  have  been  the  first  in  the  roll  of  grievances.  But  such 
were  the  requisites  to  qualify  for  church-membership  here,  that  the  griev- 
ance was  abundantly  greater.' 

The  baneful  influence  of  the  erroneous  principles  of  the  union  of  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  power,  soon  became  apparent  in  the  persecution  of 
the  most  liberally  minded  man  in  the  colony,  Eoger  Williams.  It  is  true 
that  he  enthusiastically  supported  some  tenets  which  were  deemed  hete- 
rodox, and  occasioned  considerable  excitement  by  inveighing  against  the 
use  of  the  cross  in  the  national  flag.  In  consequence  of  the  spread  of  his 
opinion,  some  of  the  troops  would  not  act  till  the  relic  of  popery,  as  they 
considered  it,  was  cut  out  of  the  banner,  while  others  would  not  serve  un- 
der any  flag  from  which  it  was  erased.  At  length  a  compromise  was 
entered  into,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  obnoxious  emblem  should 
be  omitted  from  the  banners  of  the  militia,  while  it  was  retained  in 
those  of  the  forts.     This,  however,  was  only  one  of  the  errors  charged 


HISTORY.  571 

against  Williams ;  it  is  said  that  he  maintained  that  no  female  should  go 
abroad  unless  veiled ;  that  unregenerate  men  ought  neither  to  pray  nor  to 
take  oaths ;  that,  indeed,  oaths  had  better  be  altogether  omitted  ;  that  the 
churches  of  New  England  should  not  acknowledge  or  communicate  with 
the  hierarchy  from  which  they  had  separated  ;  that  infants  should  not  be 
subjects  of  baptism ;  that  the  magistrate  should  confine  his  authority  wholly 
to  temporal  affairs ;  and  that  James  or  Charles  of  England  had  no  right 
at  all  to  grant  away  the  lands  of  the  Indians  without  their  consent.  For 
the  zealous  propagation  of  these  sentiments,  he  was  deemed  worthy  of 
banishment  from  the  colony  of  Massachusetts.  The  order  of  the  court 
was,  that  he  should  be  transported  to  England ;  but  he  escaped  the  limits 
of  their  jurisdiction,  repaired  to  the  Narraganset  country,  and  became  the 
founder  of  a  new  colony. 

During  the  year  1635,  no  less  than  three  thousand  persons  arrived  in 
New  England.  Among  them  was  Henry  Vane,  a  young  man  of  noble 
family,  animated  with  a  devotion  to  the  cause  of  religion  and  liberty, 
which  induced  him  to  relinquish  all  his  hopes  in  England,  and  settle  in  an 
infant  colony  which  as  yet  afforded  little  more  than  a  bare  subsistence  to 
its  inhabitants :  he  was  naturally  received  in  New  England  with  high  re- 
gard and  admiration,  and  was  instantly  complimented  with  the  freedom 
of  the  colony.  Enforcing  his  claims  to  respect  by  the  address  and  ability 
which  he  showed  in  conducting  business,  he  was  elected  governor  in  the 
year  subsequent  to  his  arrival,  by  the  universal  consent  of  the  colonists, 
and  with  the  highest  expectations  of  an  advantageous  administration. 
These  hopes,  we  shall  find  in  the  sequel,  were  by  no  means  realized.  He 
entered  too  deeply  into  polemical  theology,  to  allow  him  to  devote  tho 
energies  of  his  mind  to  the  civil  and  political  duties  which  afforded  so 
abundant  a  field  for  their  exercise. 

A  brief  period  elapsed  after  the  expulsion  of  Roger  Williams,  before  the 
repose  of  the  colony  was  again  interrupted  by  religious  dissensions.  The 
Puritans  had  transported,  with  their  other  religious  practices,  that  of  as- 
sembling one  evening  in  the  week  to  converse  over  the  discourses  of  the 
preceding  Sabbath  ;  a  proceeding  well  calculated  to  keep  alive  that  zeal 
which  arises  from  the  vigorous  exercise  of  private  judgment,  but  not  to 
promote  the  subserviency  requisite  to  a  quiet  submission  to  the  uniformity 
of  authorized  opinions.  These  meetings  had  been  originally  confined  to 
the  brethren  ;  but  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  a  lady  of  respectable  station  in  life, 
of  considerable  native  talent,  and  of  affable  manners,  deemed  it  desirable 
that  the  sisters  should  also  exercise  a  similar  privilege.  Unfortunately,  it 
was  not  long  before  this  lady  and  her  associates  discovered  that  there 
would  be  much  more  propriety  in  their  instructing  their  ministers  than  in 
the  reverse  process,  which  had  hitherto  prevailed.  They  adopted  that 
most  convenient  dogma,  that  good  works  are  no  evidence  of  being  a  true 
Christian,  or  one  of  the  elect ;  and  that  the  only  testimony  to  a  state  of 
justification,  was  the  overpowering  assurance  of  the  mind,  produced  by  the 
immediate  influence  of  the  divine  Spirit. 

The  disturbance  occasioned  by  the  propagation  of  these  offensive  senti- 
ments, was  aggravated  by  the  circumstance  of  the  governor,  Mr.  Vane, 
being  their  decided  advocate.  Vehement  discussions  and  bitter  accusations 
abounded  ;  but  the  antinomian  party,  though  most  zealous,  were  least  nume- 
rous ;  and  at  the  annual  election,  Mr.   Vane  was  displaced  by  Mr.  Win- 


572  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

throp,  by  a  very  decided  majority.  After  various  measures  had  been  re- 
sorted to,  in  order  to  bring  the  dissentients  within  the  pale  of  orthodoxy, 
a  synod  was  called,  which  determined  that  the  sentiments  of  Mrs.  Hutch- 
inson and  her  followers  were  grievously  erroneous,  and,  as  they  still  refused 
submission,  the  favorite  measure  of  banishment  was  had  recourse  to. 
Another  accession  was  thus  made  to  the  '  alluvies,'  as  Mather  terms  it,  of 
Rhode  Island  ;  but  not  finding  that  land  of  liberty  perfectly  to  her  taste 
Mrs.  Hutchinson  removed  to  a  Dutch  plantation,  where,  not  long  after,  she 
was  basely  murdered,  with  many  of  her  family,  by  the  Indians. 

It  does  not  fall  within  our  plan  to  follow  out  the  details  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical persecutions  that  disfigure  the  early  history  of  New  England.  Al- 
though themselves  fugitives  from  the  terrors  of  persecution,  the  Puritans 
entertained  no  particular  toleration  for  the  tenets  of  those  who  came  to 
different  conclusions.  They  whipped,  banished,  and  imprisoned  Anabap- 
tists, Quakers  and  others,  whose  obstinacy  was  equal  to  their  own,  and 
whose  power  was  unfortunately  less.  Like  many  other  enthusiasts,  they 
entertained  a  strong  predilection  for  the  phraseology  and  manners  of  the 
Hebrews,  whose  laws  they  ill  understood.  Lying,  drunkenness  and 
dancing  were  punished  with  public  whipping;  and  for  a  man  to  have  long 
hair  was  considered  an  abomination,  and  inconsistent  with  the  care  of  the 
soul. 

A  more  important  subject  than  religious  wrangling,  is  the  union  formed 
by  the  New  England  colonists,  for  mutual  defence  against  the  savages,  and 
for  security  against  the  claims  and  encroachments  of  the  Dutch.  This 
union,  or  confederation,  was  formed  in  1643,  by  the  name  of  The  United 
Colonies  of  New  England.  It  had  been  proposed  by  the  colonies  of  Con- 
necticut and  New  Haven,  as  early  as  1638,  but  was  not  finally  completed 
until  five  years  after.  This  confederacy,  which  continued  about  forty 
years,  constituted  an  interesting  portion  of  the  political  history  of  New 
England.  It  consisted  of  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  New  Plymouth, 
Connecticut,  and  New  Haven.  By  the  articles  of  confederation,  as  they 
were  called,  these  colonies  entered  into  a  firm  and  perpetual  league  of 
friendship  and  amity,  for  offence  and  defence,  mutual  advice  and  succor, 
upon  all  just  occasions,  both  for  preserving  and  propagating  the  truth  and 
liberties  of  the  gospel,  and  for  their  own  mutual  safety  and  welfare.  Each 
colony  was  to  retain  its  own  peculiar  jurisdiction  and  government ;  and  no 
other  plantation  or  colony  was  to  be  received  as  a  confederate,  nor  any  two 
of  the  confederates  to  be  united  into  one  jurisdiction,  without  the  consent 
of  the  rest.  The  affairs  of  the  united  colonies  were  to  be  managed  by  a 
legislature,  to  consist  of  two  persons,  styled  commissioners,  chosen  from 
each  colony.  The  commissioners  were  to  meet  annually  in  the  colonies, 
in  succession,  and  when  met,  to  choose  a  president,  and  the  determination 
of  any  six  to  be  binding  on  all.  This  confederacy,  which  was  declared  to 
to  be  perpetual,  continued  without  any  essential  alteration,  until  the  New 
England  colonies  were  deprived  of  their  charter  by  the  arbitrary  proceed- 
ings of  James  II.  This  union  evidently  served  as  the  basis  of  the  great 
confederacy  afterwards  formed  between  the  thirteen  states  of  America. 
An  examination  of  the  two  systems  will  prove  a  similarity  not  only  in 
names,  but  in  general  principles. 

At  the  termination  of  the  first  half  century  from  the  arrival  of  the  emi- 
grants at  Plymouth,  the  New  England  colonies  were  calculated  to  contain 


HISTORY. 


573 


one  hundred  and  twenty  towns,  and  as  many  thousand  inhabitants ;  of 
whom  sixteen  thousand  were  capable  of  bearing  arms.  The  habits  of 
industry  and  economy,  which  had  been  formed  in  less  happy  times,  conti- 
nued to  prevail,  and  gave  a  competency  to  those  who  had  nothing,  and 
wealth  to  those  who  had  a  competency.  The  wilderness  receded  before 
these  hardy  and  persevering  laborers,  and  its  savage  inhabitants  found 
their  game  dispersed,  and  their  favorite  haunts  invaded.  This  was  the 
natural  consequence  of  the  sales  of  land,  which  they  were  at  all  times 
ready  to  make  to  the  whites.  But  this  result  the  Indians  did  not  foresee  ; 
and  when  they  felt  it  in  all  its  force,  the  strongest  passions  were  awakened 
which  could  animate  the  savage  breast.  A  leader  only  was  wanting  to 
concentrate  and  direct  their  exertions,  and  Philip,  of  Pokanoket,  sachem 
of  a  tribe  residing  within  the  boundaries  of  Plymouth  and  Rhode  Island, 
assumed  that  station.  His  father  was  the  friend,  but  he  had  ever  been  the 
enemy,  of  the  whites ;  and  he  exerted  all  the  arts  of  intrigue,  of  which  he 
was  master,  to  induce  the  Indians,  in  all  parts  of  New  England,  to  unite 
their  efforts  for  their  destruction.  He  succeeded  in  forming  a  confederacy, 
able  to  send  into  action  more  than  three  thousand  warriors. 

The  English  were  apprized  of  the  plots  of  the  Indians,  and  made  prepa- 
rations to  meet  their  hostilities.  They  hoped,  however,  that  the  threatened 
storm  would  pass  by,  as  others  had,  and  that  peace  would  be  preserved. 
But  the  insolence  of  Philip,  and  the  number  of  his  adherents,  increased 
daily ;  and,  in  June,  1675,  some  of  them  entered  the  town  of  Swanzey,  in 


Attack  on  Swanzey. 

Plymouth,  where,  after  slaughtering  the  cattle,  and  plundering  the  houses, 
they  fired  upon  the  inhabitants,  killing  and  wounding  several.  The  troops 
of  that  colony  marched  immediately  to  Swanzey,  and  were  soon  joined  by 
a  detachment  from  Massachusetts.  The  Indians  fled,  and  marked  the 
course  of  their  flight  by  burning-the  buildings,  and  fixing  on  poles  by  the 
way  side,  the  hands,  scalps,  and  heads  of  the  whites  whom  they  had 
killed.  The  troops  pursued,  but  unable  to  overtake  them,  returned  to 
Swanzey.  The  whole  country  was  alarmed,  and  the  number  of  troops 
augmented.     By  this  array  of  force,  Philip  was  induced  to  quit  his  resi- 


574  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

dence  at  mount  Hope,  and  take  post  near  a  swamp  at  Pocasset.  At  that 
place  the  English  attacked  him,  but  were  repulsed.  Sixteen  were  killed, 
and  the  Indians  by  this  success  were  made  bolder. 

Most  of  the  settlements  were  surrounded  by  thick  forests,  and  as  the 
Indians  lived  intermixed  with  the  whites,  the  former  were  acquainted,  of 
course,  with  the  dwellings  of  the  latter,  and  all  the  avenues  to  them ; 
could  watch  their  motions,  and  fall  upon  them  in  their  defenceless  and 
unguarded  moments.  Many  were  shot  dead  as  they  opened  their  doors 
in  the  morning ;  many  while  at  work  in  their  fields,  and  others  while  tra- 
velling to  visit  their  neighbors,  or  to  places  of  worship ;  their  lives  were 
in  continual  jeopardy ;  and  no  one  could  tell  but  that,  in  the  next  moment, 
he  should  receive  his  death  shot  from  his  barn,  the  thicket,  or  the  way 
side.  Whenever  the  enemy  assembled  in  force,  detachments  were  sent 
against  them ;  if  weaker  than  these,  they  would  retreat ;  if  stronger,  as- 
sault and  harass,  or  destroy  them.  Defenceless  villages  were  suddenly 
attacked,  the  houses  burned,  and  the  men,  women  and  children  killed,  or 
carried  into  captivity.  Their  ruin  was  the  work  of  a  moment ;  and  when 
accomplished,  its  authors  vanished.  The  colonists  found  their  numbers 
sensibly  diminished,  and  their  strength  impaired ;  and  they  began  to 
apprehend  even  total  extinction.  Nothing  but  a  vigorous  effort  could 
save  them. 

The  commissioners  of  the  three  United  Colonies  met  on  the  9th  of  Sep- 
tember, and  it  was  concluded,  that  the  war  was  just  and  necessary ;  that 
it  ought  to  be  jointly  prosecuted  by  all  the  United  Colonies ;  and  that 
there  should  be  immediately  raised  1000  soldiers  out  of  the  colonies,  in 
such  proportion  as  the  articles  of  confederation  established:  Massachusetts, 
527;  Plymouth,  158;  Connecticut,  315.  At  an  adjourned  meeting,  the 
commissioners  declared  the  Narragansets  to  be  deeply  accessory  in  the 
present  bloody  outrages  of  the  Indians  that  were  at  open  war,  and  deter- 
mined that  1000  more  soldiers  be  raised,  for  the  Narraganset  expe- 
dition, to  obtain  satisfaction  of  those  Indians,  or  to  treat  them  as  enemies. 
On  the  8th  of  December,  the  Massachusetts  forces  marched  from  Boston, 
and  were  soon  joined  by  those  of  Plymouth.  The  troops  from  Connecticut 
joined  them  on  the  18th,  at  Petaquamscot.  At  break  of  day  the  next 
morning  they  commenced  their  march,  through  a  deep  snow,  toward  the 
enemy,  who  were  about  fifteen  miles  distant  in  a  swamp,  at  the  edge  of 
which  they  arrived  at  one  in  the  afternoon.  The  Indians,  apprized  of  an 
armament  intended  against  them,  had  fortified  themselves  as  strongly  as 
possible  within  the  swamp.  The  English,  without  waiting  to  draw  up  in 
order  of  battle,  marched  forward  in  quest  of  the  enemy's  camp. 

The  Indian  fortress  stood  on  a  rising  ground  in  the  midst  of  the  swamp, 
and  was  composed  of  palisades,  which  were  encompassed  by  a  hedge, 
nearly  a  rod  thick.  It  had  but  one  practicable  entrance,  which  was  over 
a  log,  or  tree,  four  or  five  feet  from  the  ground ;  and  that  aperture  was 
guarded  by  a  block-house.  Falling  providentially  on  this  very  part  of  the 
fort,  the  English  captains  entered  it,  at  the  head  of  their  companies.  The 
two  first,  with  many  of  their  men,  were  shot  dead  at  the  entrance ;  four 
other  captains  were  also  killed.  When  the  troops  had  effected  an  entrance, 
they  attacked  the  Indians,  who  fought  desperately,  and  compelled  the 
English  to  retire  out  of  the  fort ;  but  after  a  hard-fought  battle  of  three 
hours,  they  became  masters  of  the  place,  and  set  fire  to  the  wigwams,  to 


HISTORY. 


575 


the  number  of  five  or  six  hundred,  and  in  the  conflagration  many  Indian 
women .  and  children  perished.     The  surviving  Indians  fled  into  a  cedar 


HP 

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gggfc'  "'I 

Attack  on  the  Indian  Fortress. 


swamp,  at  a  small  distance ;  and  the  English  retired  to  their  quarters. 
Of  the  English  there  were  killed  and  wounded  about  two  hundred  and 
thirty ;  of  the  Indians  one  thousand  are  supposed  to  have  perished. 

From  this  blow,  the  confederated  Indians  never  recovered ;  but  they 
still  remained  sufficiently  strong  to  harass  the  settlements  by  continual 
inroads.  In  retaliation,  the  English  sent  several  detachments  into  their 
territories,  nearly  all  of  which  were  successful.  Captain  Church,  of  Ply- 
mouth, and  captain  Dennison,  of  Connecticut,  were  conspicuous  for  their 
bravery  and  success.  In  the  midst  of  these  reverses,  Philip  remained 
firm  and  unshaken.  His  warriors  were  cut  oflf;  his  chief  men,  his  wife 
and  family,  were  killed,  or  taken  prisoners ;  and  at  these  successive  mis- 
fortunes, he  is  represented  to  have  wept  with  a  bitterness  which  proves 
him  not  to  have  been  destitute  of  the  noblest  affections ;  but  he  disdained 
to  listen  to  any  offers  of  peace.  He  even  shot  one  of  his  men,  who  pro- 
posed submission.  At  length,  after  being  hunted  from  swamp  to  swamp, 
he  was  himself  shot,  by  the  brother  of  the  Indian  he  had  killed.  This 
event  was  certainly  the  signal  of  complete  victory.  The  Indians  in  all  the 
neighboring  country  now  generally  submitted  to  the  English,  or  fled,  and 
incorporated  themselves  with  distant  and  strange  nations.  Never  was  peace 
more  welcome.  In  this  short,  but  tremendous  war,  about  six  hundred 
of  the  inhabitants  of  New  England,  composing  its  principal  strength,  were 
either  killed  in  battle,  or  murdered  by  the  enemy ;  twelve  or  thirteen 
towns  were  entirely  destroyed ;  and  about  six  hundred  buildings,  chiefly 
dwelling-houses,  were  burnt.  In  addition  to  these  calamities,  the  colonies 
contracted  a  very  heavy  debt;  while,  by  the  loss  of  their  substance 
through  the  ravages  of  the  enemy,  their  resources  were  greatly  dimi- 
nished. But,  in  their  deepest  distress,  they  forbore  to  apply  to  the  mother 
country  for  assistance ;  and  this  omission  excited  surprise  and  jealousy. 
'  You  act,'  said  a  privy  counsellor,  ■  as  though  you  were  independent  of 
our  master's  crown ;  and  though  poor,  yet  you  are  proud.' 


576  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  this  unsettled  state  of  the  country,  the  French  in  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia  instigated  the  northern  and  eastern  Indians  to  commence  hostilities 
against  the  English  settlements.  Dover  and  Salmon  Falls,  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, Casco,  in  Maine,  and  Schenectady,  in  New  York,  were  attacked  by 
different  parties  of  French  and  Indians,  and  the  most  shocking  barbarities 
perpetrated  on  the  inhabitants.  The  Indians  having  taken  the  fort  at 
remaquid,  and  the  French  privateers  from  Acadie  still  infesting  the  coast 
of  New  England,  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts  determined  to  make 
an  attempt  on  Port  Royal.  A  fleet,  with  seven  or  eight  hundred  men, 
under  the  command  of  Sir  William  Phipps,  sailed  on  that  expedition  in 
the  latter  end  of  April.  The  fort  at  Port  Royal,  not  being  in  a  state  to 
sustain  a  siege,  surrendered,  with  little  or  no  resistance  ;  and  Sir  William 
took  possession  of  the  whole  sea-coast,  from  Port  Royal  to  the  New  Eng- 
land settlements. 

Regarding  Canada  as  the  principal  source  of  their  miseries,  New  Eng- 
land and  New  York  formed  the  bold  project  of  reducing  it  to  subjection. 
By  great  exertion  they  raised  an  army,  which,  under  the  command  of 
general  Winthrop,  was  sent  against  Montreal,  and  equipped  a  fleet,  which, 
commanded  by  Sir  William  Phipps,  was  destined  to  attack  Quebec. 
The  fleet,  retarded  by  unavoidable  accidents,  did  not  arrive  before  Quebec 
until  the  5th  of  October.  Phipps,  the  next  morning,  sent  a  summons  on 
shore,  but  received  an  insolent  answer  from  count  Frontenac.  The  next 
day  he  attempted  to  land  his  troops,  but  was  prevented  by  the  violence  of 
the  wind.  On  the  8th,  all  the  effective  men,  amounting  to  between  twelve 
and  thirteen  hundred,  landed  at  the  isle  of  Orleans,  four  miles  below  the 
town,  and  were  fired  on  from  the  woods  by  French  and  Indians.  Having 
remained  on  shore  three  days,  they  received  information  from  a  deserter 
of  the  strength  of  the  place,  and  precipitately  embarked.  A  tempest  soon 
after  dispersed  the  fleet,  which  made  the  best  of  its  way  back  to  Boston. 
A  successful  result  had  been  so  confidently  expected,  that  adequate  provi- 
sion was  not  made  at  home  for  the  payment  of  the  troops.  In  this  extre- 
mity, the  government  of  Massachusetts  issued  bills  of  credit,  or  paper 
money;  and  these  were  the  first  that  were  ever  issued  in  the  American 
colonies ;  but  though  it  afforded  relief  at  the  moment,  it  produced  in  its 
consequences  extensive  and  complicated  mischief. 

The  first  trials  for  witchcraft  in  New  England  occurred  in  the  year 
1645,  when  four  persons  charged  with  this  crime  were  put  to  death  in 
Massachusetts.  For  more  than  twenty  years  after,  we  hear  but  little  of 
similar  prosecutions.  But  in  the  year  1688,  a  woman  was  executed  fcjr 
witchcraft  in  Boston,  after  an  investigation  conducted  with  a  degree  of 
solemnity  that  made  a  deep  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  people.  Sus- 
picions having  been  thus  violently  roused,  the  charges  of  witchcraft  began 
gradually  to  multiply,  till  at  length  there  commenced  at  Salem  that  dread- 
ful tragedy  which  rendered  New  England  for  many  months  a  scene  of 
bloodshed,  terror  and  madness,  and  at  one  time  seemed  to  threaten  the 
subversion  of  civil  society. 

In  the  year  1692,  the  frenzy  of  the  colonists  reached  the  highest  pitch 
of  extravagance.  Suspicions  and  accusations  of  witchcraft  became  general 
among  them  ;  and  on  this  fanciful  charge  many  persons  were  put  to 
death.  This  pestilential  visitation  first  showed  itself  in  the  town  of  Salem. 
A  fanatic,  who  was  minister  of  a  church  there,  had  two  daughters  subject 


HISTORY.  577 

to  convulsions.  He  fancied  they  were  bewitched  ;  and  fixed  his  suspicions 
on  an  Indian  girl  who  lived  in  the  house,  as  the  accomplice  and  tool  of 
Satan  in  the  matter.  By  harsh  treatment  he  made  the  poor  savage  ac- 
knowledge herself  a  witch.  Among  a  people  like  the  New  Englanders, 
this  was  throwing  a  firebrand  into  a  powder  magazine ;  and  the  explosion 
was  dreadful.  Every  woman  subject  to  hysterical  affections  instantly 
believed  herself  bewitched  ;  and  was  seldom  at  a  loss  to  discover  the 
guilty  cause  of  her  malady.  Persons  accused  of  the  imaginary  crime  of 
witchcraft  were  imprisoned,  condemned,  hanged,  and  their  bodies  left  ex- 
posed to  wild  beasts  and  birds  of  prey.  Counsellors  who  refused  to  plead 
against  these  devoted  victims,  and  judges  who  were  not  forward  in  con- 
demning them,  were  doomed  to  share  their  fate,  as  accomplices  in  their 
guilt. 

Children  of  ten  years  of  age  were  put  to  death  ;  young  women  were 
stripped  naked,  and  the  marks  of  witchcraft  sought  for  on  their  bodies  with 
unblushing  curiosity.  Scorbutical  or  other  spots  on  the  bodies  of  old  men 
were  reckoned  clear  proofs  of  a  heinous  commerce  with  the  infernal  pow- 
ers. Dreams,  apparitions,  prodigies  of  every  kind,  increased  the  general 
consternation  and  horror.  The  prisons  were  filled,  the  gibbets  left  stand- 
ing, and  the  citizens  were  appalled.  Under  this  frightful  delirium,  the 
miserable  colonists  seemed  doomed  to  destruction  by  each  other's  hands. 
The  more  prudent  withdrew  from  a  country  polluted  by  the  blood  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  the  ruin  of  the  colony  seemed  inevitable ;  when,  ceasing 
to  receive  countenance  from  those  in  authority,  this  awful  frenzy  passed 
away,  almost  as  suddenly  as  it  had  arisen,  leaving  to  future  ages  a  fearful 
warning  against  such  popular  insanity. 

It  is  matter  of  satisfaction  to  the  historian,  that  his  attention  is  not 
again  to  be  diverted,  in  the  annals  of  this  state,  from  his  peculiar  province, 
to  record  events  which,  had  the  intention  of  religion  been  rightly  appre- 
hended, would  not  have  intermixed  with  civil  affairs  in  fact,  and  therefore 
not  in  history.  The  legislature,  at  its  first  session  under  the  new  charter, 
passed  a  law  which  indicates  the  same  independent  spirit  that  afterwards 
resisted  the  usurpations  of  the  British  parliament.  It  provided  that  no 
tax  should  be  imposed  upon  any  of  his  majesty's  subjects,  or  their  estates, 
in  the  province,  but  by  the  act  and  consent  of  the  governor,  council,  and 
representatives  of  the  people,  in  general  court  assembled.  It  is  almost 
needless  to  add,  that  this  law  was  disallowed  by  the  king. 

The  war  with  the  French  and  Indians,  which  began  in  1690,  was  not 
yet  terminated.  For  several  years  were  the  frontier  settlements  harassed 
by  the  savages,  and  the  English  were  employed  in  expeditions  against 
them.  This  continuance  of  the  war  on  the  part  of  the  Indians,  instigated 
and  aided  by  the  French,  induced  repeated  applications  for  a  force  from 
the  British  government,  to  act  in  conjunction  with  land  forces  to  be  raised 
in  New  England  and  New  York,  for  the  reduction  of  Canada ;  and  it 
was  at  length  determined,  that  an  expedition  should  be  undertaken  for 
that  purpose.  A  fleet  was  to  be  employed  in  the  winter  in  the  reduction 
of  Martinico  ;  and,  after  the  performance  of  that  service,  was  to  sail  to 
Boston,  take  on  board  a  body  of  land  forces  under  Sir  William  Phipps: 
and  proceed  to  Quebec.  By  attempting  too  much,  the  whole  of  this  ex- 
tensive project  entirely  failed. 

The  attacks  of  the  natives  on  the  English  continued  with  little  intermii- 
73  49 


578  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

feion  till  the  peace  of  1697.  They  were  carried  on  with  Indian  cunning, 
treachery,  and  cruelty.  •  To  these  causes  of  suffering  were  superadded 
the  power  of  all  such  motives  as  the  ingenuity  of  the  French  could  invent, 
their  wealth  furnish,  or  their  bigotry  adopt.  Here  all  the  implements  of 
War  and  the  means  of  sustenance  were  supplied  ;  the  expedition  was  plan- 
ned ;  the  price  was  bidden  for  scalps ;  the  aid  of  European  officers  and 
soldiers  was  conjoined;  the  devastation  and  slaughter  were  sanctioned  by 
the  ministers  of  religion ;  and  the  blood-hounds,  while  their  fangs  were 
yet  dropping  blood,  were  caressed  and  cherished  by  men  regarded  by  them 
as  superior  beings.  The  intervals  between  formal  attacks  were  usually 
seasons  of  desultory  mischief,  plunder,  and  butchery ;  and  always  of  sus- 
pense and  dread.  The  solitary  family  was  carried  into  captivity;  the 
lonely  house  burned  to  the  ground  ;  and  the  traveller  waylaid  and  shot  in 
the  forest.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  observed,  to  the  immortal  honor  of 
these  people,  distinguished  as  they  are  by  so  many  traits  of  brutal  ferocity, 
that  history  records  no  instance  in  which  the  purity  of  a  female  captive 
Was  violated  by  them,  or  even  threatened.' 

The  peace  of  Ryswick,  which  had  been  signed  on  the  20th  of  Septem- 
ber, was  proclaimed  at  Boston  on  the  10th  of  December,  and  the  English 
colonies  had  a  brief  repose.  By  the  seventh  article  it  was  agreed,  that 
mutual  restitution  should  be  made  of  all  the  countries,  forts,  and  colonies 
taken  by  each  party  during  the  war. 

In  a  few  years  war  again  broke  out  in  Europe,  and  hostilities  speedily 
recommenced  in  America.  The  first  blow  fell  upon  Deerfield.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1704,  it  was  surprised  in  the  night,  about  forty  persons  were  killed, 
and  more  than  one  hundred  were  made  prisoners,  among  whom  were  Mr. 
Williams,  the  minister,  and  his  family.  The  killed  were  scalped,  and  the 
prisoners  commanded  to  prepare  for  a  long  march  to  Canada.  On  the 
second  day,  Mrs.  Williams  was  so  exhausted  with  fatigue  that  she  could 
go  no  farther.  Her  husband  solicited  permission  to  remain  with  her ;  but 
the  retreating  savages,  according  to  their  custom  in  such  cases,  killed  her 
and  compelled  him  to  proceed.  Before  the  termination  of  their  jour- 
ney, twenty  more  became  unable  to  walk,  and  were  in  like  manner 
sacrificed.  Those  who  survived  the  journey  to  Canada  were  treated  by 
the  French  with  humanity  ;  and  after  a  captivity  of  many  years,  most  of 
them  were  redeemed,  and  returned  to  their  friends. 

New  York  having  agreed  with  the  French  and  the  western  Indians  to 
remain  neutral,  the  enemy  were  enabled  to  pour  their  whole  force  upon 
Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  for  ten 
years,  endured  miseries  peculiar  to  an  Indian  war,  of  which  the  description 
We  have  given  falls  below  the  truth.  The  enemy  were  at  all  times  prowl- 
ing about  the  frontier  settlements,  watching  in  concealment  for  an  oppor- 
tunity to  strike  a  sudden  blow,  and  to  fly  with  safety.  The  women  and 
children  retired  into  the  garrisons ;  the  men  left  their  fields  uncultivated, 
or  labored  with  arms  at  their  sides,  and  with  sentinels  at  every  point 
whence  an  attack  could  be  apprehended.  Yet,  notwithstanding  these  pre- 
cautions, the  Indians  were  often  successful,  killing  sometimes  an  individu- 
al, sometimes  a  whole  family,  sometimes  a  band  of  laborers,  ten  or  twelve 
in  number ;  and  so  swift  were  they  in  their  movements,  that  but  few  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  whites.  It  was  computed,  that  the  sum  of  one 
thousand  pounds  was  expended  for  every  Indian  killed  or  made  captive. 


HISTORf.  579 

In  1707,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island,  despatched 
an  armament  against  Port  Royal,  in  Nova  Scotia,  then  in  possession  of 
the  French,  which  returned,  however,  without  effecting  its  object ;  but  in 
1710,  the  troops  of  New  England,  assisted  by  a  British  fleet,  succeeded  in 
reducing  the  place ;  and  in  compliment  to  queen  Anne,  changed  its  name 
to  Annapolis. 

We  pass  over  various  topics  of  interest,  in  regard  to  contests  in  Massa- 
chusetts between  the  people  and  their  governors,  relative  to  certain  prero- 
gatives of  the  crown.  After  a  struggle  of  more  than  thirty  years,  the 
crown  was  compelled  to  yield  to  a  bold  and  persevering  opposition,  and 
the  controversy  was  not  again  renewed  till  the  year  1773. 

In  1744,  war  again  broke  out  between  England  and  France,  and  the 
colonies  were  again  the  theatre  on  which  the  great  drama  was  to  be  acted. 
Commerce  generally,  and  in  particular  the  fisheries,  suffered  greatly  during 
these  hostilities  from  privateers  fitted  out  at  Louisburg,  a  French  port  on 
Cape  Breton.  This  post  was  considered  of  vast  importance,  and  nearly 
six  millions  of  dollars  had  been  expended  on  its  fortifications.  This  post 
it  was  determined  to  subdue,  and  an  expedition  was  sent  against  it  under 
the  command  of  Sir  William  Pepperell,  of  Kittery.  In  conjunction  with 
other  forces  from  England  under  the  command  of  commodore  Warren, 
batteries  were  erected  before  the  town,  and  an  assault  eventually  resolved 
upon.  Discouraged  by  these  adverse  events  and  menacing  appearances, 
the  French  commander  consented  to  capitulate,  and  on  the  sixteenth  of 
June  articles  were  accordingly  signed.  After  the  surrender  of  the  city, 
the  French  flag  was  kept  flying  on  the  ramparts,  and  several  rich  prizes 
were  thus  decoyed.  • 

Fired  with  resentment  at  their  loss,  the  French  made  extraordinary  ex- 
ertions to  retrieve  it,  and  to  inflict  chastisement  on  New  England.  The 
next  summer  they  despatched  to  the  American  coast  a  powerful  fleet,  car- 
rying a  large  number  of  soldiers.  The  news  of  its  approach  spread  terror 
throughout  New  England  ;  but  an  uncommon  succession  of  disasters  de- 
prived it  of  all  power  to  inflict  injury.  After  remaining  a  short  time  on 
the  coast,  it  returned  to  France,  having  lost  two  admirals,  both  of  whom  it 
was  supposed  put  an  end  to  their  lives  through  chagrin  ;  having  also,  by 
tempests,  been  reduced  to  one  half  its  force,  without  effecting  any  of  the 
objects  anticipated. 

In  the  month  of  November,  1747,  a  great  tumult  occurred  in  the  town 
of  Boston,  arising  from  the  following  circumstance  :  Commodore  Knowles, 
while  lying  at  Nantasket  with  a  number  of  men  of  war,  losing  some  of  his 
sailors  by  desertion,  thought  it  reasonable  that  Boston  should  supply  him 
with  as  many  men  as  he  had  lost.  He  therefore  sent  his  boats  early  in 
the  morning,  and  surprised  not  only  as  many  seamen  as  could  be  found 
on  board  any  of  the  ships,  but  pressed  some  ship  carpenters'  apprentices, 
and  other  laboring  landsmen.  This  conduct  was  universally  resented  as 
outrageous ;  and  as  soon  as  it  was  dusk,  several  thousand  people  assem- 
bled in  King's  street,  where  the  general  court  was  sitting.  Stones  and 
brickbats  were  thrown  into  the  council  chamber  through  the  windows.  A 
judicious  speech  of  the  governor  from  the  balcony,  disapproving  of  the 
impress,  promising  his  utmost  endeavors  to  obtain  the  discharge  of  the 
persons  impressed,  but  reprehending  the  irregular  proceedings  of  the  peo- 
ple, had  no  effect. 


580 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  seizure  and  restraint  of  the  commanders  and  other  officers  who 
were  in  town  were  insisted  on,  as  the  only  effectual  method  to  procure  the 


Riot  in  State  Street. 

release  of  the  inhabitants  aboard  the  ships.  The  militia  of  Boston  wag 
summoned  the  next  day  to  the  aid  of  government,  but  refused  to  appear. 
The  governor,  judging  it  inexpedient  to  remain  in  town  another  night, 
withdrew  to  castle  William ;  but  kept  up  a  communication  with  the  com- 
modore, urging  the  liberation  of  the  townsmen.  Meanwhile,  the  council 
and  house  of  representatives  passed  some  vigorous  resolutions,  and  the 
tumultuous  spirit  began  to  subside.  The  inhabitants,  assembled  in  town 
meeting,  while  they  expressed  their  sense  of  the  great  insult  and  injury 
bv  the  impress,  condemned  the  riotous  transactions.  The  militia  of  the 
town  the  next  day  promptly  made  their  appearance,  and  conducted  the 
governor  with  great  pomp  to  his  house ;  and  the  commodore  dismissed 
most,  if  not  all  of  the  inhabitants  who  had  been  impressed  ;  and  the  squad- 
ron sailed,  to  the  joy  and  repose  of  the  town. 

In  October,  1748,  a  treaty  of  peace  between  England  and  France  was 
signed  at  Aix  la  Chapelle.  By  the  articles  of  this  treaty,  Cape  Breton 
was  given  up  to  the  French,  in  a  compromise  for  restoring  the  French 
conquests  in  the  low  countries  to  the  empress  queen  of  Hungary  and  the 
States  General,  and  for  a  general  restitution  of  places  captured  by  the 
other  belligerent  powers.  It  was  naturally  a  mortification  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  New  England,  that  what  they  termed,  not  unjustly,  '  their  own 
acquisition,'  should  be  restored  to  France ;  but  so  long  as  peace  continued, 
they  sustained  no  disadvantage.  In  most  xespects,  Massachusetts  Bay 
was  never  in  a  more  easy  and  happy  situation,  than  at  the  close  of  this 
war. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  AND  MAINE. 


It  was  in  the  year  1623,  that  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges,  John  Mason,  and 
others,  having  obtained  of  the  Plymouth  or  New  England  company  grants 
of  several  tracts  of  land,  lying  north  of  Massachusetts,  sent  from  England 


HISTORY.  581 

a  few  persons  to  begin  a  settlement.  .  Part  landed,  and  for  a  short  time 
remained  at  Little  Harbor,  on  the  west  side  Piscataqua  river,  and  near  its 
mouth,  where  they  erected  the  first  house,  calling  it  Mason  Hall ;  the 
remainder,  proceeding  higher  up  the  river,  settled  at  Cocheco,  afterwards 
called  Dover.  Fishing  and  trade  being  the  principal  objects  of  these 
emigrants,  their  settlements  increased  slowl}*-. 

The  persecuting  policy  of  the  Massachusetts  colony  peopled  this  country, 
when  money  and  persuasion  had  been  tried  in  vain.  It  has  already  been 
stated,  that  among  those  who  were  expelled  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
Massachusetts,  at  the  time  of  the  dissensions  occasioned  by  opposition  to 
the  spread  of  antinomian  sentiments  at  Boston,  was  the  Rev.  John 
Wheelwright.  Previously  to  the  date  of  Mason's  patent,  he  had  purchased 
the  land  of  the  Indians,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Exeter.  In  the  year 
1630,  thirty-five  persons  residing  in  that  town  combined  and  established 
civil  government ;  and  within  a  year  or  two  afterwards,  the  inhabitants  of 
Dover  and  Portsmouth  followed  their  example,  each  town  remaining  dis- 
tinct and  independent. 

From  Indian  hostilities,  this  colony  suffered  more  severely  than  her 
neighbors.  The  surprise  of  Dover,  in  1689,  was  effected  with  the  most 
6hocking  barbarity ;  though  the  natives  having  been  ill-treated  by  one  of 
the  principal  inhabitants  may  account  for,  if  not  palliate,  their  ferocious 
revenge.  Having  determined  upon  their  plan  of  attack,  the  Indians 
employed  their  usual  art  to  lull  the  suspicions  of  the  inhabitants.  So  civil 
and  respectful  was  their  behavior,  that  they  occasionally  obtained  permis- 
sion to  sleep  in  the  fortified  houses  in  the  town.  On  the  evening  of  the 
fatal  night,  they  assembled  in  the  neighborhood,  and  sent  their  women  to 
apply  for  lodgings  at  the  houses  devoted  to  destruction.  When  all  was 
quiet  the  doors  were  opened  and  the  signal  given.  The  Indians  rushed 
into  Waldron's  house,  and  hastened  to  his  apartment.  Awakened  by  the 
noise,  he  seized  his  sword,  and  drove  them  back,  but  when  returning  for 
his  other  arms  was  stunned  with  a  hatchet,  and  fell.  They  then  dragged 
him  into  his  hall,  seated  him  in  an  elbow  chair  upon  a  long  table,  and 
insultingly  asked  him,  '  Who  shall  judge  Indians  now?'  After  feasting 
upon  provisions,  which  they  compelled  the  rest  of  the  family  to  procure, 
each  one  with  his  knife  cut  gashes  across  his  breast,  saying,  '  I  cross  out 
my  account.'  When,  weakened  with  the  loss  of  blood,  he  was  about  to 
fall  from  the  table,  his  own  sword  was  held  under  him,  which  put  an  end 
to  his  tortures.  At  other  houses,  similar  acts  of  cruelty  were  perpetrated; 
in  the  whole,  twenty-three  persons  were  killed,  and  twenty-nine  carried 
prisoners  to  Canada,  who  were  mostly  sold  to  the  French.  Many  houses 
were  burned,  and  much  property  was  plundered ;  but  so  expeditious  were 
the  Indians,  that  they  had  fled  beyond  reach  before  the  neighboring  people 
could  be  collected.  The  war  thus  commenced,  was  not  easily  terminated. 
The  French,  by  giving  premiums  for  scalps,  and  by  purchasing  the 
English  prisoners,  animated  the  Indians  to  exert  all  their  activity  and 
address,  and  the  frontier  inhabitants  endured  the  most  aggravated  suffer- 
ings. The  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  closed  the  distressing  scene  till 
1703,  when  another  war  began,  which  continued  ten  years. 

A  few  years  only  transpired  before  the  inhabitants  again  suffered  the 
afflictions  of  an  Indian  war.  Following  the  example  of  the  French,  the 
'government  offered  premiums  for  scalps,  which  induced  several  volunteer 

49* 


582  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

companies  to  undertake  expeditions  against  the  enemy.  One  of  these, 
commanded  by  captain  Lovewell,  was  greatly  distinguished.  In  April, 
1725,  with  thirty-four  men,  he  fought  a  famous  Indian  chief,  named 
Paugus,  at  the  head  of  about  eighty  savages,  near  the  shores  of  a  pond  in 
Pequackett.  Lovewell's  men  were  determined  either  to  conquer  or  die, 
although  outnumbered  by  the  Indians  more  than  twice.  They  fought  till 
Lovewell  and  Paugus  were  killed,  and  all  Lovewell's  men  but  nine  were 
either  killed  or  dangerously  wounded.  The  savages  having  lost,  as  was 
supposed,  sixty  of  their  number  out  of  eighty,  and  being  convinced  of  the 
fierce  and  determined  resolution  of  their  foes,  at  length  retreated,  and  left 
them  masters  of  the  ground.  The  scene  of  this  desperate  and  bloody  action, 
which  took  place  in  the  town  that  is  now  called  Fryburgh,  is  often  visited 
with  interest  to  this  day,  and  the  names  both  of  those  who  fell,  and  those 
who  survived,  are  yet  repeated  with  exultation. 


CONNECTICUT. 

The  Connecticut  colony  consisted  of  people  who  first  emigrated  from 
England  to  Massachusetts,  and,  in  the  years  1630  and  1632,  settled  and 
formed  themselves  into  churches  at  Dorchester,  Watertown,  and  Cambridge, 
wrhere  they  resided  several  years.  But  either  because  the  number  of 
emigrants  to  Massachusetts  did  not  allow  them  all  such  a  choice  as  they 
wished  of  good  lands,  or  because  some  jealousies  had  arisen  between  their 
pastors  and  leaders,  and  the  leading  men  of  the  colony,  they  took  the 
resolution  of  seating  themselves  again  in  the  wilderness  ;  and  in  the 
years  1635  and  1636  they  removed  their  families  to  Windsor,  Weathers- 
field,  and  Hartford,  on  the  Connecticut  river. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  Connecticut  colony,  the  natives  discover- 
ed a  hostile  disposition.  Their  principal  enemy  was  the  Pequods,  the  most 
numerous  and  warlike  nation  within  the  limits  of  the  state,  and  perhaps  in 
New  England.  They  inhabited  the  country  which  environs  the  towns  of 
New  London,  Groton,  and  Stonington.  Sassacus,  the  great  prince  of  the 
Pequods,  had  under  him  six-and-twenty  sachems,  and  could  bring  into  the 
field  seven  hundred  or  a  thousand  warriors,  who  had  been  long  accustomed 
to  victory.  The  royal  residence  was  at  a  large  fort  situated  on  a  beautiful 
eminence  in  the  town  of  Groton,  which  commands  an  extensive  prospect  of 
the  sea  and  of  the  surrounding  country.  There  was  also  another  fortress, 
called  Mystic  fort,  situated  in  the  town  of  Stonington.  After  suffering  re- 
peated injuries,  and  the  murder  of  about  thirty  of  their  people,  principally 
by  the  Pequods,  the  general  court,  which  had  been  convened  for  the  pur- 
pose, resolved  on  active  hostilities,  and  immediately  raised  an  army  of 
ninety  men,  half  the  effective  force  of  the  colony.  These  were  to  be  joined 
by  two  hundred  men  from  Massachusetts,  and  forty  from  Plymouth. 

The  court  which  declared  war  was  holden  on  the  1st  of  May ;  the  men 
were  raised  and  embarked  on  the  river,  under  the  command  of  captain 
Mason,  on  the  10th  ;  and,  after  being  wind-bound  several  days,  sailed 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river  for  Narraganset  bay  on  the  19th.  They  were 
accompanied  by  sixty  Mohegan  and  River  Indians,  under  Uncas,  a 
Mohegan  sachem.  On  reaching  Narraganset  bay,  they  landed  to  the 
number  of  seventy-seven  Englishmen,  marched  into  the   country  of  the 


HISTORY.  583 

Narragansets,  and  communicated  their  design  to  Miantonimoh,  the  sachem 
of  the  country,  who  offered  to  join  them.  Information  was  here  received 
that  captain  Patrick  had  reached  Providence,  with  a  company  of  Massa- 
chusetts troops,  but  it  was  resolved  not  to  wait  for  this  reinforcement.  On 
the  next  day,  they  marched  twenty  miles  through  the  west  part  of  Rhode 
Island,  and  reached  Nihantick,  which  bordered  on  the  Pequods'  country."* 

*  '  In  the  morning,  a  considerable  number  of  Miantonimoh's  men  came  on  and 
joined  the  English.  This  encouraged  many  of  the  Nihanticks  also  to  join  them.  They 
soon  formed  a  circle,  and  made  protestations  how  gallantly  they  would  fight,  and  what 
numbers  they  would  kill.  When  the  army  marched  the  next  morning,  the  captain  had 
with  him  nearly  five  hundred  Indians.  He  marched  twelve  miles,  to  the  ford  in  Pawca- 
tuck  river.  The  day  was  very  hot,  and  the  men,  through  the  great  heat,  and  a  scarcity 
of  provision,  began  to  faint.  The  army,  therefore,  made  a  considerable  halt,  and  re- 
freshed themselves.  Here  the  Narraganset  Indians  began  to  manifest  their  dread  of  the 
Pequods,  and  to  inquire  of  captain  Mason,  with  great  anxiety,  what  were  his  real  inten- 
tions. He  assured  them,  that  it  was  his  design  to  attack  the  Pequods  in  their  forts.  At 
this  they  appeared  to  be  panic  struck,  and  filled  with  amazement.  Many  of  them  drew 
off,  and  returned  to  Narraganset.  The  army  marched  on  about  three  miles,  and  came 
to  Indian  corn-fields  ;  and  the  captain,  imagining  that  he  drew  near  the  enemy,  made  a 
halt ;  he  called  his  guides  and  council,  and  demanded  of  the  Indians  how  far  it  was  to 
the  forts.  They  represented  that  it  was  twelve  miles  to  Sassacus'  fort,  and  that  both 
forts  were  in  a  manner  impregnable.  Wequash,  a  Pequod  captain,  or  petty  sachem, 
who  had  revolted  from  Sassacus  to  the  Narragansets,  was  the  principal  guide,  and  he 
proved  faithful.  He  gave  such  information  respecting  the  distance  of  the  forts  from 
each  other,  and  the  distance  which  they  were  then  at  from  the  chief  sachem's,  as  deter- 
mined him  and  his  officers  to  alter  the  resolution  which  they  had  before  adopted,  of 
attacking  them  both  at  once,  and  to  make  a  united  attack  upon  that  at  Mystic.  He 
found  his  men  so  fatigued  in  marching  through  a  pathless  wilderness  with  their  provi- 
sions, arms,  and  ammunition,  and  so  affected  with  the  heat,  that  this  resolution  appeared 
to  be  absolutely  necessary.  One  of  captain  Underbill's  men  became  lame  at  the  same 
time,  and  began  to  fail.  The  army,  therefore,  proceeded  directly  to  Mystic,  and  conti- 
nuing their  march,  came  to  a  small  swamp  between  two  hills  just  at  the  disappearing 
of  the  daylight.  The  officers  supposing  that  they  were  now  near  the  fort,  pitched  their 
little  camp  between  or  near  two  large  rocks,  in  Grot  on,  since  called  Porter's  rocks.  The 
men  were  faint  and  weary,  and  though  the  rocks  were  their  pillows,  their  rest  was 
6weet.  The  guards  and  sentinels  were  considerably  advanced  in  front  of  the  army, 
and  heard  the  enemy  singing  at  the  fort,  who  continued  their  rejoicings  even  until  mid- 
night. They  had  seen  the  vessels  pass  the  harbor  some  days  before,  and  had  concluded 
that  the  English  were  afraid,  and  had  no  courage  to  attack  them.  They  were  therefore 
rejoicing,  singing,  dancing,  insulting  them,  and  wearying  themselves,  on  this  account. 
The  night  was  serene,  and,  towards  morning,  the  moon  shone  clear.  The  important 
crisis  was  now  come,  when  the  very  existence  of  Connecticut,  under  Providence,  was  to 
be  determined  by  the  sword  in  a  single  action,  and  to  be  decided  by  the  good  conduct 
of  less  than  eighty  brave  men.  The  Indians  who  remained  were  now  sorely  dismayed, 
and  though  at  first  they  had  led  the  van,  and  boasted  of  great  feats,  yet  were  now  all 
fallen  back  in  the  rear.  About  two  hours  before  day,  the  men  were  roused  with  all 
expedition,  and,  briefly  commending  themselves  and  their  cause  to  God,  advanced  im- 
mediately towards  the  fort.  After  a  march  of  about  two  miles,  they  came  to  the  foot 
of  a  large  hill,  where  a  fine  country  opened  before  them.  The  captain,  supposing  that 
the  fort  could  not  be  far  distant,  sent  for  the  Indians  in  the  rear  to  come  up.  Uncas 
and  Wequash  at  length  appeared.  He  demanded  of  them  where  the  fort  was.  They 
answered,  on  the  top  of  the  hill.  He  demanded  of  them  where  were  the  other  Indians. 
They  answered,  that  they  were  much  afraid.  The  captain  sent  to  them  not  to  fly,  but 
to  surround  the  fort  at  any  distance  they  pleased,  and  see  whether  Englishmen  would 
fight.  The  day  was  nearly  dawning,  and  no  time  was  now  to  be  lost.  The  men 
©ressed  on  in  two  divisions,  captain  Mason  to  the  north-eastern,  and  captain  Underhill 
to  the  western  entrance.  As  the  object  which  they  had  been  so  long  seeking  came 
into  view,  and  while  they  reflected  they  were  to  fight  not  only  for  themselves,  but  their 
parents,  wives,  children,  and  the  whole  colony,  the  martial  spirit  kindled  in  their  bo- 


584  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  army  wheeled  directly  to  Mystic  fort,  which  was  immediately  attack- 
ed ;  the  contest,  though  tremendously  severe,  terminated  in  favor  of  the 
English,  and  in  the  destruction  of  the  Indians.  Although  this  victory 
was  complete,  the  situation  of  the  army  was  extremely  dangerous  and 
destressing.  Several  were  killed,  and  one-fourth  of  their  number  were 
wounded ;  the  remainder  were  exhausted  with  fatigue,  and  destitute  of 
provisions  ;  they  were  in  the  midst  of  an  enemy's  country,  many  miles 
from  their  vessels,  and  their  ammunition  was  nearly  exhausted  ;  they 
were  but  a  few  miles  distant  from  the  principal  fortress  of  their  foe,  where 
there  was  a  fresh  army,  which  they  knew  would  be  exasperated  in  the 
highest  degree  on  learning  the  fate  of  their  brethren.  In  the  midst  of 
their  perplexity,  while  they  were  consulting  on  the  course  to  be  pursued, 
their  vessels  appeared  in  sight,  steering  with  a  fair  wind  directly  into  the 
harbor.  The  army  was  received  on  board  with  great  mutual  joy  and 
congratulation. 

soms,  and  they  were  wonderfully  animated  and  assisted.  As  captain  Mason  advanced 
within  a  rod  or  two  of  the  fort  a  dog  barked,  and  an  Indian  roared  out,  u  Owanux ! 
Owanux!"  That  is,  Englishmen !  Englishmen  !  The  troops  pressed  on,  and,  as  the 
Indians  were  rallying,  poured  in  upon  them,  through  the  palisadoes,  a  general  discharge 
of  their  muskets,  and  then  wheeling  off  to  the  principal  entrance,  entered  the  fort  sword 
in  hand.  Notwithstanding  the  suddenness  of  the  attack,  and  the  blaze  and  thunder  of 
the  arms,  the  enemy  made  a  manly  and  desperate  resistance.  Captain  Mason  and  his 
party  drove  the  Indians  in  the  main  street  towards  the  west  part  of  the  fort,  where  some 
bold  men,  who  had  forced  their  way,  met  them,  and  made  such  a  slaughter  among  them, 
that  the  street  was  soon  clear  of  the  enemy.  They  secreted  themselves  in  and  behind 
their  wigwams,  and  taking  advantage  of  every  covert,  maintained  an  obstinate  defence. 
The  captain  and  his  men  entered  the  wigwams,  where  they  were  beset  with  many  In- 
dians, who  took  every  advantage  to  shoot  them,  and  lay  hands  upon  them,  so  that  it 
was  with  great  difficulty  that  they  could  defend  themselves  with  their  swords.  After  a 
severe  conflict,  in  which  many  of  the  Indians  were  slain,  some  of  the  English  killed, 
and  others  sorely  wounded,  the  victory  still  hung  in  suspense.  The  captain,  finding 
himself  much  exhausted,  and  out  of  breath,  as  well  as  his  men,  by  the  extraordinary 
exertions  which  they  had  made  in  this  critical  state  of  action,  had  recourse  to  a  success- 
ful expedient.  He  cries  out  to  his  men,  "We  must  burn  them."  He  immediately, 
entering  a  wigwam,  took  fire  and  put  it  to  the  mats  with  which  the  wigwams  were 
covered.  The  fire  instantly  kindling,  spread  with  such  violence,  that  all  the  Indian 
houses  were  soon  wrapped  in  one  general  flame.  As  the  fire  increased,  the  English 
retired  without  the  fort,  and  compassed  it  on  every  side.  Uncas  and  his  Indians,  with 
such  of  the  Narragansets  as  yet  remained,  took  courage,  from  the  example  of  the  Eng- 
lish, and  formed  another  circle  in  the  rear  of  them.  The  enemy  were  now  seized  with 
astonishment;  and,  forced  by  the  flames  from  their  lurking  places  into  open  light, 
became  a  fair  mark  for  the  English  soldiers.  Some  climbed  the  palisadoes,  and  were 
instantly  brought  down  by  the  fire  of  the  English  muskets.  Others,  desperately  sallying 
forth  from  their  burning  cells,  were  shot,  or  cut  in  pieces  with  the  sword.  Such  terror 
fell  upon  them,  that  they  would  run  back  from  the  English  into  the  very  flames.  Great 
numbers  perished  in  the  conflagration.  The  greatness  and  violence  of  the  fire,  the 
reflection  of  the  light,  the  flashing  and  roar  of  the  arms,  the  shrieks  and  yellings  of  the 
men,  women,  and  children,  in  the  fort,  and  the  shoutings  of  the  Indians  without,  just 
at  the  dawning  of  the  morning,  exhibited  a  grand  and  awful  scene.  In  little  more  than 
an  hour,  this  whole  work  of  destruction  was  finished.  Seventy  wigwams  were  burnt, 
and  five  or  six  hundred  Indians  perished,  either  by  the  sword,  or  in  the  flames.  A 
hundred  and  fifty  warriors  had  been  sent  on  the  evening  before,  who,  that  very  morn- 
ing, were  to  have  gone  forth  against  the  English.  Of  these,  and  all  who  belonged  to 
the  fort,  seven  only  escaped,  and  seven  were  made  prisoners.  It  had  been  previously 
concluded  not  to  burn  the  fort,  but  to  destroy  the  enemy,  and  take  the  plunder :  but  the 
captain  afterwards  found  it  the  only  expedient  to  obtain  the  victory,  and  save  his  men. 
Thus  parents  and  children,  the  sannup  and  squaw,  the  old  man  and  the  babe,  perished 
in  promiscuous  ruin.' — Trumbull's  History  of  Connecticut. 


HISTORY.  585 

The  troops  employed  on  this  successful  expedition  reached  their  homes 
before  the  expiration  of  a  month  from  the  day  that  the  war  was  resolved 
upon.  The  Pequods,  on  the  departure  of  captain  Mason,  burnt  their 
wigwams,  destroyed  their  principal  fort,  and  scattered  themselves  through- 
out the  country.  Sassacus,  with  a  party  of  his  chief  warriors,  abandoned 
his  country,  and  moved  by  slow  marches  towards  the  Hudson  river. 
They  were  followed  by  a  party  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  troops ; 
and,  in  a  great  swamp  in  Fairfield,  near  the  western  part  of  Connecticut, 
they  were  overtaken,  and  a  battle  ensued.  Sassacus,  and  about  twenty  of 
his  most  hardy  men,  escaped,  and  fled  to  the  Mohawk  country;  but  there 
he  found  no  safety ;  he  was  surprised  by  the  Mohawks,  and  killed,  with 
all  his  party,  except  Mononotto,  who,  after  being  wounded,  made  his 
escape.  The  Pequods  who  remained  were  divided  between  the  Mohe- 
gans  and  Narragansets,  and  the  nation  became  extinct.  The  vigor  and 
boldness  with  which  this  war  was  prosecuted  on  both  sides,  give  it  the 
air  of  romance.  Its  decisive  termination,  which  was  so  fatal  to  one  party, 
was  productive  of  the  most  happy  consequences  to  the  other.  It  struck  the 
Indians  throughout  New  England  with  such  a  salutary  terror,  that  they 
were  contented,  in  general,  to  remain  at  peace  for  nearly  forty  years. 

In  the  year  1637,  Mr.  John  Davenport,  a  celebrated  London  minister, 
accompanied  by  several  eminent  merchants,  made  overtures  to  the  native 
proprietors  for  the  purchase  of  all  the  lands  between  the  rivers  Hudson 
and  Connecticut.  This  purchase  they  in  part  effected,  and  from  this  ori- 
ginated the  colony  of  New  Haven.  At  first  they  recognised  the  authority 
of  Massachusetts,  but  it  being  evident  that  they  were  not  within  the  limits 
of  the  Massachusetts  colony,  they  convened  an  assembly  at  Hartford,  and 
formed  a  constitution  of  government  of  the  most  popular  kind.  The  peo- 
ple of  New  Haven  followed  their  example,  and  framed  a  similar  govern- 
ment ;  and  these  continued  the  constitutions  of  the  two  colonies,  till  their 
union  in  1661.  On  the  completion  of  the  union  among  the  several  colo- 
nies of  New  England,  several  Indian  sachems  came  in  and  submitted 
themselves  to  the  English  government,  among  whom  were  Miantonomoh, 
the  Narraganset,  and  Uncas,  the  Mohegan,  chief. 

After  the  restoration,  the  Connecticut  colony  sent  out  Mr.  Winthrop  of 
Massachusetts  to  England,  with  a  petition  for  a  charter  with  the  royal 
signature.  This  charter  he  obtained,  and  it  was  one  of  the  most  liberal 
description.  It  established  a  government  of  a  highly  popular  kind,  and 
continued  the  fundamental  law  of  Connecticut  for  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
eight  years.  '  It  is  remarkable,'  says  a  writer  in  the  North  American  Re- 
view, '  that  although  it  was  granted  at  a  period  of  the  world  when  the 
rights  of  the  people  were  little  understood  and  little  regarded,  and  by  a 
sovereign  who  governed  England  with  a  more  arbitrary  sway  than  any 
of  his  successors,  the  form  of  government  established  by  this  charter  was 
of  a  more  popular  description,  and  placed  all  power  within  the  more  im- 
mediate reach  of  the  people,  than  the  constitution  for  which  it  has  been 
deliberately  exchanged,  in  these  modern  days  of  popular  jealousy  and 
republican  freedom.'  In  this  new  charter  was  included  the  colony  of 
New  Haven ;  though  it  was  not  for  some  years  that  the  union  was  finally 
adopted. 

Connecticut  was  destined  to  suffer,  with  the  rest  of  the  colonies,  from 
the  violent  acts  committed  in  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of  the  Stuarts. 
74 


586  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Massachusetts  had  been  deprived  of  her  charter,  and  Rhode  Island  had 
been  induced  to  surrender  hers,  when,  in  July,  1685,  a  writ  of  quo  war- 
ranto was  issued  against  the  governor  and  company  of  Connecticut.  The 
colonial  government  was  strongly  advised  by  Vane  to  comply  with  the 
requisition,  and  surrender  the  charter;  but  it  was  determined  neither  to 
appear  to  defend  the  charter,  nor  voluntarily  to  surrender  it.  Sir  Edmund 
Andros  made  repeated  applications  for  its  surrender,  but  without  success. 

The  singular  mode  of  its  escape  from  his  demand  in  person  is  thus 
recorded  by  Trumbull :  '  The  assembly  met  as  usual,  in  October,  1687, 
and  the  government  continued,  according  to  charter,  until  the  last  of  the 
month.  About  this  time,  Sir  Edmund,  with  his  suite,  and  more  than  sixty 
regular  troops,  came  to  Hartford,  where  the  assembly  were  sitting,  de- 
manded the  charter,  and  declared  the  government  under  it  to  be  dissolved. 
The  assembly  were  extremely  reluctant  and  slow  with  respect  to  any  re- 
solve to  surrender  the  charter,  or  with  respect  to  any  motion  to  bring  it 
forth.  The  tradition  is,  that  governor  Treat  strongly  represented  the 
great  expense  and  hardships  of  the  colonists  in  planting  the  country ;  the 
blood  and  treasure  which  they  had  expended  in  defending  it,  both  against 
the  savages  and  foreigners ;  to  what  hardships  and  dangers  he  himself 
had  been  exposed  for  that  purpose ;  and  that  it  was  like  giving  up  his  life 
now  to  surrender  the  patent  and  privileges  so  dearly  bought,  and  so  long 
enjoyed.  The  important  affair  was  debated  and  kept  in  suspense  until  the 
evening,  when  the  charter  was  brought  and  laid  upon  the  table  where  the 
assembly  were  sitting. 

'  By  this  time,  great  numbers  of  people  were  assembled,  and  men  suffi- 
ciently bold  to  enterprise  whatever  might  be  necessary  or  expedient.  The 
lights  were  instantly  extinguished,  and  one  captain  Wadsworth,  of  Hart- 
ford, in  the  most  silent  and  secret  manner,  carried  off  the  charter,  and 
secreted  it  in  a  large  hollow  tree,  fronting  the  house  of  the  honorable 
Samuel  Wyllys,  then  one  of  the  magistrates  of  the  colony.  The  people 
appeared  all  peaceable  and  orderly.  The  candles  were  officiously  re- 
lighted, but  the  patent  was  gone,  and  no  discovery  could  be  made  of  it,  or 
of  the  person  who  had  conveyed  it  away.'  Though  Sir  Edmund  was  thus 
foiled  in  his  attempt  to  obtain  possession  of  the  charter,  he  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  assume  the  reins  of  government,  which  he  administered  in  a  man- 
ner as  oppressive  in  this  as  in  the  other  colonies.  When,  on  the  arrival 
of  the  declaration  of  the  prince  of  Orange  at  Boston,  Andros  was  deposed 
and  imprisoned,  the  people  of  Connecticut  resumed  their  previous  form  of 
government,  having  been  interrupted  little  more  than  a  year  and  a  half. 

In  the  Indian  war,  in  which  Philip  acted  so  conspicuous  a  part,  Connec- 
ticut had  her  share  of  suffering,  though  it  was  not  so  great  as  that  of  somo 
of  her  sister  colonies.  Hostilities  were  commenced  by  the  aborigines,  on 
the  Connecticut  river,  in  the  summer  of  1675 ;  and,  on  the  first  of  Septem- 
ber, the  inhabitants  of  Hadley  were  alarmed  by  the  Indians  during  the 
time  of  public  worship,  and  the  people  thrown  into  the  utmost  confusion  ; 
but  the  enemy  were  repulsed  by  the  valor  and  good  conduct  of  an  aged, 
venerable  man,  who,  suddenly  appearing  in  the  midst  of  the  affrighted 
inhabitants,  put  himself  at  their  head,  led  them  to  the  onset,  and,  after  the 
dispersion  of  the  enemy,  instantly  disappeared.  This  deliverer  of  Hadley, 
then  imagined  to  be  an  angel,  was  general  Goffe,  (one  of  the  judges  of 
Charles  I.,)  who  was  at  that  time  concealed  in  the  town. 


HISTORY.  587 

But  a  short  time  elapsed,  before  the  colonists  were  again  called  on  to 
defend  their  privileges  from  what  they  deemed  an  unjust  encroachment. 
Colonel  Fletcher,  governor  of  New  York,  had  been  vested  with  plenary 
powers  to  command  the  militia  of  Connecticut,  and  insisted  on  the  exercise 
of  that  command.  The  legislature  of  Connecticut,  deeming  that  authority 
to  be  expressly  given  to  the  colony  by  charter,  would  not  submit  to  his 
requisition ;  but,  desirous  of  maintaining  a  good  understanding  with  go- 
vernor Fletcher,  endeavored  to  make  terms  with  him,  until  his  majesty's 
pleasure  should  be  further  known.  All  their  negotiations  were,  however, 
unsuccessful ;  and,  on  the  26th  of  October,  he  came  to  Hartford,  while  the 
assembly  was  sitting,  and,  in  his  majesty's  name,  demanded  submission ; 
but  the  refusal  was  resolutely  persisted  in.  After  the  requisition  had 
been  repeatedly  made,  with  plausible  explanations  and  serious  menaces, 
Fletcher  ordered  his  commission  and  instructions  to  be  read  in  audi- 
ence of  the  trainbands  of  Hartford,  which  had  been  assembled  upon  his 
order. 

Captain  Wadsworth,  the  senior  officer,  who  was  exercising  his  soldiers, 
instantly  called  out,  '  Beat  the  drums  V  which,  in  a  moment,  overwhelmed 
every  voice.  Fletcher  commanded  silence.  No  sooner  was  a  second  at- 
tempt made  to  read,  than  Wadsworth  vociferated,  '  Drum,  drum  !  I  say.' 
The  drummers  instantly  beat  up  again,  with  the  greatest  possible  spirit. 
1  Silence,  silence,'  exclaimed  the  governor.  At  the  first  moment  of  a  pause, 
Wadsworth  called  out  earnestly,  '  Drum,  drum,  I  say;'  and,  turning  to  his 
excellency,  said,  '  If  I  am  interrupted  again,  I  will  make  the  sun  shine 
through  you  in  a  moment.'  Colonel  Fletcher  declined  putting  Wads- 
worth to  the  test,  and,  abandoning  the  contest,  returned  with  his  suite  to 
New  York. 

RHODE    ISLAND. 

The  settlement  of  Providence  and  Rhode  Island  was  made  by  Roger 
Williams,  in  1636.  This  man  was  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  He  set  the 
first  example  of  perfect  religious  equality  and  toleration ;  and  extended 
his  humane  labors  to  enlighten,  improve  and  conciliate  the  savages. 
When  the  New  England  colonies,  in  1643,  formed  the  celebrated  confede- 
racy, Rhode  Island  applied  to  be  admitted  to  the  union ;  but  Plymouth 
objected,  on  the  ground  that  the  settlements  were  within  her  boundaries. 

Upon  the  application  of  the  inhabitants,  in  1663,  a  charter  was  granted 
by  Charles  II.  to  the  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  plantations.  On  the 
accession  of  James  II.,  the  assembly  of  Rhode  Island  immediately  trans- 
mitted an  address,  acknowledging  themselves  his  loyal  subjects,  and  beg- 
ging protection  for  their  chartered  rights.  But  reformation  of  abuses  in 
New  England  was  then  the  order  of  the  day,  and  articles  of  high  misde- 
meanor were  exhibited  against  them  before  the  lords  of  the  committee  of 
colonies,  accusing  them  of  breaches  of  their  charter,  and  of  opposition  to 
the  acts  of  navigation.  This  committee  ordered  that  Sir  Edmund  Andros, 
the  governor  of  Massachusetts,  should  demand  the  surrender  of  their 
charter,  and  govern  them  as  other  colonies  of  New  England.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1686,  Andros  accordingly  dissolved  the  government  of  Rhode  Island, 
broke  its  seal,  and  assumed  the  administration  of  affairs.  When  the  revo- 
lution put  an  end  to  his  power,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  resumed 


588  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

their  charter,  on  the  ground  that  an  act  which  was  extorted   by  turor 
might  justly  be  recalled  when  restraint  no  longer  remained. 

The  wise,  peaceful  and  beneficent  counsels  of  Williams,  had  preserved 
the  colonists  from  the  dangers  of  Indian  incursions.  Their  prosperity 
was  proportionate  to  their  moderation.  The  population  increased  with 
great  rapidity,  and  in  1761  amounted  to  forty  thousand.  Brown  univer- 
sity was  founded  at  Warren,  in  1764.  Six  years  afterwards  it  was  re- 
moved to  Providence,  where  a  large  and  elegant  building  was  erected  for 
the  students. 

NEW   YORK. 

New  York  was  first  settled  by  the  Dutch,  who  erected  a  fort  near  Al- 
bany, which  they  called  fort  Orange,  and  a  few  trading-houses  on  the 
island  of  New  York,  then  called  by  the  Indians  Manhattan.  The  claims 
of  the  Dutch  to  the  property  of  the  soil  were  disputed  by  the  king  of  Great 
Britain,  who  founded  an  adverse  claim  on  the  discovery  of  the  Cabots 
in  the  previous  century.  In  the  first  year  of  their  settlement,  they  were 
visited  by  captain  Argal,  who  claimed  the  country  for  his  sovereign,  and 
warned  them  to  acknowledge  his  authority.  The  colony  was  small,  and 
prudently  acquiesced  in  the  demand  :  but  within  a  twelvemonth  their 
number  was  increased,  and  the  demands  of  the  English  were  promptly 
resisted.  For  a  series  of  years  they  continued  in  undisturbed  quiet,  and 
by  toil,  perseverance  and  unwearied  activity,  surmounted  the  dangers  and 
troubles  of  an  infant  colony. 

In  1621,  the  Dutch  republic  granted  to  their  West  India  company  an 
extensive  territory  on  both  sides  of  the  Hudson,  and  called  it  New  Nether- 
lands. Under  the  management  of  this  company,  the  settlement  was  soon 
both  consolidated  and  extended;  and  the  foundations  were  laid  of  the 
cities  of  New  Amsterdam,  afterwards  New  York,  and  of  Albany.  In 
1623,  they  erected  a  fort  on  the  Delaware,  which  they  called  Nassau ; 
and,  ten  years  afterwards,  another  on  the  Connecticut,  which  they  called 
Good  Hope.  Near  the  former  the  Swedes  had  a  settlement ;  and  from 
the  interfering  claims  of  the  two  nations,  quarrels  arose  between  the  set- 
tlers, which,  in  a  few  years,  terminated  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Swedes. 

The  policy  of  the  Dutch,  in  extending  their  settlements  so  far  eastward 
as  Connecticut,  soon  brought  them  into  collision  with  more  powerful 
neighbors.  Numberless  causes  of  dispute  arose  between  New  Nether- 
lands and  the  colonies  of  Connecticut  and  New  Haven  ;  but  neither  party 
allowed  itself  to  forget  the  substantial  claims  of  humanity,  or  the  forms  of 
ordinary  courtesy.  In  the  Indian  wars,  the  English  never  delayed  to  ren- 
der due  assistance  to  their  Dutch  neighbors,  who  were  so  unwarlike  that 
they  found  it  necessary  to  invite  captain  Underhill,  who  had  been  banished 
from  Boston  for  his  eccentricities  in  religion,  to  take  command  of  their 
troops.  Collecting  a  flying  party  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  men,  he  was 
enabled  to  preserve  the  Dutch  settlements  from  destruction.  The  number 
of  Indians  whom  he  killed  in  the  course  of  the  war,  was  supposed  to  ex- 
ceed four  hundred.  In  1646,  a  severe  battle  was  fought  on  that  part  of 
Horse-Neck  called  Strickland's  Plain.  The  Dutch  were  victorious ;  on 
both  sides  great  numbers  were  slain ;  and  for  a  century  afterwards  the 
graves  of  the  dead  were  distinctly  visible. 


HISTORY.  589 

When  Charles  II.  ascended  the  British  throne,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
assert  his  claim  to  the  province  of  New  Netherlands  ;  and  without  any 
attempt  at  negotiation  with  the  states,  he  executed  a  charter,  conveying 
to  the  duke  of  York  the  whole  territory  from  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Delaware  to  the  western  bank  of  the  Connecticut.  This  grant  took  no 
notice  of  the  existing  possession  of  the  Dutch,  or  of  the  recent  Con- 
necticut charter,  which  it  entirely  superseded.  No  sooner  did  the  duke 
of  York  obtain  this  grant,  than  he  conveyed  to  lord  Berkeley  and  Sir 
George  Carteret  all  that  portion  now  constituting  the  province  of  New 
Jersey.  To  carry  such  a  grant  into  effect,  it  was  necessary  to  call  in 
the  aid  of  the  military,  and  an  armament  was  despatched  from  England 
under  the  command  of  colonel  Nichols  ;  who  was  also  appointed  governor 
of  the  province  he  was  about  to  conquer.  After  touching  at  Boston,  the 
fleet  sailed  to  the  Hudson  and  took  a  position  before  the  capital  of  New 
Netherlands.  The  Dutch  governor,  Stuyvesant,  had  determined  on  a 
resolute  resistance,  but  his  followers  were  of  a  less  gallant  temperament, 
and  compelled  him  to  agree  to  a  treaty  of  capitulation. 

Immediately  after  its  subjugation,  New  Amsterdam,  and  the  whole 
conquered  province,  received  the  name  of  New  York.  Few  of  the  inhabi- 
tants thought  proper  to  remove  from  the  country ;  even  governor  Stuyve- 
sant lived  and  died  there.  Nichols  at  once  assumed  command  of  the 
conquered  territory,  and  proceeded  to  reduce  the  affairs  of  the  state  to  one 
uniform  constitution  and  policy.  Many  of  the  Dutch  forms  of  government 
were  retained,  but  English  influence  gradually  brought  about  a  change; 
and  on  the  twelfth  of  June,  1665,  the  inhabitants  of  New  York  were  in- 
corporated under  a  mayor,  five  aldermen,  and  a  sheriff.  At  the  peace  of 
Breda,  New  York  was  regularly  ceded  to  England  in  exchange  for  Suri- 
nam, by  a  general  stipulation  that  each  of  the  belligerents  should  retain 
what  its  arms  had  acquired  since  the  commencement  of  hostilities. 

The  interior  of  New  York  was  originally  inhabited  by  a  confederacy, 
which  consisted  at  first  of  five,  and  afterwards  of  six,  nations  of  Indians. 
This  confederacy  was  formed  for  mutual  defence  against  the  Algonquins, 
a  powerful  Canadian  nation,  and  displayed  much  of  the  wisdom  and  saga- 
city which  mark  the  institutions  of  a  civilized  people.  By  their  union 
they  had  become  formidable  to  the  surrounding  tribes.  Being  the  allies 
of  the  English,  the  French  were  alarmed  at  their  successes,  and  became 
jealous  of  their  power.  In  the  year  1684,  De  la  Barre,  the  governor  of 
Canada,  marched  to  attack  them,  with  an  army  of  seventeen  hundred 
men.  His  troops  suffered  so  much  from  hardships,  famine,  and  sickness, 
that  he  was  compelled  to  ask  peace  of  those  whom  he  had  come  to  exter- 
minate. He  invited  the  chiefs  of  the  Five  Nations  to  meet  him  at  his  camp, 
and  those  of  three  of  them  accepted  the  invitation.  Standing  in  a  circle, 
formed  by  the  chiefs  and  his  own  officers,  he  addressed  a  speech  to  Gar- 
rangula,  of  the  Onondago  tribe,  in  which  he  accused  the  confederates  of 
conducting  the  English  to  the  trading  grounds  of  the  French,  and  threat- 
ened them  with  war  and  extermination  "if  they  did  not  alter  their  behavior. 
Garrangula,  knowing  the  distresses  of  the  French  troops,  heard  these 
threats  with  contempt.  After  walking  five  or  six  times  round  the  circle, 
he  addressed  De  la  Barre  in  the  following  bold  language,  calling  him 
Yonnondio,  and  the  English  governor,  Corlear  : — 

*  Hear,  Yonnondio,  I  do  not  sleep ;  I  have  my  eyes  open,  and  the  sun 

50 


590  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

which  enlightens  me,  discovers  to  me  a  great  captain  at  the  head  of  a 
company  of  soldiers,  who  speaks  as  if  he  was  dreaming.  He  says  that  he 
only  came  to  smoke  the  great  pipe  of  peace  with  the  Onondagas.  But 
Garrangula  says,  that  he  sees  the  contrary ;  that  it  was  to  knock  them  on 
the  head,  if  sickness  had  not  weakened  the  arms  of  the  French.  We 
carried  the  English  to  our  lakes,  to  trade  there  with  the  Utawawas,  and 
Quatoghies,  as  the  Adirondacs  brought  the  French  to  our  castles,  to  carry 
on  a  trade  which  the  English  say  is  theirs.  We  are  born  free  ;  we  neither 
depend  on  Yonnondio  nor  Corlear.  We  may  go  where  we  please,  and 
buy  and  sell  what  we  please.  If  your  allies  are  your  slaves,  use  them  as 
such ;  command  them  to  receive  no  other  but  your  pecple.  Hear,  Yon- 
nondio !  what  I  say  is  the  voice  of  all  the  Five  Nations.  When  they 
buried  the  hatchet  at  Cadaracui,  in  the  middle  of  the  fort,  they  planted  the 
tree  of  peace  in  the  same  place,  to  be  there  carefully  preserved,  that  instead 
of  a  retreat  for  soldiers,  the  fort  might  be  a  rendezvous  for  merchants. 
Take  care  that  the  many  soldiers  who  appear  there  do  not  choke  the  tree 
of  peace,  and  prevent  it  from  covering  your  country  and  ours  with  its 
branches.  I  assure  you  that  our  warriors  shall  dance  under  its  leaves, 
and  will  never  dig  up  the  hatchet  to  cut  it  down,  till  their  brother  Yon- 
nondio or  Corlear  shall  invade  the  country  which  the  Great  Spirit  has 
given  to  our  ancestors.' 

De  la  Barre  was  mortified  and  enraged  at  this  bold  reply ;  but,  submit- 
ting to  necessity,  he  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace,  and  returned  to  Montreal. 
His  successor,  De  Nonville,  led  a  larger  army  against  the  confederates ; 
but  fell  into  an  ambuscade,  and  was  defeated.  These  wars  within  the 
limits  of  the  colony  served  to  perpetuate  the  enmity  of  the  Indians  against 
the  French,  and  their  attachment  to  the  English. 

When  James  II.  ascended  the  throne,  it  was  determined  to  superadd 
New  York  and  the  Jerseys  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  four  colonies  of  New 
England  ;  and  a  new  commission  was  issued,  appointing  Sir  Edmund 
Andros  captain-general  and  vice-admiral  over  the  whole.  His  authority* 
however,  was  a  brief  one.  In  the  following  year,  intelligence  was  received 
of  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  to  the  British  throne  ;  and  while, 
the  principal  officers  and  magistrates  were  assembled  to  consult  for  the 
general  good,  Jacob  Leisler,  a  captain  of  militia, 'seized  the  fort  and  held 
it  for  the  prince  of  Orange.  The  province  was  for  some  time  subsequently 
ruled  by  a  committee  of  safety,  with  Leisler  at  their  head.  In  a  few 
months,  a  letter  arrived  from  the  ministry  in  England,  directed  '  to  such 
as,  for  the  time  being,  take  care  of  administering  the  laws  of  the  province,' 
and  conferring  authority  to  perform  all  the  duties  of  lieutenant  governor. 
This  letter  Leisler  understood  as  addressed  to  himself,  and  assumed  the 
authority  conferred  by  it,  without  ceremony. 

The  people  of  Albany  acknowledged  king  William,  but  refused  to  sub 
mit  to  Leisler.  Force  was  resorted  to,  with  the  view  of  compelling  obedi- 
ence ;  and  the  estates  of  the  rebellious  were  confiscated.  In  this  disturbed 
state,  the  colonists  of  New  York  remained  nearly  two  years  ;  when  the 
miseries  of  foreign  aggression  were  added  to  those  of  internal  discord. 

War  had  been  declared  between  France  and  England  ;  and  De  Nonville 
had  been  replaced  in  the  governorship  of  Canada  by  count  Frontignac,  a 
Veteran  officer,  whose  skilful  and  energetic  measures,  aided  by  a  large 
Reinforcement,  soon  raised  the  affairs  of  the  French  from  the  brink  of  ruin, 


HISTORY.  591 

and  enabled  them  to  act  on  the  offensive.  Frontignac  was  indefatigable 
in  his  efforts  to  gain  over  the  Five  Nations,  who  had  made  two  attacks 
upon  Montreal,  and  murdered  a  great  number  of  inhabitants.  He  held  a 
great  council  with  them  at  Onondaga ;  and,  as  they  seemed  to  be  some- 
what inclined  to  peace,  he  resolved  to  give  their  favorable  disposition  no 
time  for  change,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  inspirit  his  own  drooping  coun- 
trymen, by  finding  them  immediate  employment  against  the  English  colo- 
nies. On  the  19th  of  January,  a  party  of  about  two  hundred  French,  and 
some  Cahnuaga  Indians,  set  out,  in  a  deep  snow,  for  Schenectady ;  they 
arrived  on  the  8th  of  February,  at  eleven  o'clock  at  night ;  and  the  first 
intimation  the  inhabitants  had  of  their  design,  was  conveyed  in  the  noise 
of  their  own  bursting  doors.  The  village  was  burnt,  sixty  persons  were 
butchered,  twenty-seven  suffered  the  worse  fate  of  captivity,  the  rest  made 
their  way  naked  through  the  snow  towards  Albany,  where  some  arrived  in 
extreme  distress,  while  many  perished  in  the  attempt.  A  party  of  young 
men,  and  some  Mohawk  Indians,  set  out  from  the  latter  place,  pursued  the 
enemy,  and  killed  or  captured  twenty-five. 

To  avenge  these  barbarities,  and  others  perpetrated  in  New  England,  a 
combined  expedition  against  Canada  was  projected.  An  army,  raised  in 
New  York  and  Connecticut,  proceeded  as  far  as  the  head  of  lake  Cham- 
plain,  whence,  finding  no  boats  prepared,  they  were  obliged  to  return.  Sir 
William  Phipps,  with  a  fleet  of  more  than  thirty  vessels,  sailed  from  Bos- 
ton into  the  St.  Lawrence,  and,  landing  a  body  of  troops,  made  an  attack 
by  land  and  water  upon  Quebec  ;  but  the  return  of  the  army  to  New  York 
allowing  the  whole  force  of  the  enemy  to  repair  to  the  assistance  of  the 
garrison,  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  Leisler,  transported 
with  rage  when  he  was  informed  of  the  retreat,  caused  Winthrop,  who 
commanded  the  New  England  forces,  to  be  arrested,  but  was  instantly 
compelled,  by  universal  indignation,  to  release  him.  It  was  to  the  miscon- 
duct or  incapacity  of  Leisler  and  Milborne,  (the  latter  of  whom,  as  com* 
missary-general,  had  made  no  adequate  provision  for  the  enterprise,)  that 
the  failure  of  this  expedition  was  attributed. 

Leisler  was  afterwards  superseded  by  colonel  Sloughter,  and,  together 
with  Milborne,  was  executed  for  refusing  to  surrender  his  authority  to  the 
officer  legally  appointed  to  receive  it.  Sloughter's  administration  was  in- 
efficient and  turbulent.  He  was  succeeded  by  colonel  Fletcher,  a  man  of 
great  energy  of  character,  but  violent  in  his  disposition  and  mean.  His 
administration  was  signalized  by  no  occurrence  worthy  of  particular  record. 
The  war  between  the  French  and  the  Five  Indian  Nations  raged  with 
great  fury,  and  both  parties  seemed  inspired  with  a  mutual  emulation  of 
cruelty  in  victory,  no  less  than  of  prowess  in  battle.  Prisoners  were  tor- 
tured, and  put  to  death,  without  the  least  regard  to  the  rights  of  humanity, 
or  the  laws  of  war. 

In  1697,  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  which  was  concluded  between  Great 
Britain  and  France,  gave  security  and  repose  to  the  colonies.  The  next 
year,  the  earl  of  Bellamont  was  appointed  governor.  He  was  particularly 
desirous  of  clearing  the  American  seas  of  the  pirates  with  which  they  had 
for  some  time  been  grievously  infested.  The  government,  however,  de- 
clining to  furnish  an  adequate  naval  force,  the  earl  engaged  with  others  in 
a  private  undertaking  against  them.  Among  the  associates  were  lord 
chancellor  Summers  and  the  duke  of  Shrewsbury ;  the  king  himself,  too, 


592  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

held  a  tenth  share.  The  company,  having  procured  a  vessel  of  war,  gave 
the  command  to  captain  Kid,  and  despatched  him  on  a  cruise  against  the 
pirates.  He  had  been  but  a  short  time  at  sea,  when  he  made  a  new  con- 
tract with  his  crew,  and,  on  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans,  became  himself 
a  daring  and  successful  pirate.  Three  years  afterwards  he  returned,  burned 
his  ship,  and,  with  a  strange  infatuation,  appeared  in  public  at  Boston. 

The  earl  of  Bellamont  wrote  to  the  secretary  of  state,  desiring  that  Kid 
might  be  sent  for,  and  a  man-of-war  was  despatched  upon  this  service  ;  but 
being  driven  back  by  a  storm,  a  general  suspicion  prevailed  in  England, 
that  there  was  collusion  between  the  ministry  and  the  adventurers,  who 
were  thought  unwilling  to  produce  Kid,  lest  he  might  discover  that  the 
chancellor  and  the  other  associates  were  confederates  in  the  piracy.  So 
powerful  was  this  feeling,  that  a  motion  was  made  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons, that  all  who  were  concerned  in  the  adventure  might  be  deprived  of 
their  employments ;  but  it  was  rejected  by  a  great  majority,  and  all  subse- 
quent attempts  to  implicate  the  unfortunate  shareholders,  only  proved  more 
satisfactorily  their  entire  innocence  of  any  participation  either  in  the  de? 
signs  or  the  profits  of  captain  Kid ;  although  their  imprudence  in  select- 
ing a  person  whose  previous  character  was  very  indifferent,  was  evident 
and  undeniable.  Ultimately  Kid  was  conveyed  to  England,  where  he  was 
tried  and  executed. 

Lord  Bellamont  found  affairs  in  great  confusion,  and  the  colony  divided 
into  two  bitter  factions,  contending  with  increased  animosity.  His  admi- 
nistration was  prudent,  and  promised  to  be  highly  beneficial ;  but  was 
early  terminated  by  his  death,  in  March,  1701.  Lord  Cornbury  was 
appointed  his  successor,  a  man  eminent  only  for  his  meanness  and  profli- 
gacy :  dismissed  by  his  friends  to  place  him  out  of  the  reach  of  his  credi- 
tors. His  rule  was  oppressive  and  extravagant ;  and  the  infamy  of  his 
private  character  exposed  him  to  universal  odium.  He  was  finally  re- 
moved, and  was  succeeded  by  lord  Lovelace.  His  lordship  died  soon 
after  his  arrival,  and  general  Hunter  was  appointed  to  the  vacant  chair. 
He  brought  with  him  nearly  three  thousand  Germans,  who  were  dispersed 
through  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

In  the  year  1709,  extensive  preparations  were  made  for  an  attack  on 
the  French  settlements  in  Canada ;  the  plan  was  afterwards  abandoned, 
but  in  1711  resumed.  It  was  unsuccessful,  and  nothing  was  accomplished 
by  it.  To  defray  its  expenses,  the  newly-elected  assembly  passed  several 
bills,  which  the  council  persisted  in  amending.  A  contest  ensued  between 
these  two  bodies,  in  which  the«governor  took  side  with  the  council,  and 
finally  dissolved  the  assembly.  At  the  ensuing  election,  most  of  the  mem- 
bers chosen  were  opposed  to  the  governor.  This  assembly  was  dissolved 
by  the  death  of  the  queen.  The  next  met  a  similar  fate  from  the  governor 
soon  after  it  met,  a  majority  being  known  to  be  unfriendly  to  his  views. 
At  length,  however,  the  people  became  weary  of  contending,  and  sent 
representatives  who  were  not  disposed  to  differ  from  the  governor. 

General  Hunter  quitted  the  province  in  1719,  and  his  authority  devolved 
on  Peter  Schuyler,  the  oldest  member  of  the  council.  William  Burnet 
succeeded  him  in  the  following  year.  He  was  a  man  of  good  sense,  and 
kind  feelings,  and  he  entertained  just  views  of  policy.  His  most  vigilant 
attention  was  directed  to  Indian  affairs,  and  to  the  danger  to  be  appre- 
hended from  the  vicinity  of  the  French. 


HISTORY.  593 

Turning  his  views  towards  the  wilderness,  he  perceived  that  the 
French,  in  order  to  connect  their  settlements  in  Canada  and  Louisiana, 
to  secure  to  themselves  the  Indian  trade,  and  to  confine  the  English  to  the 
sea-coast,  were  busily  employed  in  erecting  a  chain  of  forts  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  Mississippi.  He  endeavored  to  defeat  their  design,  by 
building  a  trading-house,  and  afterwards  a  fort,  at  Oswego,  on  lake  Onta- 
rio. But  the  French  had  the  command  of  more  abundant  resources,  and 
applied  them  to  the  accomplishment  of  their  object  with  great  activity  and 
zeal.  They  launched  two  vessels  upon  that  lake  ;  and,  going  farther  into 
the  wilderness,  erected  a  fort  at  Niagara,  commanding  the  entrance  into 
it ;  they  had  previously  erected  fort  Frontignac,  commanding  the  outlet. 
The  Jesuit  Charlevoix  does  no  more  than  justice  to  Mr.  Burnet,  in  de- 
claring that  he  left  no  stone  unturned  to  defeat  the  French  at  Niagara. 
Besides  supplanting  his  favorite  trade  at  Oswego,  these  operations  tended 
to  the  defection  of  the  Five  Nations ;  and,  in  case  of  a  rupture,  exposed 
the  frontiers  of  the  southern  colonies  to  the  ravages  of  the  French  and 
their  allies.  Mr.  Burnet,  upon  whom  these  considerations  made  the  deep- 
est impression,  laid  the  matter  before  the  house,  remonstrated  against  the 
proceedings  to  Longuiel,  in  Canada,  wrote  to  the  ministry  in  England, 
who  complained  of  them  to  the  French  court,  and  met  the  confederates  at 
Albany,  endeavoring  to  convince  them  of  the  danger  they  themselves 
would  be  in  from  an  aspiring,  ambitious  neighbor. 

He  spoke  first  about  the  affair  privately  to  the  sachems,  and  afterwards, 
in  the  public  conference,  informed  them  of  all  the  encroachments  which 
the  French  had  made  upon  their  fathers,  and  the  ill-usage  they  had  met 
with,  according  to  La  Potherie's  account,  published  with  the  privilege  of 
the  French  king,  at  Paris,  in  1722.  He  then  reminded  them  of  the  kind 
treatment  they  had  received  from  the  English,  who  constantly  fed  and 
clothed  them,  and  never  attempted  any  act  of  hostility  to  their  prejudice. 
This  speech  was  extremely  well  drawn,  the  thoughts  being  conceived  in 
strong  figures,  particularly  expressive  and  agreeable  to  the  Indians.  The 
governor  required  an  explicit  declaration  of  their  sentiments  concerning 
the  French  transactions  at  Niagara,  and  their  answer  was  truly  categori- 
cal. *  We  speak  now  in  the  name  of  all  the  Six  Nations,  and  come  to  you 
howling.  This  is  the  reason  why  we  howl,  that  the  governor  of  Canada 
encroaches  on  our  land,  and  builds  thereon.'  After  which  they  entreated 
him  to  write  to  the  king  for  succor.  Mr.  Burnet  embraced  this  favorable 
opportunity  to  procure  from  them  a  deed,  surrendering  their  country  to 
his  majesty,  to  be  protected  for  their  use,  and  confirming  their  grant  in 
1701,  concerning  which  there  was  only  an  entry  in  the  books  of  the  secre- 
tary for  Indian  affairs. 

It  was  an  unfortunate  circumstance,  which  tended  to  prevent  the  execu- 
tion of  Mr.  Burnet's  vigorous  designs,  that  the  electors  of  the  colony  had 
become  dissatisfied  at  the  length  of  time  which  had  elapsed  since  they  had 
been  called  on  to  exercise  their  functions.  The  assembly  elected  in  1716 
had  been  on  such  good  terms  with  the  governor,  that  he  continued  its 
existence  during  the  long  period  of  eleven  years.  In  the  year  1727,  how- 
ever, the  clamors  of  the  people  induced  him  to  dissolve  it ;  and,  as  might 
be  expected,  that  which  next  met,  was  composed  almost  exclusively  of  his 
opponents.  The  court  of  chancery,  in  which  he  presided,  had  become 
exceedingly  unpopular.  It  had  been  instituted  by  an  ordinance  of  the 
75  50* 


694  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

governor  and  council,  without  the  concurrence  of  the  assembly,  and  some 
of  the  decisions  had  given  great  offence  to  powerful  individuals.  The 
house  passed  resolutions,  declaring  it  '  a  manifest  oppression  and  griev- 
ance,' and  intimating  that  its  decrees  were  void.  Mr.  Burnet  no  sooner 
heard  of  these  votes,  than  he  called  the  members  before  him,  and  dissolved 
the  assembly.  They  occasioned,  however,  an  ordinance  in  the  spring  fol- 
lowing, as  well  to  remedy  sundry  abuses  in  the  practice  in  chancery,  as  to 
reduce  the  fees  of  that  court,  'which,  on  account  of  the  popular  clamors, 
were  so  much  diminished,'  says  Smith,  '  that  the  wheels  of  the  chancery 
have  ever  since  rusted  upon  their  axles,  the  practice  being  contemned  by 
all  gentlemen  of  eminence  in  the  profession.' 

Mr.  Burnet  was  soon  after  appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and 
was  succeeded  at  New  York  by  colonel  Montgomery,  who  devoted  him- 
self so  much  to  his  ease  that  he  has  left  nothing  else  to  distinguish  his 
brief  rule.  Upon  his  death,  in  1731,  the  supreme  authority  devolved 
upon  Rip  Van  Dam,  the  senior  member  of  the  council.  Under  his  ineffi- 
cient administration,  the  French  were  permitted  to  erect  a  fort  at  Crown 
Point,  within  the  acknowledged  boundaries  of  New  York,  from  which 
parties  of  savages  were  often  secretly  despatched  to  destroy  the  English 
settlements. 

In  August,  1732,  Van  Dam  was  superseded  by  William  Crosby.  Hav- 
ing been  the  advocate  in  parliament  of  the  American  colonies,  he  was  at 
first  popular,  but  he  soon  lost  the  affection  and  confidence  of  the  people. 
One  of  his  most  unpopular  acts  was  the  prosecution  of  Zenger,  the  printer 
of  a  newspaper,  for  publishing  an  article  derogatory  to  the  dignity  of  his 
majesty's  government,  bringing  him  to  trial,  after  a  severe  imprisonment  of 
thirty-five  weeks  from  the  printing  of  the  offensive  articles.  Andrew  Ha- 
milton, an  eminent  lawyer  of  Philadelphia,  though  aged  and  infirm,  learn- 
ing the  distress  of  the  prisoner  and  the  importance  of  the  trial,  went  to 
New  York  to  plead  Zenger's  cause,  which  he  did  so  effectually  that  the 
jury  brought  in  the  prisoner  not  guilty.  The  common  council  of  the  city 
of  New  York,  for  this  noble  and  successful  service,  presented  Mr.  Hamilton 
the  freedom  of  their  corporation  in  a  gold  box. 

Governor  Crosby  was  succeeded,  in  1736,  by  George  Clark.  During 
his  administration,  the  contest  which  had  ended,  twenty  years  before,  in 
the  victory  gained  by  governor  Hunter  over  the  house  of  representatives, 
was  revived.  The  colony  being  in  debt,  the  house  voted  to  raise  the  sum 
of  six  thousand  pounds  ;  but,  in  order  to  prevent  its  misapplication,  declared 
that  it  should  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  certain  specified  debts.  Of- 
fended by  this  vote,  Clark  immediately  dissolved  the  assembly.  At  the 
election  which  ensued,  the  popular  party  was  triumphant.  In  their  second 
session  the  house  voted  an  address  to  the  lieutenant  governor,  in  which, 
after  stating  some  of  the  vital  principles  of  free  government,  and  referring 
to  recent  misapplications  of  money,  they  say,  '  We  therefore  beg  leave  to 
be  plain  with  your  honor,  and  hope  you  will  not  take  it  amiss  when  we 
tell  you,  that  you  are  not  to  expect  that  we  will  either  raise  sums  unfit 
to  be  raised,  or  put  what  we  shall  raise  into  the  power  of  a  governor  to 
misapply,  if  we  can  prevent  it ;  nor  shall  we  make  up  any  other  deficien- 
cies than  what  we  conceive  are  fit  and  just  to  be  paid ;  nor  continue  what 
support  or  revenue  we  shall  raise  for  any  longer  time  than  one  year ; 
nor  do  we  think  it  convenient  to  do  even  that,  until  such  laws  are  passed 


HISTORY. 


as  we  conceive  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  colony, 
who  have  reposed  a  trust  in  us  for  that  only  purpose,  and  which  we  are 
6ure  you  will  think  it  reasonable  we  should  act  agreeable  to ;  and,  by  the 
grace  of  God,  we  shall  endeavor  not  to  deceive  them.' 

With  men  so  resolute  in  maintaining  their  rights,  Clark  wisely  declined 
to  contend ;  and  promised  his  cordial  co-operation  in  all  measures  calculated 
to  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  colony.  Harmony  did  not,  however,  long 
continue.  Clark,  in  his  speech  at  the  opening  of  the  next  session,  declared 
that  unless  the  revenue  was  granted  for  as  long  a  time  as  it  had  been 
granted  by  former  assemblies,  his  duty  to  his  majesty  forbade  him  from 
assenting  to  any  act  for  continuing  the  excise,  or  for  paying  the  colonial 
bills  of  credit.  The  house  unanimously  resolved,  that  it  would  not  pass  any 
bill  for  the  grant  of  money,  unless  assurance  should  be  given  that  the  excise 
should  be  continued  and  the  bills  of  credit  redeemed.  The  lieutenant  go- 
vernor immediately  ordered  the  members  to  attend  him.  He  told  them  that 
*  their  proceedings  were  presumptuous,  daring,  and  unprecedented  ;  that  he 
could  not  look  upon  them  without  astonishment,  nor  with  honor  suffer  the 
house  to  sit  any  longer ;'  and  he  accordingly  dissolved  it.  In  April,  1740, 
the  assembly  again  met.  It  had  now  risen  to  importance  in  the  colony ; 
and  the  adherence  of  the  representatives  to  their  determination,  not  to 
grant  the  revenue  for  more  than  one  year,  made  annual  meetings  of  the 
assembly  necessary.  Their  attachment  to  liberty  was  construed  by  the 
lieutenant  governor  into  a  desire  for  independence :  in  a  speech  delivered 
in  1741,  he  alludes  to  ■  a  jealousy  which  for  some  years  had  obtained  in 
England,  that  the  plantations  were  not  without  thoughts  of  throwing  off 
their  dependence  on  the  crown.' 

George  Clinton  superseded  Clark  in  the  government  of  the  colony  in 
1743.  Like  most  of  his  predecessors  he  was  welcomed  with  joy;  and  one 
of  his  earliest  measures  confirmed  the  favorable  accounts  which  had  pre- 
ceded him,  of  his  talents  and  liberality.  To  manifest  his  confidence  in  the 
people,  he  assented  to  a  bill  limiting  the  duration  of  the  present  and  all 
succeeding  assemblies.  The  house  evinced  its  gratitude  by  adopting  the 
measures  he  recommended  for  the  defence  of  the  province  against  the 
French,  who  were  then  at  war  with  England.  In  1745,  the  savages  in 
alliance  with  France  made  frequent  invasions  of  the  English  territories ; 
and  their  hostilities  were  continued,  with  little  intermission,  till  the  war 
which  terminated  the  French  dominion  in  Canada. 

In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  whole  colony  of  New  York 
contained  scarcely  one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,^  not  half  the  number 
which  the  city  of  New  York  alone  can  now  boast.  That  the  population 
would  have  been  much  more  numerous  at  this  time,  had  not  the  inhabitants 
been  so  continually  exposed  to  the  irruptions  of  the  French  and  their  Indian 
allies,  is  evident  from  its  rapid  increase  when  those  unfavorable  circum- 
stances ceased  to  exist.  The  consideration  of  this  period  belongs,  how- 
ever, to  another  department  of  the  work. 

*  Smith's  History  of  New  York,  p.  207. 


696  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


NEW    JERSEY. 

It  was  not  till  the  year  1640  that  any  attempt  was  made  by  the  English 
to  colonize  that  portion  of  the  continent  now  known  as  New  Jersey,  and 
then  they  were  resisted  and  expelled  by  the  Swedes.  This  nation  remained 
in  possession  of  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Delaware  until  1655, 
when  the  governor  of  New  Netherlands  conquered  all  their  posts,  and 
transported  most  of  the  Swedes  to  Europe.  The  Dutch  consequently 
possessed  themselves  of  the  whole  territory  of  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
and  Delaware  ;  but  their  settlements,  in  New  Jersey  shared  the  fate  of 
those  on  the  Hudson,  when  in  the  year  1664  they  were  captured  by  the 
English  under  colonel  Nichols.  In  the  same  year  the  duke  of  York  con- 
veyed that  portion  of  his  grant  lying  between  Hudson  and  Delaware  rivers 
to  lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.  This  tract  was  called  New 
Jersey,  in  compliment  to  Sir  George,  who  had  been  governor  of  the  island 
of  Jersey,  and  had  held  it  for  the  king  in  his  contest  with  the  parliament. 

The  early  history  of  this  province  is  a  history  of  disputes  between  the 
inhabitants  and  the  proprietaries.  It  would  not  be  interesting  to  go  into 
their  details,  as  they  are  mere  claims  and  adjudications  of  title.  Suffice 
it  to  say,  that  in  the  course  of  the  disputes  it  became  partitioned  into  East 
and  West  Jersey,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  different  proprietors.  The 
former  was  released,  in  July,  1676,  by  William  Penn  and  his  three  asso- 
ciates, assignees  of  lord  Berkeley,  to  Philip  Carteret ;  and  he  in  return 
conveyed  to  them  the  latter,  the  government  of  which  the  duke  retained 
as  a  dependency  of  New  York,  while  that  of  the  first  was  resigned  to 
Carteret. 

Philip  Carteret,  a  natural  son  of  Sir  George,  returned  to  East  Jersey  in 
the  beginning  of  1675,  and  was  now  kindly  received  by  the  inhabitants, 
because  they  had  felt  the  rigors  of  conquest,  which  had  not  been  softened 
by  Andros,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  duke  of  York  lieutenant  over 
all  his  territories,  from  the  western  bank  of  the  Connecticut  to  the  farther 
shore  of  the  Delaware.  Having  postponed  the  payment  of  quit-rents  to  a 
future  day,  and  published  new  concessions  with  regard  to  the  tenure  of 
lands,  tranquillity  was  perfectly  restored.  Desirous  to  promote  the  com- 
mercial interests  of  the  colony,  because  he  perceived  its  neighbor  growing 
great  and  rich  by  trade,  Carteret  bega*n,  in  1676,  to  clear  out  vessels  from 
East  Jersey ;  but  he  was  steadily  opposed  by  Andros,  who  claimed  juris- 
diction over  the  Jersies,  insisting  that  conquest  by  the  Dutch  divested  the 
proprietors  of  all  their  rights.  He  forcibly  seized,  transported  to  New 
York,  and  there  imprisoned,  those  magistrates  who  refused  to  acknowledge 
his  authority.  He  imposed  a  duty  upon  all  goods  imported,  and  upon  the 
property  of  all  who  came  to  settle  in  the  country. 

The  inhabitants  made  repeated  and  energetic  complaints  of  this  injus- 
tice to  the  duke  of  York;  and  at  length,  wearied  with  their  continual 
importunity,  this  prince  consented  to  refer  the  matter  to  commissioners, 
who  ultimately  agreed  to  adhere  to  the  opinion  of  Sir  William  Jones. 

The  commissioners  pronounced  their  judgment,  in  conformity  with  the 
opinion  of  Sir  W.  Jones,  '  that  as  the  grant  to  Berkeley  and  Carteret  had 
reserved  no  profit  or  jurisdiction,  the  legality  of  the  taxes  could  not  be 
defended.'     In  consequence  of  this  adjudication,  the  duke  resigned  all 


HISTORY.  597 

his  claims  on  West  Jersey,  and  confirmed  the  province  itself  in  the  amplest 
terms  to  its  new  proprietaries ;  and  soon  after  granted  a  similar  release  in 
favor  of  the  representatives  of  Sir  George  Carteret  in  East  Jersey.  The 
whole  of  New  Jersey  thus  rose  to  the  rank  of  an  almost  independent  state, 
maintaining  only  a  federal  connection  with  the  British  crown. 

The  accession  of  numerous  companies  of  settlers  now  rapidly  promoted 
the  population  and  prosperity  of  West  Jersey.  In  the  year  1681,  the  first 
representative  assembly  was  held ;  and  during  its  session  were  enacted 
the  '  Fundamental  Constitutions,'  and  other  laws  for  the  preservation  of 
property,  and  the  punishment  of  criminals. 

Frequent  disputes  arising  between  the  proprietary  government  of  East 
Jersey  and  the  colonists,  the  trustees  of  Sir  George  Carteret,  apprehending 
they  should  derive  little  emolument  from  retaining  the  government  un- 
der their  control,  offered  their  rights  in  the  province  for  sale,  and  accepted 
the  proposals  of  William  Penn,  to  whom,  and  his  associates,  East  Jersey 
was  conveyed.  Among  the  new  proprietors  was  the  author  of  the  well- 
known  '  Apology  ;'  and  his  colleagues,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  conferred  on 
him  the  office  of  governor  for  life,  with  the  extraordinary  permission  to 
appoint  a  deputy,  instead  of  his  residing  at  the  scene  of  his  authority. 

The  number  of  proprietors,  and  the  frequent  transfers  and  subdivisions 
of  shares,  introduced  such  confusion  into  titles  to  land,  and  such  uncertainty 
as  to  the  rights  of  government,  that,  for  twenty  years  afterwards,  both  Jer- 
seys were  frequently  in  a  state  of  disturbance  and  disorder.  In  1702,  the 
proprietors,  weary  of  contending  with  each  other,  and  with  the  people,  sur- 
rendered the  right  of  government  to  the  crown.  Queen  Anne  reunited  the 
two  divisions,  and  appointed  lord  Cornbury  governor  over  the  provinces 
of  New  Jersey  and  New  York.  From  the  period  of  his  appointment  till 
his  deprivation  of  office,  the  history  of  New  Jersey  consists  of  little  else 
than  a  detail  of  his  contests  with  the  colonial  assemblies;  and  exhibits  the 
resolution  with  which  they  opposed  his  arbitrary  conduct,  his  partial  distri- 
bution of  justice,  and  his  fraudulent  misapplication  of  the  public  money. 
After  repeated  complaints,  the  queen  yielded  to  the  universal  indignation ; 
and  he  was  superseded,  in  1709,  by  lord  Lovelace. 

These  provinces  continued,  for  several  years,  to  be  ruled  by  the  same 
governor,  but  each  chose  a  separate  assembly.  In  1738,  the  inhabitants, 
by  a  petition  to  the  king,  desired  that  they  might,  in  future,  have  a  sepa- 
rate governor ;  and  their  request  was  granted. 

The  distance  of  New  Jersey  from  Canada,  the  source  of  most  of  the 
Indian  wars  which  afflicted  the  northern  colonies,  gave  it  a  complete  ex- 
emption from  those  direful  calamities,  while  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, which  were  far  from  numerous,  were  almost  always  willing  to 
cultivate  a  friendly  relation  with  the  Europeans.  The  gravity,  simplicity, 
and  courtesy  of  Quaker  manners  seem  to  have  been  particularly  acceptable 
to  these  savages ;  and,  added  to  the  careful  observation  of  the  principles 
of  equity  in  the  proceedings  of  the  colonists,  established  an  amicable 
intercourse,  to  the  manifest  advantage  both  of  themselves  and  of  the 
natives. 


698  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


PENNSYLVANIA  AND  DELAWARE. 

During  a  considerable  period,  the  colony  of  Delaware  was  attached  to 
that  of  Pennsylvania,  without  even  a  separate  assembly ;  and  after  it  ac- 
quired that  privilege,  it  remained  for  some  time  longer  under  the  same 
governor :  its  history  requires,  therefore,  to  be  blended  with  that  of  Penn- 
sylvania, although  it  was  settled  at  a  much  earlier  period.  It  does  not 
appear  that  the  date  of  the  first  European  plantation  on  South  river,  or  the 
Delaware,  can  now  be  ascertained  with  any  precision ;  some  authorities, 
however,  assert  that  a  Swedish  colony  settled  at  cape  Henlopen  as  early 
as  the  year  1627 ;  although  Chalmers  is  of  opinion  that,  '  though  various 
Europeans  may  have  trafficked  in  Delaware,  their  plantations  had  not  yet 
embellished  her  margin,  probably  in  the  year  1632.' 

The  colony  which  forms  the  chief  subject  of  this  division  was  founded 
in  the  year  1681,  by  the  celebrated  William  Penn.  His  attention  was 
attracted  to  colonization  by  his  connection  with  New  Jersey.  While 
he  was  engaged  in  the  government  of  that  territory,  he  received  informa- 
tion of  the  country  situate  to  the  westward  of  the  Delaware,  which  induced 
in  his  mind  the  desire  of  acquiring  an  estate  in  that  quarter.  He  there- 
fore presented  a  petition  to  Charles  II.,  urging  his  claim  for  a  debt  incurred 
by  the  crown  to  his  father,  and  soliciting  a  grant  of  land  to  the  northward 
of  Maryland,  and  westward  of  the  Delaware.  After  a  conference  with 
the  duke  of  York  and  lord  Baltimore,  to  ascertain  that  the  grant  would 
not  interfere  with  any  prior  claims  of  theirs,  a  charter,  making  conveyance 
of  that  territory,  was  signed  and  sealed  by  the  king.  It  constituted  Wil- 
liam Penn  and  his  heirs  true  and  absolute  proprietaries  of  the  province  of 
Pennsylvania,  saving  to  the  crown  their  allegiance  and  the  sovereignty.  It 
gave  him,  his  heirs,  and  their  deputies,  power  to  make  laws,  by  advice  of 
the  freemen,  and  to  erect  courts  of  justice  for  the  execution  of  those  laws, 
provided  they  be  not  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  England.^ 

The  charter  being  thus  obtained,  Penn  invited  purchasers  by  public  ad- 
vertisement. Many  single  persons,  and  some  families,  chiefly  of  the  deno- 
mination of  Quakers,  were  induced  to  think  of  a  removal ;  and  a  number 
of  merchants  and  others,  forming  themselves  into  a  company,  purchased 
twenty  thousand  acres  of  this  land,  which  was  sold  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
pounds  for  every  thousand  acres.  In  May  he  despatched  Markham,  a 
relative,  with  a  few  associates,  to  take  possession  of  the  newly  granted 

*  The  following  account  of  the  origin  of  the  name  Pennsylvania,  given  by  its  founder, 
in  a  letter  dated  January  5,  1681,  is  curious  and  interesting.  'This  day,'  says  Penn, 
'after  many  waitings,  watchings,  solicitings,  and  disputes,  in  council,  my  country  wras 
confirmed  to  me  under  the  great  seal  of  England,  with  large  powers  and  privileges, 
by  the  name  of  Pennsylvania ;  a  name  the  king  would  give  it  in  honor  of  my  father. 
I  chose  New  Wales,  being  a  hilly  country ;  and  when  the  secretary,  a  Welshman, 
refused  to  call  it  New  Wales,  I  proposed  Sylvania,  and  they  added  Penn  to  it ;  though 
I  much  opposed  it,  and  went  to  the  king  to  have  it  struck  out.  He  said  'twas  past,  and 
he  would  take  it  upon  him  ;  nor  could  twenty  guineas  move  the  under-secretary  to  vary 
the  name  -,  for  I  feared  it  should  be  looked  on  as  a  vanity  in  me,  and  not  as  a  respect 
in  the  king  to  my  father,  as  it  really  was.  Thou  mayest  communicate  my  grant  to 
friends,  and  expect  shortly  my  proposals.  'Tis  a  dear  and  just  thing,  and  my  God,  that 
has  given  it  me  through  many  difficulties,  will,  I  believe,  bless  and  make  it  the  seed  of 
a  nation.    I  shall  have  a  tender  care  to  the  government,  that  it  be  well  laid  at  first.' 


HISTORY. 


599 


territory ;  and  in  the  autumn  three  ships,  with  a  considerable  number  of 
emigrants,  sailed  for  the  same  destination.  The  philanthropic  proprietor 
sent  a  letter  to  the  Indians,  informing  them  that  '  the  great  God  had  been 
pleased  to  make  him  concerned  in  their  part  of  the  world,  and  that  the 
king  of  the  country  where  he  lived,  had  given  him  a  great  province  there- 
in ;  but  that  he  did  not  desire  to  enjoy  it  without  their  consent ;  that  he 
was  a  man  of  peace,  and  that  the  people  whom  he  sent  were  of  the  same 
disposition ;  and  if  any  difference  should  happen  between  them,  it  might 
be  adjusted  by  an  equal  number  of  men  chosen  on  both  sides.'  The  posi- 
tion selected  by  these  emigrants  for  their  abode,  was  immediately  above 
the  confluence  of  the  Schuylkill  and  Delaware.  In  the  following  April, 
Penn  published  'the  frame  of  government  for  Pennsylvania.'  The  chief 
intention  of  this  famous  charter  was  declared  to  be, '  for  the  support  of 
power  in  reverence  with  the  people,  and  to  secure  the  people  from  the 
abuse  of  power.  For,  liberty  without  obedience  is  confusion,  and  obedi- 
ence without  liberty  is  slavery.' 

The  first  page  in  the  annals  of  Pennsylvania  is  one  of  the  brightest  in 
the  history  of  mankind,  recording  an  event  not  more  to  the  credit  of  the 
wise  and  benevolent  legislator  through  whose  agency  it  happened,  than 
honorable  to  humanity  itself.  At  a  spot  which  is  now  the  site  of  one  of 
the  suburbs  of  Philadelphia,  the  Indian  sachems,  at  the  head  of  their  as- 
sembled warriors,  awaited  in  arms  the  approach  of  the  Quaker  deputation. 


Perm's  Treaty. 

Penn,  distinguished  from  his  followers  only  by  a  sash  of  blue  silk,  and 
holding  in  his  hand  a  roll  of  parchment  that  contained  the  confirmation  of 
the  treaty,  arrived,  at  the  head  of  an  unarmed  train,  carrying  various  arti- 
cles of  merchandise,  which,  on  their  approach  to  the  sachems,  were  spread 
on  the  ground.  He  addressed  the  natives  through  an  interpreter,  assuring 
them  of  his  friendly  and  peaceable  intentions ;  and  certainly  the  absence 
of  all  warlike  weapons  was  a  better  attestation  of  his  sincerity  than  a  thou- 
sand oaths.  The  conditions  of  the  proposed  purchase  were  then  read ; 
and  he  delivered  to  the  sachems  not  only  the  stipulated  price,  but  a  hand- 
some present  of  the  merchandise  which  he  had  spread  before  them.     He 


600  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

concluded  by  presenting  the  parchment  to  the  sachems,  and  requesting 
that  they  would  carefully  preserve  it  for  three  generations.  The  Indians 
cordially  acceded  to  his  propositions,  and  solemnly  pledged  themselves  to 
live  in  love  with  William  Penn  and  his  children  as  long  as  the  sun  and 
moon  should  endure. 

Having  received  information  from  his  agent  that  his  presence  was  neces-* 
sary  in  England,  Penn  departed  from  America,  in  August,  1684,  leaving 
his  province  in  profound  peace,  under  the  administration  of  five  commis- 
sioners chosen  from  the  provincial  council.  The  unfortunate  James  II. 
ascended  the  throne  soon  after  Penn's  arrival.  '  As  he  has,'  said  Penn, 
'been  my  friend,  and  my  father's  friend,  I  feel  bound  in  justice  to  be  a 
friend  to  him.'  He  adhered  to  him  while  seated  on  the  throne;  and  for 
two  years  after  he  was  expelled  from  his  kingdom,  the  government  of  the 
province  was  administered  in  his  name.  By  this  display  of  attachment  to 
the  exiled  monarch,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  William  III.  On  vague 
suspicion  and  unfounded  charges,  he  was  four  times  imprisoned.  The 
king  took  the  government  of  Pennsylvania  into  his  own  hands ;  and  colo- 
nel Fletcher  was  appointed  governor  of  this  province,  as  well  as  of  New 
York.  On  the  arrival  of  colonel  Fletcher  at  Philadelphia,  the  persons  in 
the  administration  appear  to  have  surrendered  the  government  to  him, 
without  any  notice  or  order  to  them,  either  from  the  crown  or  the  proprie- 
tary. By  the  severest  scrutiny,  however,  it  was  rendered  apparent,  that 
Penn  had  not  suffered  personal  gratitude  to  lead  him  to  any  serious  dere- 
liction of  duty,  and  he  consequently  regained  the  good  opinion  of  king 
William ;  and  being  permitted  to  resume  and  exercise  his  rights,  he  ap- 
pointed William  Markham  to  be  his  deputy  governor. 

During  several  years  the  colony  continued  in  a  course  of  prosperity,  with- 
out any  occurrence  requiring  historical  record.  In  the  year  1699,  Penn 
revisited  his  Pennsylvanian  associates,  accompanied  by  his  family,  with  an 
intention  of  spending  the  remainder  of  his  life  amongst  them.  But  several 
points  soon  came  up,  on  which  a  difference  of  opinion  existed  between  him- 
self and  the  legislature,  and  disappointed  him  in  his  hopes  of  obtaining  influ- 
ence as  a  lawgiver.  He  consequently  determined  to  return  to  England,  and 
he  naturally  desired  to  have  some  frame  of  government  finally  adopted 
before  his  departure.  In  1701,  he  prepared  and  presented  one  to  the 
assembly,  which  was  accepted.  It  confirmed  to  them,  in  conformity  with 
that  of  1696,  the  right  of  originating  bills,  which,  by  the  charters  preceding 
that  date,  had  been  the  right  of  the  governor  alone,  and  of  amending  or 
rejecting  those  which  might  be  laid  before  them.  To  the  governor  it  gave 
the  right  of  rejecting  bills  passed  by  the  assembly,  of  appointing  his  own 
council,  and  of  exercising  the  whole  executive  power. 

Immediately  after  his  fourth  frame  was  accepted,  Penn  returned  to 
England  ;  but  he  had  scarcely  arrived  there,  when  the  disputes  between 
the  province  and  the  territories  broke  forth  with  greater  bitterness  than 
ever ;  and  in  the  following  year,  the  separate  legislature  of  Delaware  was 
permanently  established  at  Newcastle.  In  addition  to  the  tidings  of  these 
prolonged  disagreements,  and  of  the  final  rupture  between  the  two  settle- 
ments, Penn  was  harassed  by  complaints  against  the  administration  of 
governor  Evans ;  and  having  ascertained,  by  a  deliberate  examination  of 
them,  that  they  were  too  well  founded,  he  appointed  in  his  place  Charles 
Gookin,  a  gentleman  of  ancient  Irish  family,  who  seemed  qualified  to  give 


HISTORY.  601 

satisfaction  to  the  people  over  whom  he  was  sent  to  preside.  Finding  his 
people  still  in  a  discontented  state,  Penn,  now  in  his  sixty-sixth  year,  for 
the  last  time  addressed  the  assembly,  in  a  letter  replete  with  calm  solem- 
nity and  dignified  concern.  This  letter  is  said  to  have  produced  a  deep 
and  powerful  impression  on  the  more  considerate  part  of  the  assembly, 
who  now  began  to  feel  for  the  father  of  his  country,  and  to  regard  with 
tenderness  his  venerable  age  ;  to  remember  his  long  labors,  and  to  appre- 
ciate their  own  interest  in  his  distinguished  fame :  but  it  is  very  doubtful 
if  this  change  of  sentiment  was  ever  known  to  its  illustrious  object,  who 
was  attacked  shortly  afterwards  by  a  succession  of  apoplectic  fits,  which 
impeded,  in  a  great  degree,  the  exercise  of  his  memory  and  understand- 
ing, and  ultimately  terminated  his  life. 

The  legislatures  and  governors  continuing  to  act  on  the  noble  principles 
and  example  which  their  founder  left  for  their  imitation,  the  colony  ac- 
quired, by  well-conducted  purchases  from  the  Indians,  a  most  extensive  and 
unembarrassed  territory,  and  proceeded  rapidly  in  its  prosperous  course. 
The  only  circumstance  which  appears  to  have  created  any  internal  dis- 
union worthy  of  notice,  was  a  dispute  between  the  governors  and  the  as- 
sembly, on  the  question  of  exempting  the  land  of  the  proprietaries  fron 
the  general  taxation  ;  a  claim  which  the  inhabitants  deemed  very  inequi- 
table. In  January,  1757,  the  assembly  of  Pennsylvania  voted  a  bill  for 
granting  to  his  majesty  the  sum  of  one  hundred  thousand  pounds  by  tax 
on  all  the  estates,  real  and  personal,  and  taxables,  within  the  province. 
On  submitting  it  to  governor  Denny  for  his  sanction,  he  refused  it.  'The 
proprietaries,'  he  observed  in  his  message,  '  are  willing  their  estates  should 
be  taxed  in  the  manner  that  appears  to  them  to  be  reasonable,  and  agree- 
able to  the  land-tax  acts  of  parliament  in  our  mother  country.'  The 
governors  of  Pennsylvania  still  refusing  their  assent  to  any  tax  bill  that  did 
not  exempt  the  estates  of  the  proprietaries,  the  assembly  of  that  province 
deputed  the  celebrated  Benjamin  Franklin  as  an  agent  to  London,  to 
petition  the  king  for  redress.  The  subject  was  discussed  before  the  privy 
council;  and  Mr.  Franklin  acceding  to  a  proposal  to  enter  into  engage- 
ments that  the  assessments  should  be  fair  and  equitable,  a  bill  for  levying 
a  general  tax,  which  had  previously  received  the  governor's  assent,  though 
after  the  agent's  departure  from  the  province,  was  stamped  with  the  royal 
approbation.  These  disputes,  by  calling  the  energetic  mind  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  into  a  new  field  of  exertion,  enlarged  the  sphere  of  his  observa- 
tion, and  fitted  him  for  those  extraordinary  services  in  which  he  acquired 
his  greatest  glory  by  contributing  to  that  of  his  country. 


MARYLAND. 

The  founder  of  the  state  of  Maryland  was  lord  Baltimore.  Before  the 
date  of  his  charter,  it  was  a  portion  of  the  territory  of  Virginia ;  but  by 
that  instrument  it  was  separated,  and  declared  subject  only  to  the  crown 
of  England.  Lord  Baltimore  was  created  the  absolute  proprietary  of  it, 
and  was  empowered,  with  the  assent  of  delegates,  whom  he  was  to  assem- 
ble for  that  purpose,  to  make  laws  for  the  province,  and  to  administer 
them.  Having  thus  obtained  a  most  favorable  charter,  he  proceeded  to 
tarry  its  provisions  into  execution. 

76  51 


602  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

He  appointed  his  brother,  Leonard  Calvert,  governor  of  the  new  pro* 
vince,  and  concurred  with  him  in  the  equipment  of  vessels,  which  conveyed 
a  numerous  body  of  emigrants,  chiefly  Roman  Catholics,  and  many  of 
them  gentlemen  of  rank  and  fortune.  After  a  circuitous  voyage  the  gover- 
nor arrived,  accompanied  by  his  brother  George,  at  Point  Comfort,  in  Vir- 
ginia, in  February,  1634.  Early  in  March,  he  proceeded  up  the  bay  of 
Chesapeake  to  the  northward,  and  entered  the  Potomack,  up  which  he 
Sailed  twelve  leagues,  and  came  to  an  anchor  under  an  island,  which  he 
named  St.  Clement.  Here  he  erected  a  cross,  and  took  possession  'in  the 
name  of  the  Savior  of  the  world,  and  of  the  king  of  England.'  Thence 
he  went  fifteen  leagues  higher  to  the  Indian  town  of  Potowmack,  on  the 
Virginia  side  of  the  river,  now  called  New  Marlborough,  where  he  was 
received  in  a  friendly  manner.  Arriving  at  the  town  of  Piscatawa,  on  the 
Maryland  side,  he  found  Henry  Fleet,  an  Englishman,  who  had  resided 
several  years  among  the  natives,  and  was  held  by  them  in  great  esteem, 
Who  was  very  serviceable  as  an  interpreter. 

An  interview  having  been  procured  with  the  werowance,  or  prince,  Cal- 
vert asked  him,  whether  he  was  willing  that  a  settlement  should  be  made 
in  his  country;  he  replied,  'I  will  not  bid  you  go,  neither  will  I  bid  you 
stay;  but  you  may  use  your  own  discretion.'  Having  convinced  the  na- 
tives that  his  designs  were  honorable  and  pacific,  the  governor  now  sought 
a  suitable  station  for  commencing  his  colony.  He  visited  a  creek  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  Potomack,  on  which  he  found  an  Indian  village. 
Here  he  acquainted  the  prince  of  the  place  with  his  intentions,  and  by 
presents  to  him  and  his  principal  men,  conciliated  his  friendship  so  much 
as  to  obtain  permission  to  reside  in  one  part  of  the  town  until  next  harvest, 
when  it  was  agreed  that  the  natives  should  entirely  quit  the  place.  Both 
parties  entered  into  a  contract  to  live  together  in  a  friendly  manner.  After 
Calvert  had  given  a  satisfactory  consideration,  the  Indians  readily  yielded 
a  number  of  their  houses,  and  retired  to  the  others.  Thus,  on  the  27th  of 
March,  1634,  the  governor  took  peaceable  possession  of  the  country  of  Ma- 
ryland, and  gave  to  the  town  the  name  of  St.  Mary,  and  to  the  creek  on 
Which  it  Was  situate,  the  name  of  St.  George.  The  desire  of  rendering 
justice  to  the  natives  by  giving  them  a  reasonable  compensation  for  their 
lands,  is  a  trait  in  the  character  of  the  first  planters,  which  will  always  do 
honor  to  their  memory. 

Circumstances  favored  the  rapid  population  of  the  colony.  The  charter 
granted  more  ample  privileges  than  had  ever  been  conceded  to  a  subject ; 
the  country  was  inviting ;  the  natives  were  friendly ;  from  the  south 
Churchmen  drove  Puritans,  from  the  north  Puritans  drove  Churchmen, 
into  her  borders,  where  all  were  freely  received,  protected,  and  cherished. 
The  colony  was  soon  able  to  export  Indian  corn  and  other  products  to  New 
England  and  Newfoundland,  for  which  they  received  in  return  dried  fish 
and  other  provisions.  The  Indians  also  killed  many  deer  and  turkeys, 
which  they  sold  to  the  English  for  knives,  beads,  and  other  small  articles 
of  traffic,  while  cattle,  swine,  and  poultry,  were  procured  from  Virginia. 

It  is  a  fact,  which  reflects  the  greatest  credit  on  these  early  colonists, 
that  fifteen  years  after  they  first  landed,  the  general  assembly  of  the  people 
passed  an  act,  entitled  '  An  Act  concerning  Religion,'  in  which  the  great 
jprinciples  of  religious  toleration  and  liberty  are  extensively  recognised. 
This  law  was  passed  by  an  assembly  composed  entirely  of  Roman  Catho- 


HISTORY.  603 

lies,  and  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  being  the  first  legislative  act  which  is 
recorded  to  have  been  passed  by  any  government,  administered  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Romish  hierarchy,  in  favor  of  the  unlimited  toleration  of  all 
Christian  sects. 

In  1676,  Cecil,  lord  Baltimore,  the  father  of  the  province,  died.  For 
more  than  forty  years  he  had  directed  its  affairs  as  proprietor,  and  displayed 
in  all  his  conduct  a  benevolent  heart  and  enlightened  understanding.  Al- 
though he  lived  in  an  age  of  bigotry,  he  was  liberal  in  his  opinions ;  and 
for  all  his  exertions  to  contribute  to  the  happiness  of  his  fellow-beings,  he 
desired  no  reward  but  their  gratitude.  This  reward  he  received.  The 
records  of  the  Maryland  assembly  contain  frequent  memorials  of  the  re- 
spect and  affection  of  the  people.  He  was  succeeded,  as  proprietor,  by  his 
eldest  son,  Charles,  who  had  for  several  years  been  governor  of  the  colony, 
and  displayed  the  same  amiable  qualities  which  had  rendered  his  father 
respected  and  beloved. 

The  closing  years  of  the  proprietary  government  were  embittered  by  a 
circumstance  similar  to  that  which  the  institution  of  the  colony  of  Mary- 
land had  inflicted  on  Virginia.  The  grant  which  had  been  made  by 
Charles  II.  to  the  celebrated  Penn  included  the  territory  of  Delaware, 
which  lord  Baltimore  had  always  considered  within  the  limits  of  his  pa- 
tent. On  the  arrival  of  William  Penn  in  America,  a  meeting  took  place 
between  him  and  lord  Baltimore,  in  the  hope  of  effecting  an  amicable 
adjustment  of  the  boundaries  of  their  respective  territorial  grants.  But  the 
pretensions  of  the  parties  were  so  completely  incompatible,  that  it  proved 
impossible  at  the  time  to  adjust  them  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  both. 
Penn  ultimately  complained  to  the  English  government,  and  by  his  interest 
at  court,  procured  it  to  be  adjudged  that  the  debatable  territory  should  be 
divided  into  two  equal  parts,  one  of  which  was  appropriated  to  himself, 
and  the  other  to  lord  Baltimore.  This  adjudication  was  carried  into  ef- 
fect ;  and  the  territory  which  now  composes  the  state  of  Delaware  was 
thus  dismembered  from  the  provincial  limits  of  Maryland. 

In  the  year  following  the  revolution  of  1688,  the  repose  of  Maryland 
was  again  disturbed.  A  rumor  was  artfully  circulated  that  the  Catholics 
had  leagued  with  the  Indians  to  destroy  all  the  Protestants  in  the  province. 
An  armed  association  was  immediately  formed,  for  the  defence  of  the  Pro- 
testant religion,  and  for  asserting  the  rights  of  king  William  and  queen 
Mary.  The  magistrates  attempted  to  oppose  this  association  by  force ; 
but,  meeting  with  few  supporters,  they  were  compelled  to  abdicate  the 
government.  King  William  directed  those  who  had  assumed  the  supreme 
authority  to  exercise  it  in  his  name ;  and  for  twenty-seven  years  the 
crown  retained  the  entire  control  of  the  province.  In  1716,  the  proprietor 
was  restored  to  his  rights  ;  and  he  and  his  descendants  continued  to  enjoy 
them  until  the  commencement  of  the  revolution.  The  people  then  assumed 
the  government,  adopted  a  constitution,  and  refused  to  admit  the  claims  of 
the  representatives  of  lord  Baltimore  either  to  jurisdiction  or  to  property. 


NORTH  AND  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

The  final  settlement  of  this  country  originated  with  the  earl  of  Claren- 
don   and  other  courtiers  of  Charles  II.,  who  were  presented  with  a  grant 


604  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  all  the  lands  lying  between  the  thirty-first  and  thirty-sixth  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  received  in  their  charter  ample  powers  of  administra- 
tion and  judicature.  Some  previous  efforts  had  been  unsuccessfully  made 
to  colonize  this  portion  of  the  North  American  continent,  and  grants  had 
been  given  to  different  individuals,  which  were  now  all  pronounced  void 
by  the  privy  council.  A  few  settlers  were  scattered  in  different  parts,  and 
those  on  Albemarle  sound  were  on  certain  conditions  allowed  to  retain 
their  lands.  A  government  was  organized  over  them,  at  the  head  of 
which  Mr.  Drummond  was  placed. 

Having  taken  the  command  of  the  infant  settlement  at  Albemarle,  the 
proprietaries  directed  a  survey  of  the  coast  to  the  southward,  and  projected 
the  establishment  of  a  new  colony  in  Clarendon  country,  which  had  been 
recently  abandoned  by  the  emigrants  from  New  England.  In  furtherance 
of  this  object,  they  conferred  on  John  Yeamans,  a  respectable  planter  of 
Barbadoes,  the  appointment  of  commander-in-chief  of  Clarendon  country. 
In  the  autumn,' he  conducted  from  Barbadoes  a  body  of  emigrants,  who 
landed  on  the  southern  bank  of  cape  Fear.  He  cultivated  the  good  will 
of  the  natives,  and  insured  a  seven  years'  peace.  The  planters,  in  opening 
die  forest  to  make  room  for  the  operations  of  tillage, '  necessarily  prepared 
timber  for  the  uses  of  the  cooper  and  builder,  which  they  transmitted  to 
the  island  whence  they  had  emigrated,  as  the  first  subject  of  a  feeble  com- 
merce, that  kindled  the  spark  of  industry  which  soon  gave  animation  to 
the  whole.'  Another  settlement  was  also  projected  to  the  southward  of 
cape  Remain,  which  received  the  name  of  Carteret,  and  was  placed  under 
a  separate  governor. 

In  pursuance  of  the  authority  with  which  the  proprietors  were  invested 
by  their  charter,  they  began  to  frame  a  system  of  laws  for  the  government 
of  their  colony ;  in  which  they  availed  themselves  of  the  assistance  of  the 
illustrious  John  Locke.  The  form  of  government  proposed  by  this  emi- 
nent man  proved  utterly  impracticable  and  useless.  It  received  no  favor 
from  the  people,  and  never  attained  the  force  of  fundamental  laws. 

Notwithstanding  these  constitutions  and  legal  preparations,  several  years 
elapsed  before  the  proprietors  of  Carolina  made  any  serious  efforts  towards 
its  settlement.  In  1667,  they  fitted  out  a  ship,  gave  the  command  of  it  to 
captain  William  Sayle,  and  sent  him  out  to  bring  them  some  account  of 
the  coast.  His  report  to  his  employers,  as  might  naturally  be  expected, 
was  favorable.  He  praised  their  possessions,  and  encouraged  them  to 
engage  with  vigor  in  the  execution  of  their  project.  His  observations  re- 
specting the  Bahama  islands,  which  he  had  visited,  induced  them  to  apply 
to  the  king  for  a  grant  of  them,  and  Charles  bestowed  on  them  by  patent 
all  those  islands  lying  between  the  twenty-second  and  twenty-seventh 
degrees  of  north  latitude.  Nothing  then  remained  but  to  make  prepara- 
tions for  sending  a  colony  to  Carolina.  Two  ships  were  procured,  on  board 
of  which  a  number  of  adventurers  embarked,  with  provisions,  arms,  and 
utensils  requisite  for  building  and  cultivation. 

Sayle  was  appointed  the  first  governor,  and  received  a  commission, 
bearing  date  July  26,  1669.  The  expenses  of  this  first  .embarkation 
amounted  to  twelve  thousand  pounds ;  a  proof  that  the  proprietors  enter- 
tained no  small  hopes  with  respect  to  their  palatinate.  The  number  of 
men,  however,  must  have  been  by  no  means  adequate  to  the  undertaking, 
especially  considering  the  multitude  of  savages  that  ranged  through  that 


HISTORY.  605 

extensive  wilderness.  In  what  place  governor  Sayle  first  landed  is  uncer- 
tain ;  but  he  was  dissatisfied  with  his  first  situation,  and,  moving  to  the 
southward,  took  possession  of  a  neck  of  land  between  Ashley  and  Cooper 
rivers,  where  he  laid  out  a  town,  which,  in  honor  of  the  king  then  reign- 
ing, he  called  Charleston ;  but  dying  soon  after,  Sir  John  Yeamans,  who 
had  for  several  years  been  governor  at  Clarendon,  was  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed him.  This  new  settlement  attracted  many  inhabitants  from  that  at 
Clarendon,  and  ultimately  entirely  exhausted  it.  Being  at  a  great  distance 
from  Albemarle,  the  proprietors  established  a  separate  government  over  it, 
and  hence  arose  the  distinctive  appellations  of  North  and  South  Carolina. 
The  affairs  of  the  northern  colony  must  now  occupy  a  portion  of  our 
attention.  The  fundamental  constitutions,  which  have  already  been  de- 
scribed, were  received  by  the  colonists  with  disgust  and  disunion.  Their 
promulgation  produced  no  other  effect  than  to  excite  the  most  inveterate 
jealousy  of  the  designs  of  the  proprietaries ;  till,  in  process  of  time,  a  re- 
fractory spirit  took  possession  of  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  was  at  length 
exasperated  into  sentiments  as  hostile  to  subordination,  as  the  policy  of  the 
proprietaries  was  repugnant  to  liberty.  From  this  period  the  history  of  the 
northern  province,  for  a  series  of  years,  is  involved  in  such  confusion  and 
contradiction,  that  it  is  impossible  to  render  it  interesting,  and  difficult  to 
make  it  even  intelligible.  It  is  a  record  of  insurrection  and  revolt,  not 
easily  understood,  and  not  sufficiently  interesting  to  demand  more  than 
this  slignt  allusion. 

To  return  to  the  affairs  of  the  southern  colony,  now  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  Joseph  West.  The  situation  of  Old  Charleston  being  found 
inconvenient,  the  inhabitants,  in  1680,  removed  to  Oyster  Point,  where  a 
new  city  was  laid  out,  to  which  the  name  of  the  other  was  given.  In  the 
same  year  commenced  a  war  with  the  Westoes,  a  powerful  tribe  of  Indians, 
which  threatened  great  injury  to  the  colony ;  peace,  however,  was  soon 
restored.  Governor  West  was  superseded  by  Sir  Richard  Kirle,  an  Irish 
gentleman,  who  died  six  months  after  his  arrival  in  the  country.  After 
his  decease,  colonel  Robert  Quarry  was  chosen  his  successor.  During  the 
time  of  his  government,  a  number  of  pirates  put  into  Charleston,  and  pur- 
chased provisions  with  their  Spanish  gold  and  silver.  Those  public  rob- 
bers, instead  of  being  taken  and  tried  by  the  laws  of  England,  were  treated 
with  great  civility  and  friendship,  in  violation  of  the  laws  of  nations. 

Whether  the  governor  was  ignorant  of  the  treaty  made  with  Spain,  by 
which  England  had  withdrawn  her  former  toleration  from  these  plunderers 
of  the  Spanish  dominions,  or  whether  he  was  afraid  to  bring  them  to  trial 
from  the  notorious  courage  of  their  companions  in  the  West  Indies,  we 
have  not  sufficient  authority  to  affirm  ;  but  one  thing  is  certain,  that 
Charles  II.,  for  several  years  after  the  restoration,  winked  at  their  depreda- 
tions, and  many  of  them  performed  such  valiant  actions,  as,  in  a  good 
cause,  would  have  justly  merited  honors  and  rewards;  he  even  knighted 
Henry  Morgan,  a  Welshman,  who  had  plundered  Porto  Bello  and  Panama, 
and  carried  off  large  treasures  from  them.  For  several  years  so  formidable 
was  this  body  of  plunderers  in  the  West  Indies,  that  they  struck  a  terror 
into  every  quarter  of  the  Spanish  dominions.  Their  gold  and  silver, 
which  they  lavishly  spent  in  the  colony,  insured  to  them  a  kind  reception 
among  the  Carolinians,  who  opened  their  ports  to  them  freely,  and  fur- 
nished them  with  necessaries.     They  could  purchase  the   favor  of  the 

51* 


606  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

governor,  and  the  friendship  of  the  people,  for  what  they  deemed  a  trifling" 
consideration.  Leaving  their  gold  and  silver  behind  them  for  clothes, 
arms,  ammunition,  and  provisions,  they  embarked  in  quest  of  more. 
However,  the  proprietors,  having  intelligence  of  the  encouragement  given 
to  pirates  by  governor  Quarry,  dismissed  him  from  the  office  he  held ;  and, 
in  1685,  landgrave  Joseph  Morton  was  appointed  to  the  government  of  the 
colony. 

It  is  not  now  of  importance  to  recur  to  the  difficulties  between  the  pro- 
prietary government  and  the  people  :  they  led  to  extreme  irritation,  and  in 
the  year  1690,  at  a  meeting  of  the  representatives,  a  bill  was  brought  in 
and  passed,  for  disabling  James  Colleton,  then  governor  of  the  province, 
from  holding  any  office,  or  exercising  any  authority,  civil  or  military,  in 
the  colony,  and  he  was  informed  that  in  a  limited  time  he  must  depart 
from  the  colony. 

During  these  public  commotions,  Seth  Sothel,  one  of  the  proprietors, 
who  had  been  driven  from  North  Carolina,  appeared  suddenly  at  Charles- 
ton, and,  aided  by  a  powerful  faction,  assumed  the  reins  of  government. 
At  first  the  people  gladly  acknowledged  his  authority,  while  the  current  of 
their  enmity  ran  against  Colleton  ;  especially  as  he  stood  forth  as  an  active 
and  leading  man  in  opposition  to  that  governor,  and  ratified  the  law  for 
his  exclusion  and  banishment ;  but  they  afterwards  found  him  void  of 
every  principle  of  honor,  and  even  of  honesty.  Such  was  the  insatiable 
avarice  of  this  man,  that  every  restraint  of  common  justice  and  equity  was 
trampled  upon  by  him;  and  oppression,  such  as  usually  attends  the  exal- 
tation of  vulgar  and  ambitious  scramblers  for  power,  extended  her  rod  of 
iron  over  the  distracted  colony.  The  fair  traders  from  Barbadoes  and 
Bermuda  were  seized  as  pirates  by  order  of  this  popular  governor,  and 
confined  until  such  fees  as  he  was  pleased  to  exact  were  paid  him ;  bribes 
from  felons  and  traitors  were  accepted  to  favor  their  escape  from  the  hands 
of  justice ;  and  plantations  were  forcibly  taken  possession  of,  upon  pre- 
tences the  most  frivolous  and  unjust.  At  length,  the  people,  weary  of  his 
grievous  impositions  and  extortions,  agreed  to  take  him  by  force,  and  ship 
him  off  for  England.  He  then  evinced  the  meanness  of  spirit  generally 
associated  with  a  disposition  to  tyranny,  and  humbly  begged  liberty  to  re- 
main in  the  country,  promising  to  submit  his  conduct  to  the  trial  of  the 
assembly  at  their  first  meeting.  When  the  assembly  met,  thirteen  differ- 
ent charges  were  brought  against  him,  and  all  supported  by  the  strongest 
evidence ;  upon  which,  being  found  guilty,  they  compelled  him  to  abjure 
the  government  and  country  forever. 

The  next  important  incident  that  attracts  our  attention  is  the  unsuccess- 
ful expedition  against  St.  Augustine,  planned  by  governor  Moore,  in  the 
year  1702,  at  the  time  of  a  rupture  in  Europe  between  England  and  Spain. 
It  failed  utterly,  and  entailed  a  debt  on  the  colony  of  six  thousand  pounds 
sterling ;  which  led  to  many  severe  reflections  against  the  governor,  and 
brought  him  sadly  into  disrepute.  To  redeem  his  character,  the  governor 
resolved  upon  an  expedition  against  the  Apalachian  Indians ;  in  conse- 
quence of  the  insults  and  injuries  which  they  had  been  instigated  by 
the  Spaniards  to  commit.  To  make  his  conquest  permanent,  he  trans- 
planted fourteen  hundred  of  these  Indians  to  the  territory  now  included  in 
Georgia  ;  a  measure  which  seems  to  have  led  to  the  settlement  of  the 
English  in  that  part  of  the  country. 


HISTOR*.  607 

The  northern  colony  continued  to  receive  accessions  to  its  strength  from 
several  of  the.  European  states.  In  1707,  a  company  of  French  Protes- 
tants arrived  and  seated  themselves  on  the  river  Trent,  a  branch  of  the 
Neuse ;  and  three  years  afterwards  a  large  number  of  palatines,  fleeing 
from  religious  persecution  in  Germany,  sought  refuge  in  the  same  part  of 
the  province.  To  each  of  these  bodies  of  emigrants  the  proprietors  grant- 
ed a  hundred  acres  of  land.  On  their  newly  acquired  possessions  they 
were  living  in  peace,  in  the  enjoyment  of  liberty  of  conscience,  and  in  the 
prospect  of  competence  and  ease,  when  suddenly  a  terrible  calamity  fell 
upon  them.  The  Tuscarora  and  Coree  Indians,  smarting  under  recent 
aggressions,  and  dreading  total  extinction  from  the  encroachment  of  these 
strangers,  with  characteristic  secrecy,  plotted  their  entire  destruction. 
Sending  their  families  to  one  of  their  fortified  towns,  twelve  hundred  bow- 
men sallied  forth,  and  in  the  same  night  attacked,  in  separate  parties,  the 
nearest  settlements  of  the  palatines.  Men,  women,  and  children  were  in- 
discriminately butchered.  The  savages,  with  the  swiftness  and  ferocity  of 
wolves,  ran  from  village  to  village.  Before  them  was  the  repose  of  inno- 
cence ;  behind,  the  sleep  of  death.  A  few  escaping  alarmed  the  settle- 
ments more  remote,  and  hastened  to  South  Carolina  for  assistance. 
Governor  Craven  immediately  despatched  to  the  aid  of  the  sister  colony 
nearly  a  thousand  men,  under  the  command  of  colonel  Barnwell.  Hide- 
ous was  the  wilderness  through  which  colonel  Barnwell  had  to  march,  and 
the  utmost  expedition  was  requisite.  There  was  no  road  through  the 
woods  upon  which  either  horses  or  carriages  could  pass ;  and  his  army 
had  all  manner  of  hardships  and  dangers  to  encounter,  from  the  climate, 
the  wilderness,  and  the  enemy. 

In  spite  of  every  difficulty,  however,  Barnwell  advanced  against  them, 
and  being  much  better  supplied  with  arms  and  ammunition  than  his  enemy, 
he  did  great  execution  among  them,  killing  in  the  first  battle  three  hun- 
dred Indians,  and  taking  about  one  hundred  prisoners.  The  Tuscaroras 
then  retreated  to  their  town,  fortified  within  a  wooden  breastwork  ;  but 
there  Barnwell  surrounded  them,  and  forced  them  to  sue  for  peace ;  and 
some  of  his  men  being  wounded,  and  others  having  suffered  greatly  by 
constant  watching,  and  much  hunger  and  fatigue,  the  savages  the  more 
easily  obtained  their  request.  After  having  killed,  wounded,  or  captured 
nearly  a  thousand  Tuscaroras,  Barnwell  returned  to  South  Carolina.  The 
peace  was,  however,  of  short  duration,  and  upon  the  recommencement  of 
hostilities,  assistance  was  again  solicited  from  the  southern  colony.  Colo- 
nel James  Moore,  an  active  young  officer,  was  immediately  despatched, 
with  forty  white  men  and  eight  hundred  friendly  Indians.  He  found  the 
enemy  in  a  fort  near  Cotechny  river ;  and  after  a  siege,  which  continued 
more  than  a  week,  the  fort  was  taken,  and  eight  hundred  Indians  made 
prisoners.  The  Tuscaroras,  disheartened  by  this  defeat,  migrated,  in  1713, 
to  the  north,  and  joined  the  celebrated  confederacy,  denominated  the  Five 
Nations.     The  others  sued  for  peace,  and  afterwards  continued  friendly. 

The  northern  colony  had  scarcely  recovered  from  the  scourge  of  Indian 
war,  when  the  southern  was  exposed  to  the  same  calamity.  All  the  tribes 
from  Florida  to  cape  Fear,  had  been  for  some  time  engaged  in  a  conspira- 
cy to  extirpate  the  whites.  On  the  day  before  the  Yamassees  began  their 
bloody  operations,  captain  Nairn  and  some  of  the  traders  observing  an 
uncommon  gloom  on  their  savage  countenances,  and  apparently  great  agi- 


60S  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

tations  of  spirit,  which  to  them  prognosticated  approaching  mischief,  went 
to  their  chief  men,  begging  to  know  the  cause  of  their  uneasiness,  and 
promising,  if  any  injury  had  been  done  them,  to  give  them  satisfaction. 
The  chiefs  replied,  they  had  no  complaints  to  make  against  any  one,  but 
intended  to  go  a-hunting  early  the  next  morning.  Captain  Nairn  accord- 
ingly went  to  sleep,  and  the  traders  retired  to  their  huts,  and  passed  the 
night  in  seeming  friendship  and  tranquillity.  But  next  morning  at  day- 
break, the  15th  day  of  April,  all  were  alarmed  with  the  cries  of  war.  The 
leaders  were  all  out  under  arms,  calling  up  their  followers,  and  proclaim- 
ing aloud  designs  of  vengeance.  The  young  men,  burning  with  fury  and 
passion,  flew  to  their  arms,  and,  in  a  few  hours,  massacred  above  ninety 
persons  in  Pocotaligo  town  and  the  neigboring  plantations  ;  and  many 
more  must  have  fallen  a  sacrifice  on  Port  Royal  island,  had  they  not  pro- 
videntially been  warned  of  their  danger.  Mr.  Burrows,  a  captain  of  the 
militia,  after  receiving  two  wounds,  by  swimming  one  mile  and  running 
ten  escaped  to  Port  Royal,  and  alarmed  the  town.  A  vessel  happening 
fortunately  to  be  in  the  harbor,  the  inhabitants  in  great  hurry  repaired  on 
board,  and  sailed  for  Charleston ;  a  few  families  of  planters  on  that  island, 
not  having  timely  notice,  fell  into  the  barbarous  hands  of  the  Indians,  and 
of  them  some  were  murdered,  and  others  made  prisoners  of  war. 

While  the  Yamassees,  with  whom  the  Creeks  and  Apalachians  had 
joined,  were  advancing  against  the  southern  frontiers,  and  spreading  deso- 
lation and  slaughter  through  the  province,  the  colonists  on  the  northern 
borders  also  found  the  Indians  among  their  settlements  in  formidable  par- 
ties. The  Carolinians  had  foolishly  entertained  hopes  of  the  friendship 
of  the  Congarees,  the  Catawbas,  and  Cherokees  ;  but  they  soon  found  that 
they  had  also  joined  in  the  conspiracy,  and  declared  for  war.  It  was  com- 
puted that  the  southern  division  of  the  enemy  consisted  of  above  six  thou- 
sand bowmen,  and  the  northern  of  between  six  hundred  and  a  thousand. 
In  the  muster-roll  at  Charleston  there  were  no  more  than  one  thousand 
two  hundred  men  fit  to  bear  arms,  but  as  the  town  had  several  forts  into 
which  the  inhabitants  might  retreat,  governor  Craven  resolved  to  march 
with  this  small  force  into  the  woods  against  the  enemy.  He  proclaimed 
martial  law,  and  laid  an  embargo  on  all  ships,  to  prevent  either  men  or 
provisions  from  leaving  the  country.  He  obtained  an  act  of  assembly,  em- 
powering him  to  impress  men,  and  seize  arms,  ammunition,  and  stores, 
wherever  they  were  to  be  found,  to  arm  such  trusty  negroes  as  might  be 
serviceable  at  a  juncture  so  critical,  and  to  prosecute  the  war  with  the 
utmost  vigor. 

Being  no  stranger  to  the  ferocious  temper  of  his  enemies,  and  their  hor- 
rid cruelty  to  prisoners,  the  governor  advanced  against  them  by  slow  and 
cautious  steps,  always  keeping  the  strictest  guard  round  his  army.  He 
knew  well  under  what  advantages  they  fought  among  their  native  thickets, 
and  the  various  wiles  and  stratagems  they  made  use  of  in  conducting  their 
wars  ;  and  therefore  he  was  watchful  above  all  things  against  surprises, 
which  might  throw  his  followers  into  disorder,  and  defeat  the  end  of  his 
enterprise.  The  fate  of  the  whole  province  depended  on  the  success  of 
his  arms,  and  his  men  had  no  other  alternative  but  to  conquer  or  die  a 
painful  death.  As  he  advanced,  the  straggling  parties  fled  before  him, 
until  he  reached  Saltcatchers,  where  they  had  pitched  their  great  camp. 
Here  a  sharp  and  bloody  battle  ensued  from  behind  trees  and  bushes,  the 


HISTORY.  609 

Indians  whooping,  hallooing,  and  giving  way  one  while,  and  then  again 
and  again  returning  with  double  fury  to  the  charge.  But  the  governor, 
notwithstanding  their  superior  number,  and  their  terrible  shrieks,  kept  the 
provincials  close  at  their  heels,  and  drove  them  before  him  like  a  flock  of 
wolves.  He  expelled  them  from  their  settlement  at  Indian  river,  pursued 
them  over  the  Savannah,  and  entirely  freed  the  province  of  this  formida- 
ble tribe  of  savages.  What  number  of  the  army  was  killed  does  not  ap- 
pear ;  but  in  the  whole  war  nearly  four  hundred  unfortunate  inhabitants 
of  Carolina  fell  a  prey  to  Indian  cruelty,  property  of  great  value  was  de- 
stroyed, and  a  large  debt  contracted. 

Of  this  debt  the  proprietors  refused  to  pay  any  portion,  and  by  their 
harsh  and  arbitrary  conduct  in  regard  to  this  matter  and  its  consequences, 
a  bitter  hostility  grew  up  between  them  and  the  people.  It  was  resolved 
to  throw  off  their  yoke.  A  favorable  opportunity  presented  itself  at  a 
general  review  of  the  militia  at  Charleston,  in  1719 ;  the  officers  and  sol- 
diers binding  themselves  by  a  solemn  compact  to  resist  the  tyranny  of  the 
proprietors.  The  assembly  was  dissolved  by  the  governor,  but  it  immedi- 
ately met  in  convention,  and  assumed  the  direction  of  public  affairs.  In 
spite  of  all  opposition  they  established  themselves  in  the  full  possession  of 
the  government,  both  in  its  legislative  and  executive  relations. 

The  agent  for  Carolina  at  length  procured  a  hearing  from  the  lords  of 
the  regency  and  council  in  England,  the  king  being  at  that  time  in  Hano- 
ver ;  who  gave  it  as  their  opinion,  that  the  proprietors  had  forfeited  their 
charter,  and  ordered  the  attorney-general  to  take  out  a  scire  facias  against 
it.  In  consequence  of  this  decision,  in  September,  1720,  they  appointed 
general  Francis  Nicholson  provisional  governor  of  the  province,  with  a 
commission  from  the  king.  Several  years  afterwards,  seven  of  the  pro- 
prietors sold  to  the  king  their  claim  to  the  soil  and  rents,  and  all  of  them 
assigned  to  him  their  right  of  jurisdiction.  The  government  of  both  Caro- 
linas  was  subsequently  administered  in  each  colony  by  a  governor  and 
council  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  by  assemblies  chosen  by  the  people. 
They  soon  attracted  general  attention,  and  their  population  was  increased 
by  accessions  from  several  of  the  states  of  Europe. 

In  1738,  an  alarming  insurrection  of  the  negroes  occurred  in  the  south- 
ern colony.  A  number  of  them  assembled  at  Stono,  and  surprised  and 
killed  two  men  who  had  charge  of  a  warehouse,  from  which  they  took 
guns  and  ammunition.  They  then  chose  a  captain,  and,  with  drums 
beating  and  colors  flying,  marched  south-westward.  They  burned  every 
house  on  their  way,  killed  all  the  whites  they  could  find,  and  compelled 
other  negroes  to  join  them.  Governor  Bull,  who  was  returning  to  Charles- 
ton from  the  southward,  accidentally  met  them,  hastened  out  of  their  way, 
and  spread  an  alarm.  The  news  soon  reached  Wiltown,  where,  fortu- 
nately, a  large  congregation  were  attending  divine  service.  The  men 
having,  according  to  a  law  of  the  province,  brought  their  arms  to  the  place 
of  worship,  marched  instantly  in  quest  of  the  negroes,  who,  by  this  time, 
had  become  formidable,  and  spread  terror  and  desolation  around  them, 
having  killed  about  twenty  of  the  whites.  While,  in  an  open  field,  they 
were  carousing  and  dancing,  with  frantic  exultation  at  their  late  success, 
they  were  suddenly  attacked ;  some  were  killed,  and  the  remainder  took 
to  flight,  but  most  of  them  were  taken  and  tried.  Those  who  had  been 
compelled  to  join  the  conspirators  were  pardoned ;  but  the  leaders  and 
77 


610  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

principal  instigators  suffered  death.  Under  apprehensions  resulting,  pro- 
bably, from  this  rebellion,  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  passed  an  act, 
that  whoever  shall  teach,  or  cause  any  slave  or  slaves  to  be  taught  to 
write,  or  shall  use  or  employ  any  slave  as  a  scribe  in  any  manner  of 
writing  whatsoever,  shall,  for  every  such  offence,  forfeit  the  sum  of  one 
hundred  pounds. 

The  Carolinas  were  frequently  exposed  to  the  injurious  effects  of  war 
from  the  French  and  Spaniards,  as  well  as  from  some  of  the  Indian  tribes ; 
but  after  the  treaty  of  Paris,  the  progress  of  these  colonies  was  no  longer 
retarded  from  that  cause.  The  assembly  of  South  Carolina,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  peaceful  state  of  the  colony  to  encourage  emigration,  appro- 
priated a  large  fund  for  bounties  to  foreign  Protestants,  and  such  industrious 
poor  people  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  as  should  resort  to  the  province 
within  three  years,  and  settle  on  the  inland  parts.  Two  townships,  each 
containing  forty-eight  thousand  acres,  were  laid  out ;  one  on  the  river 
Savannah,  called  Mecklenburgh,  and  the  other  on  the  waters  of  Santee,  at 
Long  Cane,  called  Londonderry.  Not  long  after,  the  colony  received  a 
considerable  accession  from  Germany. 

Beside  foreign  Protestants,  several  persons  emigrated  from  England  and 
Scotland,  and  great  multitudes  from  Ireland,  and  settled  in  Carolina.  An 
accession  was  also  derived  from  the  northern  colonies,  from  which,  in  the 
space  of  one  year,  above  a  thousand  families  removed  thither.  To  these 
adventurers  lands  in  small  tracts  were  allotted  on  the  frontiers,  by  which 
means  the  back  settlements  soon  became  the  most  populous  part  of  the 
province,  while  the  whole  felt  the  important  benefits  resulting  from  such 
accessions  to  its  population. 


GEORGIA. 

The  last  of  the  colonies  established  previous  to  the  war  of  independence 
was  Georgia.  A  company  of  wealthy  and  influential  individuals  obtained 
a  patent  from  George  III.,  conferring  the  necessary  powers,  and  lost  no 
time  in  the  prosecution  of  their  design.  In  November,  1733,  James  Ogle- 
thorpe embarked  at  Gravesend  for  Georgia,  with  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
persons,  destined  for  settlement  in  that  country.  In  the  following  January 
he  arrived  at  Charleston,  where  he  was  kindly  received,  and  whence  he 
started  to  explore  the  territory  granted  by  the  patent.  He  selected  the 
present  site  of  Savannah  as  the  most  desirable  point  for  the  new  settlement. 
Having  completed  a  fort  at  this  place,  and  put  the  colony  in  a  state  of 
defence,  he  next  sought  to  cultivate  friendly  relations  with  the  Indians, 
and  to  treat  with  them  for  a  share  of  their  possessions.  Having  made 
such  arrangements  as  seemed  to  insure  safety,  Oglethorpe  returned  to 
England,  carrying  with  him  several  Indians,  among  whom  was  Tomochi- 
chi,  a  chief  of  the  Creeks,  and  his  queen.  Here  they  remained  on  a  visit 
of  about  four  months. 

In  the  year  1740,  the  trustees  rendered  an  account  of  their  administra- 
tion. At  that  time  nearly  two  thousand  five  hundred  emigrants  had  arrived 
in  the  colony  ;  of  whom  more  than  fifteen  hundred  were  indigent  Eng- 
lishmen, or  persecuted  Protestants.  The  benefactions  from  government 
and  from  individuals  had  been  nearly  half  a  million  of  dollars ;  and  it 


HISTORY.  611 

was  computed  that,  for  every  person  transported  and  maintained  by  the 
trustees,  more  than  three  hundred  dollars  had  been  expended.  The  hopes 
which  the  trustees  had  cherished,  that  the  colony  would  be  prosperous 
and  the  objects  of  their  benevolence  happy,  were  far  from  realized.  Such 
was  the  character  of  the  greater  part  of  the  settlers  and  the  nature  of  the 
restrictions  imposed,  that  the  plantations  languished,  and  continued  to  re- 
quire the  contributions  of  the  charitable.  In  the  mean  time  events  were 
preparing  a  rupture  in  Europe,  and  a  war  between  England  and  Spain  ap- 
peared inevitable.  The  plenipotentiaries,  appointed  for  settling  the  boun- 
daries between  Georgia  and  Florida,  and  other  differences  and  misunder- 
standings subsisting  between  the  two  crowns,  had  met  at  Pardo  in  conven- 
tion, where  preliminary  articles  were  drawn  up ;  but  the  conference  ended 
to  the  satisfaction  of  neither  party.  The  merchants  had  lost  all  patience  un- 
der their  sufferings,  and  became  clamorous  for  letters  of  reprisal,  which  at 
length  they  obtained ;  all  officers  of  the  navy  and  army  were  ordered  to 
their  stations,  and,  with  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  nation,  war  was  de- 
clared against  Spain  on  the  23d  of  October,  1739. 

As  soon  as  intelligence  of  the  declaration  of  war  reached  Georgia,  ge- 
neral Oglethorpe  passed  over  to  Florida  with  four  hundred  select  men  of 
his  regiment,  and  a  considerable  party  of  Indians  ;  and  a  few  days  after, 
he  marched  with  his  whole  force,  consisting  of  above  two  thousand  men, 
regulars,  provincials,  and  Indians,  to  fort  Moosa,  within  two  miles  of  St. 
Augustine.  The  Spanish  garrison  evacuating  the  fort  on  his  approach, 
and  retiring  into  the  town,  put  themselves  in  a  posture  of  defence  ;  and  the 
general  soon  discovering  that  an  attempt  to  take  the  castle  by  storm  would 
be  presumptuous,  changed  his  plan  of  operations,  and  resolved,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  ships  of  war  which  were  lying  at  anchor  off  Augustine 
bar,  to  turn  the  siege  into  a  blockade.  Having  made  the  necessary  dis- 
positions, he  summoned  the  Spanish  governor  to  surrender ;  but,  secure  in 
his  strong-hold,  he  sent  him  for  an  answer  that  he  would  be  glad  to  shake 
hands  with  him  in  his  castle. 

Indignant  at  this  reply,  the  general  opened  his  batteries  against  the 
castle,  and  at  the  same  time  threw  a  number  of  shells  in  the  town.  The 
fire  was  returned  with  equal  spirit  from  the  Spanish  fort,  and  from  six 
half-galleys  in  the  harbor  ;  but  the  distance  was  so  great  that  the  cannon- 
ade, though  it  continued  several  days,  did  little  execution  on  either  side. 
It  appears  that,  notwithstanding  the  blockade,  the  Spanish  garrison  con- 
trived to  admit  a  reinforcement  of  seven  hundred  men,  and  a  large  supply 
of  provisions.  All  prospect  of  starving  the  enemy  being  lost,  the  army 
began  to  despair  of  forcing  the  place  to  surrender.  The  Carolina  troops, 
enfeebled  by  the  heat  of  the  climate,  dispirited  by  sickness,  and  fatigued 
by  fruitless  efforts,  marched  away  in  large  bodies.  The  naval  commander, 
in  consideration  of  the  shortness  of  his  provisions,  and  of  the  near  approach 
of  the  usual  season  of  hurricanes,  judged  it  imprudent  to  hazard  his  fleet 
longer  on  that  coast.  The  general  himself  was  fsick  of  a  fever,  and  his 
regiment  was  worn  out  with  fatigue,  and  disabled  by  sickness.  These 
combined  disasters  rendered  it  necessary  to  abandon  the  enterprise ;  and 
Oglethorpe,  with  extreme  sorrow  and  regret,  returned  to  Frederica. 

After  a  lapse  of  two  years  the  Spaniards  prepared  to  retaliate  by  the  in- 
vasion of  Georgia,  intending,  if  successful,  to  subjugate  the  Carolinas  and 
Virginia.     On  receiving  information  of  their  approach,  general  Oglethorpe 


612  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

solicited  assistance  from  South  Carolina :  but  the  inhabitants  of  that  colo- 
ny, entertaining  a  strong  prejudice  against  him,  and  terrified  by  the  danger 
which  threatened  themselves,  determined  to  provide  only  for  their  own  safe 
ty,  though  without  avowing  their  intention.  General  Oglethorpe,  howe- 
ver, made  preparations  for  a  vigorous  defence.  He  assembled  seven  hun- 
dred men,  exclusive  of  a  body  of  Indians,  fixed  his  head-quarters  at  Fre- 
derica,  on  the  island  of  St.  Simon,  and,  with  this  small  band,  determined  to 
encounter  whatever  force  might  be  brought  against  him.  It  was  his  ut- 
most hope  that  he  might  be  able  to  resist  the  enemy  until  a  reinforcement 
should  arrive  from  Carolina,  which  he  daily  and  anxiously  expected.  On 
the  last  day  of  June,  the  Spanish  fleet,  consisting  of  thirty-two  sail,  and 
having  on  board  more  than  three  thousand  men,  came  to  anchor  off  St.  Si- 
mon's bay.  Notwithstanding  all  the  resistance  which  general  Oglethorpe 
could  oppose,  they  sailed  up  the  river  Altamaha,  landed  upon  the  island, 
and  there  erected  fortifications.  Convinced  that  his  small  force,  if  divided, 
must  be  entirely  inefficient,  Oglethorpe  assembled  the  whole  of  it  at  Fre- 
derica.  One  portion  he  employed  in  strengthening  his  fortifications ;  the 
Highlanders  and  Indians,  ranging  night  and  day  through  the  woods,  often 
attacked  the  outposts  of  the  enemy.  The  toil  of  the  troops  was  incessant; 
and  the  long  delay  of  the  expected  succors,  still  unexpectedly  withheld  by 
South  Carolina,  caused  the  most  gloomy  and  depressing  apprehensions. 

Oglethorpe,  at  length,  learning  by  an  English  prisoner  who  escaped  from 
the  Spanish  camp,  that  a  difference  subsisted  between  the  troops  from  Cuba 
and  those  from  St.  Augustine,  so  as  to  occasion  a  separate  encampment, 
resolved  to  attack  the  enemy  while  thus  divided.  Taking  advantage  of 
his  knowledge  of  the  woods,  he  marched  out  in  the  night  with  three  hun- 
dred chosen  men,  the  Highland  company  and  some  rangers,  with  the  in- 
tention of  surprising  the  enemy.  Having  advanced  within  two  miles  of 
the  Spanish  camp,  he  halted  his  troops,  and  went  forward  himself  with  a 
select  corps  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy's  situation.  While  he  was  endea- 
voring cautiously  to  conceal  his  approach,  a  French  soldier  of  his  party- 
discharged  his  musket,  and  ran  into  the  Spanish  lines.  Thus  betrayed, 
he  hastened  his  return  to  Frederica,  and  endeavored  to  effect  by  stratagem 
what  could  not  be  achieved  by  surprise.  Apprehensive  that  the  deserter 
would  discover  to  the  enemy  his  weakness,  he  wrote  him  a  letter,  desiring 
him  to  acquaint  the  Spaniards  with  the  defenceless  state  of  Frederica,  and 
the  ease  with  which  his  small  garrison  might  be  cut  to  pieces.  He  pressed 
him  to  bring  forward  the  Spaniards  to  an  attack ;  but,  if  he  could  not  pre- 
vail thus  far,  to  use  all  his  art  and  influence  to  persuade  them  to  stay  at 
least  three  days  more  at  fort  Simon ;  for  within  that  time,  according  to 
advices  he  had  just  received  from  Carolina,  he  should  have  a  reinforcement 
of  two  thousand  land  forces,  with  six  British  ships  of  war.  The  letter  con- 
cluded with  a  caution  to  the  deserter  agatnst  dropping  the  least  hint  of 
admiral  Vernon's  meditated  attack  upon  St.  Augustine,  and  with  an  as- 
surance that  for  his  service  he  should  be  amply  rewarded  by  the  British  king. 

Oglethorpe  gave  it  to  a  Spanish  prisoner,  who,  for  a  small  reward  toge- 
ther with  his  liberty,  promised  to  deliver  it  to  the  French  deserter.  On 
his  arrival  at  the  Spanish  camp,  however,  he  gave  the  letter,  as  Oglethorpe 
expected,  to  the  commander-in-chief,  who  instantly  put  the  deserter  in 
irons.  This  letter  perplexed  and  confounded  the  Spaniards ;  some  sus- 
pecting it  to  be  a  stratagem  to  prevent  an  attack  on  Frederica,  and  others 


HfSlDRY  613 

Relieving  it  to  contain  serious  instructions  to  direct  the  conduct  of  a  spy. 
While  the  Spanish  officers  were  deliberating  what  measures  to  adopt,  an 
incident,  not  within  the  calculation  of  military  skill,  or  the  control  of  hu- 
man power,  decided  their  counsels.  Three  ships  of  force,  which  the 
governor  of  South  Carolina  had  sent  out  to  Oglethorpe's  aid,  appeared  at 
this  juncture  off  the  coast.  The  agreement  of  this  discovery  with  the  con- 
tents of  the  letter  convinced  the  Spanish  commander  of  its  real  intention. 
The  whole  army,  seized  with  an  instant  panic,  set  fire  to  the  fort,  and  pre- 
cipitately embarked,  leaving  several  cannon,  with  a  quantity  of  provisions 
and  military  stores ;  and  thus,  in  the  moment  of  threatened  conquest,  was 
the  infant  colony  providentially  saved. 

Thus  was  Georgia,  with  trifling  loss,  delivered  from  the  most  imminent 
danger.  General  Oglethorpe  not  only  retrieved,  but  established  his  repu- 
tation. From  the  Carolinians,  grateful  for  their  preservation,  and  from  the 
governors  of  most  of  the  northern  colonies,  he  received  cordial  congratula- 
tions upon  his  address  and  good  fortune.  But  on  an  impeachment  brought 
forward  before  this  invasion,  Oglethorpe  still  felt  himself  bound  in  honor 
to  return  to  England,  where,  on  trial,  the  charge  was  adjudged  to  be  false, 
malicious  and  groundless,  and  its  author  dismissed  his  majesty's  service* 
The  character  of  this  able  general  now  appeared  in  its  true  light ;  and  his 
contemporaries  acknowledged  what  impartial  history  records,  that  to  him 
Carolina  was  indebted  for  her  safety  and  repose,  as  well  as  Georgia  for  her 
existence  and  protection.  After  this  period  general  Oglethorpe  never  re- 
turned to  the  province  of  Georgia,  but  upon  all  occasions  discovered  in 
England  an  uncommon  zeal  for  its  prosperity  and  improvement. 

In  the  year  1749,  the  colony  was  exposed  to  great  danger  from  a  quarter 
as  unexpected  as  it  was  singular.  During  the  whole  of  his  administration, 
general  Oglethorpe  had,  from  motives  of  policy,  treated  an  Indian,  or 
rather  half-breed  woman,  called  Mary  Musgrove,  afterwards  Mary  Bosom- 
worth,  with  particular  kindness  and  generosity.  Finding  that  she  had 
great  influence  amongst  the  Creeks,  and  understood  their  language,  he 
made  use  of  her  as  an  interpreter,  in  order  the  more  easily  to  form  treaties 
of  alliance  with  them  ;  allowing  her  for  her  services  one  hundred  pounds 
sterling  a  year.  Thomas  Bosomworth,  who  was  chaplain  to  Oglethorpe's 
regiment,  had  married  this  woman,  accepted  a  tract  of  land  from  the  crown, 
and  settled  in  the  province.  Being  unsuccessful  in  most  of  his  specula- 
tions, he  had  recourse  to  one  of  an  extraordinary  kind.  He  persuaded  his 
wife  to  assert  herself  to  be  the  elder  sister  of  Malatche,  the  Indian  chief, 
and  to  have  descended,  by  a  maternal  line,  from  an  Indian  king,  who  held 
from  nature  the  whole  territory  of  the  Creeks  ;  and  therefore  to  pos- 
sess a  right  to  them,  superior  not  only  to  that  of  the  trustees,  but  also  to 
that  of  the  king.  Accordingly,  Mary  assumed  the  title  of  an  independent 
empress,  disavowing  all  subjection  or  allegiance  to  the  king  of  Great 
Britain,  otherwise  than  by  way  of  treaty  or  alliance,  such  as  one  indepen- 
dent sovereign  might  voluntarily  enter  into  with  another ;  a  meeting  of  all 
the  Creeks  was  summoned,  to  whom  Mary  made  a  long  speech,  in  which 
she  set  forth  the  justice  of  her  claim,  and  the  great  injury  she  and  her 
beloved  subjects  had  sustained  by  the  loss  of  their  territories,  and  urged 
them  to  a  defence  of  their  rights  by  force  of  arms.  The  Indians  were  fired 
with  rage  at  the  idea  of  such  indignity,  and  to  a  man  pledged  themselves 
lo  stand  by  her  to  the  last  drop  of  their  blood  in  defence  of  her  royal  person 

§2 


G14  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  their  lands  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  queen  Mary,  escorted  by  a  large 
body  of  her  savage  subjects,  set  out  for  Savannah,  to  demand  from  the  pre- 
sident and  council  a  formal  acknowledgment  of  her  rights  in  the  province. 

Several  interviews  between  the  magistrates  and  the  Indian  chiefs  took 
place  on  this  strange  occurrence,  and  the  president  and  council  were  flat- 
tering themselves  with  the  idea  of  an  amicable  compromise  of  all  the  exist- 
ing difficulties,  and  rejoicing  in  the  re-establishment  of  friendly  intercourse 
with  the  Creeks,  when  Mary,  excited  with  liquor,  and  disappointed  in  her 
royal  views,  rushed  in  amongst  them  like  a  fury,  told  the  president  that 
these  were  her  people,  that  he  had  no  business  with  them,  and  that  he 
should  soon  be  convinced  of  it  to  his  cost.  The  president  calmly  advised 
her  to  retire  to  her  lodgings,  and  forbear  to  poison  the  minds  of  the 
Indians,  adding  that  he  would  otherwise  order  her  into  close  confinement ; 
Upon  which,  turning  about  to  Malatche,  in  great  rage,  she  repeated,  with 
some  ill-natured  comments,  what  the  president  had  said  ;  Malatche  started 
from  his  seat,  laid  hold  of  his  arms,  calling  upon  the  rest  to  follow  his  ex- 
ample, and  dared  any  man  to  touch  the  queen.  The  whole  house  was 
filled  in  a  moment  with  tumult  and  uproar  ;  every  Indian  having  his  toma- 
hawk in  his  hand,  the  president  and  council  expected  nothing  but  instant 
death.  During  this  confusion,  captain  Jones,  who  commanded  the  guard, 
very  seasonably  interposed,  and  ordered  the  Indians  immediately  to  sur- 
render their  arms,  endeavoring,  however,  not  merely  to  overawe  them, 
but  using  prudence  to  avoid  coming  to  extremities :  with  reluctance  the 
Indians  submitted,  and  Mary  was  conveyed  to  a  private  room,  where  a 
guard  was  placed  over  her,  and  all  further  communication  with  the  Indi- 
ans denied  her  during  their  stay  in  Savannah.  Ultimately  the  soi-disant 
queen  was  compelled  to  abandon  her  pretensions,  and  the  Indians  were 
induced  to  depart,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  inhabitants,  who  had  been  so 
long  harassed  by  their  turbulent  visit. 

The  wars  to  which  it  had  been  subject  had  much  retarded  the  progress 
of  the  colony,  and  in  1752  the  trustees  surrendered  their  charter  to  the 
king.  Georgia  thus  became  a  royal  government.  At  this  time  the  whole 
exports  of  Georgia  did  not  amount  to  ten  thousand  pounds  a  year. 


FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WARS. 

The  formation  and  progress  of  all  the  colonies  which  constituted  the 
North  American  republic  at  the  era  of  its  independence,  have  now  been 
traced  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  From  that  period  cir- 
cumstances tended  rapidly  to  promote  that  federation  which  eventually 
effected  the  independence  of  the  colonies,  and  laid  the  basis  of  their  future 
prosperity ;  indeed,  in  the  prosecution  of  the  French  war,  which  commenced 
in  1756,  the  energies  of  the  colonies  were  so  united  in  the  attainment  of 
one  common  object,  that  the  generalization  of  their  political  history  from 
that  period  is  not  only  rendered  preferable,  but  almost  inevitable. 

Not  to  enter  into  a  detail  of  the  progress  of  French  discovery,  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  say  that  France  had  established  settlements  on  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  formed  the  bold  plan  of  uniting 
these  points  by  a  chain  of  forts,  stretching  across  the  continent,  and  intend- 
ed to  confine  the  English  colonists  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  Alleghanies. 


HISTORY.  615 

In  their  northern  colonies,  the  military  strength  of  the  French  was  consi- 
derable ;  Quebec  and  Montreal  were  strongly  fortified ;  and  at  other 
points,  Louisbourg,  Cape  Breton,  and  the  forts  of  lake  Champlain,  Niagara, 
Crown  Point,  Frontignac,  Ticonderoga,  and  several  others,  defended  the 
frontiers.  They  had  also  erected  a  considerable  fort  at  the  junction  of  the 
Alleghany  with  the  Monongahela,  then  called  Du  Quesne,  but  now  form- 
ing the  site  of  Pittsburg. 

The  proceedings  of  the  French  in  America  excited  a  strong  interest  in 
the  minds  of  the  British  government ;  and  deeming  war  inevitable,  orders 
were  sent  to  the  governors  of  the  several  colonies  to  repel  force  by  force, 
and  to  dislodge  the  French  from  their  posts  on  the  Ohio.  These  orders 
were  accompanied  with  a  recommendation  to  form  a  union  of  the  colonies 
for  more  effective  defence.  Delegates  had  already  been  appointed  to  meet 
at  Albany,  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  with  the  Five  Nations ;  and  go- 
vernor Shirley  recommended  that  the  subject  of  union  should  also  be  dis- 
cussed at  the  convention.  The  commissioners  from  Massachusetts  had 
ample  powers  to  co-operate  in  the  formation  of  a  plan  ;  those  from  Mary- 
land were  instructed  to  observe  what  others  did;  and  those  from  New 
Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York,  had 
no  instructions  at  all  on  the  subject.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  friendship 
of  the  Indians  was  thought  to  be  secured  be  a  distribution  of  presents,  the 
delegates  appointed  a  committee  to  devise  some  scheme  for  the  proposed 
confederation ;  and  the  committee  recommended  the  adoption  of  a  govern- 
ment analogous  to  that  of  the  individual  colonies.  There  was  to  be  a 
grand  council,  composed  of  deputies  from  the  several  provinces,  and  a 
president-general,  appointed  by  the  crown,  with  the  power  of  negativing 
the  acts  of  the  council.  The  Connecticut  delegates,  however,  dissented 
from  this  plan,  because  it  placed  too  preponderating  a  power  in  the  hands 
of  the  crown. 

It  was  rejected  by  the  British  ministry  for  the  very  opposite  reason  ;  they 
suggested,  however,  that  the  several  governors,  with  one  or  two  of  their 
counsellors,  should  meet  and  adopt  such  measures  as  the  common  safety 
might  demand.  But  this  scheme  was  defeated  by  a  provision,  that  they 
might  draw  upon  the  British  treasury  for  all  necessary  sums,  which  par- 
liament would  undertake  to  repay  by  imposing  a  general  tax  upon  the 
colonies.  The  Massachusetts  assembly  sent  special  instructions  to  its 
agent  in  London  to  oppose  most  strenuously  any  measure  which  had  for 
its  object  the  establishment  of  taxes  on  the  colonies,  under  whatever  plea 
of  utility ;  and  Franklin,  to  whom  the  governor  of  Virginia  had  sent  the 
proposition  of  the  British  minister,  states  most  distinctly  in  his  letter  in 
reply,  the  reasons  which  would  ever  prevent  the  Americans  from  consent- 
ing to  such  a  proposal.  He  observes  that  it  would  inspire  universal  dis- 
content among  the  Americans  to  attempt  the  imposition  of  taxes  by  a 
parliament  where  they  were  not  represented ;  a  point  of  which  neither  the 
colonies  nor  the  British  government  ever  lost  sight,  from  this  period  till 
the  contest  it  originated  terminated  in  the  entire  separation  of  the  former 
from  its  dependence  on  the  British  crown. 

Early  in  the  spring  of  1755,  the  British  government  despatched  general 
Braddock  to  America,  with  a  respectable  force,  to  expel  the  French,  and 
keep  possession  of  the  territory;  and  preparations  having  been  made  by 
France  to  despatch  a  reinforcement  to  her  armies  in  Canada,  admiral  Bos- 


516  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

cawen  was  ordered  to  endeavor  to  intercept  the  French  fleet  before  it  should 
enter  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  In  April,  general  Braddock  met  the 
governors  of  the  several  provinces  to  confer  upon  the  plan  of  the  ensuing 
campaign.  Three  expeditions  were  resolved  upon ;  one  against  Du 
Quesne,  to  be  commanded  by  general  Braddock  ;  one  against  forts  Nia- 
gara and  Frontignac,  to  be  commanded  by  governor  Shirley ;  and  one 
against  Crown  Point,  to  be  commanded  by  general  Johnston.  This  last 
originated  with  Massachusetts,  and  was  to  be  executed  by  colonial  troops 
raised  in  New  England  and  New  York. 

While  preparations  were  making  for  these  expeditions,  another,  which 
had  been  previously  concerted,  was  carried  on  against  the  French  forts  in 
Nova  Scotia.  This  province  was  settled  by  the  French,  but  was  ceded  to 
the  English  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  Its  boundaries  not  having  been 
defined,  the  French  continued  to  occupy  a  portion  of  the  territory  claimed 
by  the  English,  and  had  built  forts  for  their  defence.  To  gain  possession 
of  these  was  the  object  of  the  expedition.  About  two  thousand  militia, 
commanded  by  colonel  Winslow,  embarked  at  Boston ;  and  being  joined 
on  their  passage  by  three  hundred  regulars,  arrived  in  April  at  the  place 
of  their  destination.  The  forts  were  invested,  the  resistance  made  was 
trifling  and  ineffectual,  and  in  a  short  time  the  English  gained  entire  pos- 
session of  the  province  according  to  their  own  definition  of  its  boundaries. 
Three  only  of  their  men  were  killed. 

As  soon  as  the  convention  of  governors  was  dissolved,  general  Braddock 
proceeded  to  the  post  at  Wells'  Creek,  whence  the  army  commenced  its 
march  about  the  middle  of  June.  Their  progress  was  very  much  retarded 
by  the  necessity  of  cutting  a  road  ;  and,  lest  the  enemy  should  have  time 
to  collect  in  great  force,  the  general  concluded  to  set  forward  with  twelve 
hundred  select  men,  while  colonel  Dunbar  should  follow  slowly  in  the 
rear,  with  the  main  body  and  the  heavy  baggage.  Colonel  Washington's 
regiment  had  been  split  into  separate  companies,  and  he  had  only  joined 
the  army  as  aid  to  the  general.  The  roughness  of  the  country  prevented 
the  advanced  corps  from  reaching  the  Monongahela  till  the  8th  of  July. 
It  was  resolved  to  attack  Du  Quesne  the  very  next  day;  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  Gage  was  sent  in  front  with  three  hundred  British  regulars,  while 
the  general  himself  followed  at  some  distance  with  the  main  body.  He 
had  been  strongly  cautioned  by  colonel  Washington  to  provide  against  an 
ambuscade,  by  sending  forward  some  provincial  companies  to  scour  the 
woods  ;  but  he  held  the  provincials  and  the  enemy  in  equal  contempt. 
The  Monongahela  was  crossed  the  second  time,  about  seven  miles  from 
Du  Quesne  ;  and  the  army  was  pressing  forward  in  an  open  wood,  through 
high  and  thick  grass,  when  the  front  was  suddenly  thrown  into  disorder 
by  a  volley  from  small  arms.  The  main  body  was  formed  three  deep, 
and  brought  to  its  support :  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  enemy  fell ; 
and  a  cessation  of  the  fire  led  general  Braddock  to  suppose  that  the  assail- 
ants had  fled ;  but  he  was  soon  attacked  with  redoubled  fury. 

Concealed  behind  trees,  logs,  and  rocks,  the  Indians  poured  upon  the 
troops  a  deadly  and  incessant  fire ;  officers  and  men  fell  thickly  around, 
and  the  survivors  knew  not  where  to  direct  their  aim  to  revenge  their 
slaughtered  comrades.  The  whole  body  was  again  thrown  into  confusion  ; 
but  the  general,  obstinate  and  courageous,  refused  to  retreat ;  and  instead 
of  withdrawing  them  beyond  the  reach  of  the  enemy's  muskets,  where 


HISTORY.  617 

their  ranks  might  easily  have  been  formed  anew,  undertook  to  rally  them 
on  the  very  ground  of  attack,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  most  incessant  and 
deadly  fire.  He  persisted  in  these  efforts  until  five  horses  had  been  shot 
under  him,  and  every  one  of  his  officers  on  horseback,  except  colonel 
Washington,  was  either  killed  or  wounded.  The  general  at  length  fell, 
and  the  rout  became  universal.  The  troops  fled  precipitately  until  they 
met  the  division  under  Dunbar,  then  sixty  miles  in  the  rear.  Sixty-four 
officers  out  of  eighty-five,  and  about  half  of  the  privates,  were  killed  or 
wounded.  General  Braddock  died  in  Dunbar's  camp;  and  the  whole 
army,  which  appears  to  have  been  panic  struck,  marched  back  to  Philadel- 
phia. The  provincial  troops,  whom  Braddock  had  so  lightly  esteemed, 
displayed  during  the  battle  the  utmost  calmness  and  courage.  Though 
placed  in  the  rear,  they  alone,  led  on  by  Washington,  advanced  against 
the  Indians,  and  covered  the  retreat ;  and  had  they  at  first  been  permitted 
to  engage  the  enemy  in  their  own  way,  they  would  easily  have  defeated 
them. 

The  two  northern  expeditions,  though  not  so  disastrous,  failed  in  attain- 
ing their  proposed  objects.  The  campaign  of  1755  was  thus  utterly  un- 
successful. Immense  preparations  had  been  made,  but  no  desired  result 
was  obtained.  By  the  failure  of  the  three  expeditions,  the  whole  frontier 
was  left  open  to  the  ravages  of  the  Indians.  The  second  campaign  was 
almost  as  pregnant  with  evil.  Montcalm  had  marched  against  Oswego, 
and  by  destroying  it  had  thrown  the  English  and  American  army  on  the 
defensive.  No  successful  measures  were  put  in  operation  to  carry  out  the 
plans  of  the  colonists,  and  it  was  necessary  to  wait  till  the  following  year. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  following  year  a  council  was  held  at  Bos- 
ton, composed  of  lord  Loudoun,  and  the  governors  of  the  New  Englawd  pro- 
vinces and  of  Nova  Scotia.  At  this  council  his  lordship  proposed  that  New 
England  should  raise  four  thousand  men  for  the  ensuing  campaign  ;  and 
that  a  proportionate  number  should  be  raised  by  New  York  and  New  Jer- 
sey. These  requisitions  were  complied  with ;  and  in  the  spring  his  lord- 
ship found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  very  considerable  army.  Admiral 
Holbourn  arriving  in  the  beginning  of  July  at  Halifax  with  a  powerful 
squadron,  and  a  reinforcement  of  five  thousand  British  troops,  under  George 
viscount  Howe,  lord  Loudoun  sailed  from  New  York  with  six  thousand 
regulars,  to  join  those  troops  at  the  place  of  their  arrival.  Instead  of  the 
complex  operations  undertaken  in  previous  campaigns,  his  lordship  limited 
his  plan  to  a  single  object.  Leaving  the  posts  on  the  lakes  strongly  garri- 
soned, he  resolved  to  direct  his  whole  disposable  force  against  Louisbourg ; 
Halifax  having  been  determined  on  as  the  place  of  rendezvous  for  the 
fleet  and  army  destined  for  the  expedition.  Information  was,  however, 
soon  received,  that  a  French  fleet  had  lately  sailed  from  Brest;  that  Lou- 
isbourg was  garrisoned  by  six  thousand  regulars,  exclusive  of  provincials  ; 
and  that  it  was  also  defended  by  seventeen  line-of-battle  ships,  which  were 
moored  in  the  harbor.  There  being  no  hope  of  success  against  so  formi- 
dable a  force,  the  enterprise  was  deferred  to  the  next  year ;  the  general 
and  admiral  on  the  last  of  August  proceeded  to  New  York ;  and  the  pro- 
vincials were  dismissed. 

The  marquis  De  Montcalm,  availing  himself  of  the  absence  of  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  British  force,  advanced  with  an  army  of  nine  thousand 
men,  and  laid  siege  to  fort  William  Henry.  The  garrison  at  this  fort 
73  52* 


618  BOOK   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

consisted  of  between  two  and  three  thousand  regulars,  and  its  fortifications 
were  strong  and  in  very  good  order ;  and  for  the  additional  security  of  this 
important  post,  general  Webb  was  stationed  at  fort  Edward  with  an  army 
of  four  thousand  men.  The  French  commander,  however,  urged  his  ap- 
proaches with  such  vigor,  that,  within  six  days  after  the  investment  of  the 
fort,  colonel  Monro,  the  commandant,  having  in  vain  solicited  succor  from 
general  Webb,  found  it  necessary  to  surrender  by  capitulation.  The  gar- 
rison was  to  be  allowed  the  honors  of  war,  and  to  be  protected  against  the 
Indians  until  within  the  reach  of  fort  Edward;  but  the  next  morning,  a 
great  number  of  Indians,  having  been  permitted  to  enter  the  lines,  began 
to  plunder ;  and  meeting  with  no  opposition,  they  fell  upon  the  sick  and 
wounded,  whom  they  immediately  massacred.  Their  appetite  for  carnage 
being  excited,  the  defenceless  troops  were  attacked  with  fiend-like  fury. 
Monro  in  vain  implored  Montcalm  to  provide  the  stipulated  guard,  and  the 
massacre  proceeded.  All  was  turbulence  and  horror.  On  every  side 
savages  were  butchering  and  scalping  their  wretched  victims.  Their  hide- 
ous yells,  the  groans  of  the  dying,  and  the  frantic  shrieks  of  others  shrink- 
ing from  the  uplifted  tomahawk,  were  heard  by  the  French  unmoved. 
The  fury  of  the  savages  was  permitted  to  rage  without  restraint  until  fif- 
teen hundred  wTere  killed,  or  hurried  captives  into  the  wilderness.  The- 
day  after  this  awful  tragedy,  major  Putnam  was  sent  with  his  rangers  to 
watch  the  motions  of  the  enemy.  When  he  came  to  the  shore  of  the  lake, 
their  rear  was  hardly  beyond  the  reach  of  musket-shot.  The  prospeet  was 
horrible  in  the  extreme ;  the  fort  demolished ;  the  barracks  and  buildings 
yet  burning ;  innumerable  fragments  of  human  carcasses  still  broiled  in 
the  decaying  fires ;  and  dead  bodies,  mangled  with  tomahawks  and  scalp- 
ing knives,  in  all  the  wantonness  of  Indian  barbarity,  were  everywhere 
scattered  around.  Thus  ended  the  third  campaign  in  America  ;  happily 
forming  the  last  of  a  series  of  disasters,  resulting  from  folly  and  misma- 
nagement, rather  than  from  want  of  means  and  military  strength. 

The  British  nation  was  alarmed  and  indignant,  and  the  king  found  it 
necessary  to  change  his  councils.  At  the  head  of  the  new  ministry  he 
placed  the  celebrated  William  Pitt,  afterwards  earl  of  Chatham,  under 
whose  administration  public  confidence  revived,,  and  the  nation  seemed 
inspired  with  new  life  and  vigor.  He  was  equally  popular  in  both  hemi- 
spheres. Lord  Loudoun  was  replaced  by  general  Abercrombie,  who,  early 
in  the  spring  of  1758,  was  ready  to  enter  upon  the  campaign  at  the  head 
of  fifty  thousand  men,  the  most  powerful  army  ever  seen  in  America. 

Three  points  of  attack  were  marked  out  for  this  campaign ;  the  first 
Louisbourg ;  the  second  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point ;  and  the  third, 
fort  Du  Quesne.  Its  result  was  highly  honorable  to  the  British  arms.  Of 
the  three  expeditions,  two  completely  succeeded,  and  the  leader  of  the 
third  had  made  an  important  conquest.  Fort  Du  Quesne  was  reduced, 
supplied  with  a  new  garrison,  and  its  name  changed  to  Pittsburg.  As 
usual,  the  Indians  joined  the  strongest  side.  A  peace  was  concluded  with 
all  the  tribes  between  the  Ohio  and  the  lakes ;  and  the  frontier  inhabitants 
of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  were  once  more  relieved  from 
the  terrors  of  fire  and  scalping  knives. 

To  the  commanding  talents  of  Pitt,  and  the  confidence  which  they  in- 
ispired,  this  change  of  fortune  must  be  chiefly  attributed  ;  and  in  no  respect 
were  these  talents  more  strikingly  displayed  than  in  the  choice  of  men  to 


HISTORY.  610 

I 

execute  his  plans.  The  advantages  of  this  campaign  had,  however,  been 
purchased  by  an  expensive  effort  and  corresponding  exhaustion  of  provincial 
strength ;  and,  when  a  circular  letter  from  Mr.  Pitt  to  the  several  gover- 
nors induced  the  colonies  to  resolve  upon  making  the  most  vigorous  prepa- 
ration for  the  next,  they  soon  discovered  that  their  resources  were  by  no 
means  commensurate  with  their  zeal. 

Notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  it  was  resolved  to  signalize  the  year 
1759  by  the  complete  conquest  of  Canada.  The  plan  of  the  campaign 
was,  that  three  powerful  armies  should  enter  the  French  possessions  by 
three  different  routes,  and  attack  all  their  strong-holds  at  nearly  the  same 
time.  At  the  head  of  one  division  of  the  army,  brigadier-general  Wolfe, 
a  young  officer  who  had  signalized  himself  at  the  siege  of  Louisbourg, 
was  to  ascend  the  St.  Lawrence  and  lay  siege  to  Quebec,  escorted  by  a 
strong  fleet  to  co-operate  with  his  troops.  The  central  and  main  army, 
composed  of  British  and  provincials,  was  to  be  conducted  against  Ticonde- 
roga  and  Crown  Point  by  general  Amherst,  the  new  commander-in-chief, 
who,  after  making  himself  master  of  these  places,  was  to  proceed  over  lake 
Champlain  and  by  the  way  of  Richelieu  river  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  and, 
descending  that  river,  form  a  junction  with  general  Wolfe  before  the  walls 
of  Quebec.  The  third  army,  to  be  composed  principally  of  provincials, 
reinforced  by  a  strong  body  of  friendly  Indians,  was  to  be  commanded  by 
general  Prideaux,  who  was  to  lead  this  division  first  against  Niagara,  and, 
after  the  reduction  of  that  place,  to  embark  on  lake  Ontario,  and  proceed 
down  the  St.  Lawrence  against  Montreal.  It  has  been  observed  by  a  re- 
cent author,  '  Had  the  elements  been  laid,  and  the  enemy  spell-bound,  the 
whole  of  this  brilliant  plan  could  not  have  helped  succeeding.'  This  sen- 
tence, however,  betrays  a  very  limited  view  of  a  plan  that  was  well  worthy 
of  the  mind  of  Pitt.  In  this  arrangement  immediate  advantage  was  not 
sacrificed ;  while  the  more  remote  results  exhibited  a  prospect  highly  cal- 
culated to  excite  the  ambition  of  the  leaders,  and  to  arouse  all  the  energies 
of  the  troops.  It  is  in  thus  affording  motives  which  tend  to  bring  physical 
force  into  most  effective  and  persevering  action,  that  intellectual  superiority 
becomes  manifest,  confounding  the  calculations  of  ordinary  minds. 

Early  in  the  winter,  general  Amherst  commenced  preparations  for  his 
part  of  the  enterprise  ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  last  of  May  that  his  troops 
were  assembled  at  Albany  ;  and  it  was  as  late  as  the  22d  of  July,  when  he 
appeared  before  Ticonderoga.  As  the  naval  superiority  of  Great  Britain 
had  prevented  France  from  sending  out  reinforcements,  none  of  the  posts 
in  this  quarter  were  able  to  withstand  so  great  a  force  as  that  of  general 
Amherst.  Ticonderoga  was  immediately  abandoned ;  the  example  was 
followed  at  Crown  Point ;  and  the  only  way  in  which  the  enemy  seemed 
to  think  of  preserving  their  province  was  by  retarding  the  English  army 
with  shows  of  resistance  till  the  season  of  operation  should  be  past,  or  till, 
by  the  gradual  concentration  of  their  forces,  they  should  become  numerous 
enough  to  make  an  effectual  stand.  From  Crown  Point  they  retreated  to 
Isle-aux-Noix,  where  general  Amherst  understood  there  was  a  body  of 
between  three  and  four  thousand  men,  and  a  fleet  of  several  armed  vessels. 
The  English  made  great  exertions  to  secure  a  naval  superiority ;  and  had  it 
not  been  for  a  succession  of  adverse  storms  upon  the  lake,  they  would  most 
probably  have  accomplished  the  original  design  of  forming  a  junction  at 
Quebec,  instead  of  being  obliged  to  go  into  winter  quarters  at  Crown  Point. 


620  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  prosecution  of  the  enterprise  against  Niagara,  general  Prideaux  had 
embarked  with  an  army  on  lake  Ontario ;  and  on  the  6th  of  July  landed 
without  opposition  within  about  three  miles  of  the  fort,  which  he  invested 
in  form.  While  directing  the  operations  of  the  siege  he  was  killed  by  the 
bursting  of  a  cohorn,  and  the  command  devolved  on  Sir  William  Johnson. 
That  general,  prosecuting  with  judgment  and  vigor  the  plan  of  his  prede- 
cessor, pushed  the  attack  of  Niagara  with  an  intrepidity  that  soon  brought 
the  besiegers  within  a  hundred  yards  of  the  covered  way.  Meanwhile, 
the  French,  alarmed  at  the  danger  of  losing  a  post  which  was  a  key  to 
their  interior  empire  in  America,  had  collected  a  large  body  of  regular 
troops  from  the  neighboring  garrisons  of  Detroit,  Venango,  and  Presqu' 
Isle,  with  which,  and  a  party  of  Indians,  they  resolved,  if  possible,  to  raise 
the  siege.  Apprised  of  their  intention  to  hazard  a  battle,  general  Johnson 
ordered  his  light  infantry,  supported  by  some  grenadiers  and  regular  foot, 
to  take  post  between  the  cataract  of  Niagara  and  the  fortress ;  placed  the 
auxiliary  Indians  on  his  flanks ;  and,  together  with  this  preparation  for  an 
engagement,  took  effectual  measures  for  securing  his  lines,  and  bridling 
the  garrison.  About  nine  in  the  morning  of  the  24th  of  July,  the  enemy 
appeared,  and  the  horrible  sound  of  the  war-whoop  from  the  hostile  Indians 
was  the  signal  of  battle.  The  French  charged  with  great  impetuosity,  but 
were  received  with  firmness ;  and  in  less  than  an  hour  were  completely 
routed.  This  battle  decided  the  fate  of  Niagara.  Sir  William  Johnson 
the  next  morning  opened  negotiations  with  the  French  commandant ;  and 
in  a  few  hours  a  capitulation  was  signed.  The  garrison,  consisting  of  six 
hundred  and  seven  men,  were  to  march  out  with  the  honors  of  war,  to  be 
embarked  on  the  lake,  and  carried  to  New  York ;  and  the  women  and 
children  were  to  be  carried  to  Montreal.  The  reduction  of  Niagara  effec- 
tually cut  off  the  communication  between  Canada  and  Louisiana. 

The  expedition  against  the  capital  of  Canada  was  the  most  daring  and 
important.  Strong  by  nature,  and  still  stronger  by  art,  Quebec  had  ob- 
tained the  appellation  of  the  Gibraltar  of  America  ;  and  every  attempt 
against  it  had  failed.  It  was  now  commanded  by  Montcalm,  an  officer  of 
distinguished  reputation ;  and  its  capture  must  have  appeared  chimerical 
to  any  one  but  Pitt.  He  judged  rightly,  however,  that  the  boldest  and 
most  dangerous  enterprises  are  often  the  most  successful,  especially  when 
committed  to  ardent  minds  glowing  with  enthusiasm,  and  emulous  of 
glory.  Such  a  mind  he  had  discovered  in  general  Wolfe,  whose  conduct 
at  Louisbourg  had  attracted  his  attention.  He  appointed  him  to  conduct 
the  expedition,  and  gave  him  for  assistants  brigadier-generals  Monckton, 
Townshend,  and  Murray ;  all,  like  himself,  young  and  ardent.  Early  in 
the  season  he  sailed  from  Halifax  with  eight  thousand  troops,  and,  near 
the  last  of  June,  landed  the  whole  army  on  the  island  of  Orleans,  a  few 
miles  below  Quebec.  From  this  position  he  could  take  a  near  and  distinct 
view  of  the  obstacles  to  be  overcome.  These  were  so  great,  that  even  the 
bold  and  sanguine  Wolfe  perceived  more  to  fear  than  to  hope.  In  a  letter 
to  Mr.  Pitt,  written  before  commencing  operations,  he  declared  that  he  saw 
but  little  prospect  of  reducing  the  place. 

Quebec  stands  on  the  north  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  consists  of 
an  upper  and  lower  town.  The  lower  town  lies  between  the  river  and  a 
bold  and  lofty  eminence,  which  runs  parallel  to  it  far  to  the  westward. 
At  the  top  of  this  eminence  is  a  plain,  upon  which  the  upper  town  is  situa- 


HISTORY. 


621 


ted.  Below,  or  east  of  the  city,  is  the  river  St.  Charles,  whose  channel  is 
rough,  and  whose  hanks  are  steep  and  broken.  At  a  short  distance  far- 
ther down  is  the  Montmorency  ;  and  between  these  two  rivers,  and  reaching 
from  one  to  the  other,  was  encamped  the  French  army,  strongly  entrench- 
ed, and  at  least  equal  in  number  to  that  of  the  English.  General  Wolfe 
took  possession  of  Point  Levi,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  there  erected  batteries  against  the  town.     The  cannonade  which  was 


Siege  of  Quebec. 


kept  up,  though  it  destroyed  many  houses,  made  but  little  impression  on 
the  works,  which  were  too  strong  and  too  remote  to  be  materially  affected  ; 
their  elevation,  at  the  same  time,  placing  them  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
fleet. 

Convinced  of  the  impossibility  of  reducing  the  place,  unless  he  could 
erect  batteries  on  the  north  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Wolfe  soon  decided 
on  more  daring  measures.  The  northern  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  to  a 
considerable  distance  above  Quebec,  is  so  bold  and  rocky  as  to  render  a 
landing  in  the  face  of  an  enemy  impracticable.  If  an  attempt  were  made 
below  the  town,  the  river  Montmorency  passed,  and  the  French  driven 
from  their  entrenchments,  the  St.  Charles  would  present  a  new,  and  per- 
haps an  insuperable  barrier.  With  every  obstacle  fully  in  view,  Wolfe, 
heroically  observing  that  '  a  victorious  army  finds  no  difficulties,'  resolved 
to  pass  the  Montmorency,  and  bring  Montcalm  to  an  engagement.  In 
pursuance  of  this  resolution,  thirteen  companies  of  English  grenadiers, 
and  part  of  the  second  battalion  of  royal  Americans,  were  landed  at  the 
mouth  of  that  river,  while  two  divisions,  under  generals  Townshend  and 
Murray,  prepared  to  cross  it  higher  up.  Wolfe's  plan  was  to  attack  first  a 
redoubt,  close  to  the  water's  edge,  apparently  beyond  reach  of  the  fire 
from  the  enemy's  entrenchments,  in  the  belief  that  the  French,  by  attempt- 
ing to  support  that  fortification,  would  put  it  in  his  power  to  bring  on  a 
general  engagement ;  or,  if  they  should  submit  to  the  loss  of  the  redoubt, 
that  he  could  afterwards  examine  their  situation  with  coolness,  and  advan* 
tageously  regulate  his  future  operations. 

On  the  approach  of  the  British  troops  the  redoubt  was  evacuated ;  and 


(}22  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  general,  observing  some  confusion  in  the  French  camp,  changed  his 
original  plan,  and  determined  not  to  delay  an  attack.  Orders  were  imme- 
diately despatched  to  the  generals  Townshend  and  Murray  to  keep  their 
divisions  in  readiness  for  fording  the  river ;  and  the  grenadiers  and  royal 
Americans  were  directed  to  form  on  the  beach  until  they  could  be  properly 
sustained.  These  troops,  however,  not  waiting  for  support,  rushed  impe- 
tuously toward  the  enemy's  entrenchments ;  but  they  were  received  with 
so  strong  and  steady  a  fire  from  the  French  musketry,  that  they  were 
instantly,  thrown  into  disorder,  and  obliged  to  seek  shelter  at  the  redoubt 
which  the  enemy  had  abandoned.  Detained  here  awhile  by  a  dreadful 
thunder  storm,  they  were  still  within  reach  of  a  severe  fire  from  the 
French ;  and  many  gallant  officers,  exposing  their  persons  in  attempting 
to  form  the  troops,  were  killed,  the  whole  loss  amounting  to  nearly  five 
hundred  men.  The  plan  of  attack  being  effectually  disconcerted,  the 
English  general  gave  orders  for  repassing  the  river,  and  returning  to  the 
isle  of  Orleans. 

Compelled  to  abandon  the  attack  on  that  side,  Wolfe  deemed  that  advan- 
tage might  result  from  attempting  to  destroy  the  French  fleet,  and  by 
distracting  the  attention  of  Montcalm  with  continual  descents  upon  the 
northern  shore.  General  Murray,  with  twelve  hundred  men  in  transports, 
made  two  vigorous  but  abortive  attempts  to  land ;  and  though  more  suc- 
cessful in  the  third,  he  did  nothing  more  than  burn  a  magazine  of  warlike 
stores.  The  enemy's  fleet  was  effectually  secured  against  attacks,  either 
by  land  or  by  water,  and  the  commander-in-chief  was  again  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  mortification  of  recalling  his  troops.  At  this  juncture,  intel- 
ligence arrived  that  Niagara  was  taken,  that  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point  had  been  abandoned,  but  that  general  Amherst,  instead  of  pressing 
forward  to  their  assistance,  was  preparing  to  attack  the  Isle-aux-Noix. 

While  Wolfe  rejoiced  at  the  triumph  of  his  brethren  in  arms,  he  could 
not  avoid  contrasting  their  success  with  his  own  disastrous  efforts.  His 
mind,  alike  lofty  and  susceptible,  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  disasters 
at  Montmorency;  and  his  extreme  anxiety,  preying  upon  his  delicate 
frame,  sensibly  affected  his  health.  He  was  observed  frequently  to  sigh ; 
and,  as  if  life  was  only  valuable  while  it  added  to  his  glory,  he  declared 
to  his  intimate  friends,  that  he  would  not  survive  the  disgrace  which  he 
imagined  would  attend  the  failure  of  his  enterprise.  Nothing,  however, 
could  shake  the  resolution  of  this  valiant  commander,  or  induce  him  to 
abandon  the  attempt.  In  a  council  of  his  principal  officers,  called  on  this 
critical  occasion,  it  was  resolved,  that  all  the  future  operations  should  be 
above  the  town.  The  camp  at  the  isle  of  Orleans  was  accordingly  aban- 
doned ;  and  the  whole  army  having  embarked  on  board  the  fleet,  a  part 
of  it  was  landed  at  point  Levi,  and  a  part  higher  up  the  river.  Montcalm, 
apprehending  from  this  movement  that  the  invaders  might  make  a  distant 
descent  and  come  on  the  back  of  the  city  of  Quebec,  detached  M.  de  Bou- 
gainville with  fifteen  hundred  men,  to  watch  their  motions,  and  prevent 
their  landing. 

Baffled  and  harassed  in  all  his  previous  assaults,  general  Wolfe  seems 
to  have  determined  to  finish  the  enterprise  by  a  single  bold  and  desperate 
effort.  The  admiral  sailed  several  leagues  up  the  river,  making  occasional 
demonstrations  of  a  design  to  land  troops  ;  and,  during  the  night,  a  strong  de- 
tachment in  flat-bottomed  boats  fell  silently  down  with  the  stream,  to  a  point 


HISTORY.  623 

about  a  mile  above  the  city.  The  beach  was  shelving,  the  bank  high  and 
precipitous,  and  the  only  path  by  which  it  could  be  scaled,  was  now  de- 
fended by  a  captain's  guard  and  a  battery  of  four  guns.  Colonel  Howe, 
with  the  van,  soon  clambered  up  the  rocks,  drove  away  the  guard,  and 
seized  upon  the  battery.  The  army  landed  about  an  hour  before  day,  and 
by  daybreak  was  marshalled  on  the  heights  of  Abraham. 

Montcalm  could  not  at  first  believe  the  intelligence ;  but,  as  soon  as  he 
was  assured  of  its  truth,  he  made  all  prudent  haste  to  decide  a  battle  which 
it  was  no  longer  possible  to  avoid.  Leaving  his  camp  at  Montmorency, 
he  crossed  the  river  St.  Charles  with  the  intention  of  attacking  the  English 
army.  No  sooner  did  Wolfe  observe  this  movement,  than  he  began  to 
form  his  order  of  battle.  His  troops  consisted  of  six  battalions,  and  tha 
Louisbourg  grenadiers.  The  right  wing  was  commanded  by  general 
Monckton,  and  the  left  by  general  Murray.  The  right  flank  was  covered 
by  the  Louisbourg  grenadiers,  and  the  rear  and  left  by  Howe's  light  infan- 
try. The  form  in  which  the  French  advanced  indicating  an  intention  to 
outflank  the  left  of  the  English  army,  general  Townshend  was  sent  with 
the  battalion  of  Amherst,  and  the  two  battalions  of  royal  Americans,  to 
that  part  of  the  line,  and  they  were  formed  en  potence,  so  as  to  present  a 
double  front  to  the  enemy.  The  body  of  reserve  consisted  of  one  regiment, 
drawn  up  in  eight  divisions,  with  large  intervals.  The  dispositions  made 
by  the  French  general  were  not  less  masterly.  The  right  and  left  wings 
were  composed  about  equally  of  European  and  colonial  troops.  The  cen- 
tre consisted  of  a  column,  formed  of  two  battalions  of  regulars.  Fifteen 
hundred  Indians  and  Canadians,  excellent  marksmen,  advancing  in  front, 
screened  by  surrounding  thickets,  began  the  battle.  Their  irregular  fire 
proved  fatal  to  many  British  officers,  but  it  was  soon  silenced  by  the  steady 
fire  of  the  English. 

About  nine  in  the  morning  the  main  body  of  the  French  advanced 
briskly  to  the  charge,  and  the  action  soon  became  general.  Montcalm 
having  taken  post  on  the  left  of  the  French  army,  and  Wolfe  on  the  right 
of  the  English,  the  two  generals  met  each  other  where  the  battle  was 
most  severe.  The  English  troops  reserved  their  fire  until  the  French  had 
advanced  within  forty  yards  of  their  line,  and  then,  by  a  general  discharge, 
made  terrible  havoc  among  their  ranks.  The  fire  of  the  English  was 
vigorously  maintained,  and  the  enemy  everywhere  yielded  to  it.  General 
Wolfe,  who,  exposed  in  the  front  of  his  battalions,  had  been  wounded  in 
the  wrist,  betraying  no  symptom  of  pain,  wrapped  a  handkerchief  round 
his  arm,  and  continued  to  encourage  his  men.  Soon  after,  he  received  a 
shot  in  the  groin ;  but,  concealing  the  wound,  he  was  pressing  on  at  the 
head  of  his  grenadiers  with  fixed  bayonets,  when  a  third  ball  pierced  his 
breast.*      The  army,  not  disconcerted  by  his  fall,  continued  the  action  un- 

*  On  receiving  his  mortal  wound,  Wolfe  was  conveyed  into  the  rear,  where,  careless 
about  himself,  he  discovered,  in  the  agonies  of  death,  the  most  anxious  solicitude  con- 
cerning the  fate  of  the  day.  From  extreme  faintness,  he  had  reclined  his  head  on  the 
arm  of  an  officer,  but  was  soon  aroused  by  the  cry  of  '  They  fly,  they  fly  V  '  Who  fly  V 
exclaimed  the  dying  hero.  <  The  French/  answered  his  attendant.  '  Then,'  said  he,  •  I 
die  contented,'  and  immediately  expired.  A  death  more  full  of  military  glory  has  sel- 
dom been  recorded  by  the  pen  of  the  historian,  or  celebrated  by  the  pencil  of  the  painter. 
General  Wolfe  was  only  thirty-three  years  of  age.  He  possessed  those  military  talents, 
which,  with  the  advantage  of  years  and  opportunity  of  action,  '  to  moderate  his  ardor, 
expand  his  faculties,  and  give  to  his  intuitive  perception  and  scientific  knowledge  tho 


624  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

I 

der  Monckton,  on  whom  the  command  now  devolved,  but  who,  receiving 
a  ball  through  his  body,  soon  yielded  the  command  to  general  Townshend. 
Montcalm,  righting  in  front  of  his  battalions,  received  a  mortal  wound 
about  the  same  time ;  and  general  Senezergus,  the  second  in  command, 
also  fell. 

The  British  grenadiers  pressed  on  with  their  bayonets.  General  Mur- 
ray, briskly  advancing  with  the  troops  under  his  direction,  broke  the  centre 
of  the  French  army.  The  Highlanders,  drawing  their  broadswords,  com- 
pleted the  confusion  of  the  enemy ;  and  after  having  lost  their  first  and 
second  in  command,  the  right  and  centre  of  the  French  were  entirely 
driven  from  the  field ;  and  the  left  was  following  the  example,  when  Bou- 
gainville appeared  in  the  rear,  with  the  fifteen  hundred  men  who  had  been 
sent  to  oppose  the  landing  of  the  English.  Two  battalions  and  two  pieces 
of  artillery  were  detached  to  meet  him ;  but  he  retired,  and  the  British 
troops  were  left  the  undisputed  masters  of  the  field.  The  loss  of  the 
French  was  much  greater  than  that  of  the  English.  The  corps  of  French 
regulars  was  almost  entirely  annihilated.  The  killed  and  wounded  of  the 
English  army  did  not  amount  to  six  hundred  men.  Although  Quebec 
was  still  strongly  defended  by  its  fortifications,  and  might  possibly  be  re- 
lieved by  Bougainville,  or  from  Montreal,  yet  general  Townshend  had 
scarcely  finished  a  road  in  the  bank  to  get  up  his  heavy  artillery  for  a 
siege,  when  the  inhabitants  capitulated,  on  condition  that  during  the  war 
they  might  still  enjoy  their  own  civil  and  religious  rights.  A  garrison  of 
five  thousand  men  was  left  under  general  Murray,  and  the  fleet  sailed  out 
of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

The  fall  of  Quebec  did  not  immediately  produce  the  submission  of  Ca- 
nada. The  main  body  of  the  French  army,  which,  after  the  battle  on  the 
plains  of  Abraham,  retired  to  Montreal,  and  which  still  consisted  of  ten 
battalions  of  regulars,  had  been  reinforced  by  six  thousand  Canadian 
militia,  and  a  body  of  Indians.  With  these  forces  M.  de  Levi,  who  had 
succeeded  the  marquis  de  Montcalm  in  the  chief  command,  resolved  to 
attempt  the  recovery  of  Quebec.  He  had  hoped  to  carry  the  place  by  a 
coup  de  main  during  the  winter ;  but,  on  reconnoitring,  he  found  the  out- 
posts so  well  secured,  and  the  governor  so  vigilant  and  active,  that  he 
postponed  the  enterprise  until  spring.  In  the  month  of  April,  when  the 
upper  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence  was  so  open  as  to  admit  a  transportation  by 
water,  his  artillery,  military  stores,  and  heavy  baggage,  were  embarked  at 
Montreal,  and  fell  down  the  river  under  convoy  of  six  frigates  ;  and  M.  de 
Levi,  after  a  march  of  ten  days,  arrived  with  his  army  at  Point  au  Trem- 
ble, within  a  few  miles  of  Quebec. 

General  Murray,  to  whom  the  care  of  maintaining  the  English  conquest 
had  been  intrusted,  had  taken  every  precaution  to  preserve  it ;  but  his 
troops  had  suffered  so  much  by  the  extreme  cold  of  the  winter,  and  by  the 
want  of  vegetables  and  fresh  provisions,  that  instead  of  five  thousand,  the 

correctness  of  judgment  perfected  by  experience,'  would  have  'placed  him  on  a  levelf 
with  the  most  celebrated  generals  of  any  age  or  nation.' — Montcalm  was  every  way 
worthy  to  be  a  competitor  of  Wolfe.  He  had  the  truest  military  genius  of  any  office? 
whom  the  French  had  ever  employed  in  America.  After  he  had  received  his  mortal 
wound,  he  was  carried  into  the  city  ;  and  when  informed  that  it  was  mortal,  his  reply 
was,  ( I  am  glad  of  it.'  On  being  told  that  he  could  survive  but  a  few  hours,  '  So  muck 
die  better,'  he  replied  ;  '  I  shall  not  then  live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Quebec' 


HISTORY.  625 

original  number  of  his  garrison,  there  were  not  at  this  time  above  three 
thousand  men  fit  for  service.  With  this  small  but  valiant  body  he  re- 
solved to  meet  the  enemy  in  the  field ;  and  on  the  28th  of  April  marched 
out  to  the  heights  of  Abraham,  where,  near  Sillery,  he  attacked  the  French 
under  M.  de  Levi  with  great  impetuosity.  He  was  received  with  firmness  ; 
and,  after  a  fierce  encounter,  finding  himself  outflanked,  and  in  danger  of 
being  surrounded  by  superior  numbers,  he  called  off  his  troops,  and  retired 
into  the  city.  In  this  action  the  loss  of  the  English  was  near  a  thousand 
men,  and  that  of  the  French  still  greater.  The  French  general  lost  no  time 
in  improving  his  victory.  On  the  very  evening  of  the  battle  he  opened 
trenches  before  the  town,  but  it  was  the  11th  of  May  before  he  could 
mount  his  batteries,  and  bring  his  guns  to  bear  on  the  fortifications.  By 
that  time  general  Murray,  who  had  been  indefatigable  in  his  exertions, 
had  completed  some  outworks,  and  planted  so  numerous  an  artillery  on 
his  ramparts,  that  his  fire  was  very  superior  to  that  of  the  besiegers,  and 
in  a  manner  silenced  their  batteries.  A  British  fleet  most  opportunely 
arriving  a  few  days  after,  M.  de  Levi  immediately  raised  the  siege,  and 
precipitately  retired  to  Montreal.  Here  the  marquis  de  Vaudreuil,  gover- 
nor-general of  Canada,  had  fixed  his  head-quarters,  and  determined  to 
make  his  last  stand.  For  this  purpose  he  called  in  all  his  detachments, 
and  collected  around«him  the  whole  force  of  the  colony. 

The  English,  on  the  other  hand,  were  resolved  upon  the  utter  annihila- 
tion of  the  French  power  in  Canada ;  and  general  Amherst  prepared  to 
overwhelm  it  with  an  irresistible  superiority  of  numbers.  Almost  on  the 
same  day,  the  armies  from  Quebec,  from  lake  Ontario,  and  from  lake 
Champlain,  were  concentrated  before  Montreal ;  a  capitulation  was  imme- 
diately signed ;  Detroit,  Michilimackinac,  and,  indeed,  all  New  France, 
surrendered  to  the  English.  The  French  troops  were  to  be  carried  home; 
and  the  Canadians  to  retain  their  civil  and  religious  privileges. 

The  history  of  modern  Europe,  with  whose  destiny  that  of  the  colonies 
was  closely  interwoven,  may  be  designated  as  the  annals  of  an  intermina- 
ble war.  Her  sovereigns,  ever  having  the  oily  words  of  peace  on  their 
lips,  have  seldom  had  recourse  to  the  olive  branch  but  as  the  signal  of  a 
truce,  the  duration  of  which  should  be  coeval  with  the  reinvigoration  of 
military  strength.  It  was  thus  with  France  on  the  present  occasion. 
Equally  unsuccessful  on  both  continents,  and  exhausted  by  her  strenuous 
and  continued  efforts,  she  was  at  length  induced  to  make  overtures  of 
peace ;  and  every  thing  seemed  to  be  in  a  fair  train  for  adjustment,  when 
the  treaty  was  suddenly  broken  off  by  an  attempt  of  the  court  of  Versailles 
to  mingle  the  politics  of  Spain  and  of  Germany  with  the  disputes  between 
France  and  Great  Britain.  A  secret  family  compact  between  the  Bour- 
bons to  support  each  other  through  evil  and  good,  in  peace  and  in  war, 
^had  rendered  Spain  desirous  of  war,  and  induced  France  once  more  to*  try 
her  fortune.  As  the  interests  of  the  two  nations  were  now  identified,  it 
only  remained  for  England  to  make  a  formal  declaration  of  hostility  against 
Spain.  The  colonies  of  New  England,  being  chiefly  interested  in  the 
reduction  of  the  West  India  islands,  furnished  a  considerable  body  of 
troops  to  carry  on  the  war.  A  large  fleet  was  despatched  from  England  ; 
the  land  forces  amounted  to  sixteen  thousand ;  and  before  the  end  of  the 
■second  year,  Great  Britain  had  taken  the  important  city  of  Havannah,  the 
79  .53 


626  BOOK  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

key  of  the  Mexican  gulf,  together  with  the  French  provinces  of  Martinique 
Grenada,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and  the  Caribbee  islands. 

The  progress  of  the  British  conquests,  which  threatened  all  the  remain 
ing  colonial  possessions  of  their  opponents,  was  arrested  by  preliminary 
articles  of  peace,  which,  towards  the  close  of  1762,  were  interchanged  at 
Fontainbleau  between  the  ministers  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spam. 
On  the  10th  of  February  in  the  following  year,  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  at  Paris,  and  soon  after  ratified.  France  ceded  to  Great  Bri- 
tain all  the  conquests  which  the  latter  had  made  in  North  America ;  and 
it  was  stipulated  between  the  two  crowns,  that  the  boundary  line  of 
their  respective  dominions  in  the  new  hemisphere  should  run  along 
the  middle  of  the  Mississippi,  from  its  source  as  far  as  the  Iberville, 
and  along  the  middle  of  that  river,  and  of  lakes  Maurepas  and  Pontchar- 
train. 

Thus  terminated  a  war,  which  originated  in  an  attempt  on  the  part  of 
the  French  to  surround  the  English  colonists,  and  chain  them  to  a  narrow 
strip  of  country  along  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic ;  and  ended  with  their  giv- 
ing up  the  whole  of  what  was  then  their  only  valuable  territory  in  North 
America.  The  immediate  advantage  the  colonies  derived  from  the  suc- 
cessful issue  of  the  contest  was  great  and  apparent.  Although,  for  a 
short  period  after  the  conquest  of  Canada  had  been  effected,  they  were 
subject  to  attacks  from  the  Indian  tribes  attached  to  the  French,  and  also 
from  the  Cherokees  on  their  south-western  borders,  they  were  soon  ena- 
bled to  visit  their  cruelties  with  severe  retribution,  and  to  procure  a  lasting 
repose,  as  the  Indians  had  no  forts  to  which  to  repair  for  protection  or  aid. 
But  the  indirect  results,  though  almost  unperceived  at  first,  were  far 
more  important,  and  prepared  the  way  for  those  momentous  efforts  which 
issued  in  the  loss  to  Great  Britain  of  the  fairest  portion  of  her  colonies, 
and  the  establishment  of  her  vassal  as  a  rival.  The  colonists  became  in- 
ured to  the  habits  and  hardships  of  a  military  life,  and  skilled  in  the  arts 
of  European  warfare ;  while  the  desire  of  revenge  for  the  loss  of  Canada, 
Which  France  did  not  fail  to  harbor,  was  preparing  for  them  a  most  efficient 
friend,  and  making  way  for  the  anomalous  exhibition  of  a  despotic  sove- 
reign exerting  all  his  power  in  the  cause  of  liberty  and  independence. 


COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  enter  into  any  speculations  as  to  the  re- 
mote origin  of  the  American  revolution.  The  immediate  and  exciting  caus- 
es of  the  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  government  were  twofold  ;  the  rigorous 
execution  of  the  navigation  laws,  which  destroyed  a  most  important  and 
profitable,  though  contraband  and  illegal  trade  ;  and  the  assertion  by  the 
British  parliament  of  its  right  to  tax  the  colonies.  The  latter  so  speedily 
followed  the  former,  and  afforded  so  preferable  a  ground  on  which  to  make 
a  stand,  that  the  navigation  laws  were  seldom  exhibited  as  one  of  the  chief 
grievances ;  although,  had  not  the  stamp  act  and  other  similar  measures 
been  brought  forward,  the  laws  affecting  the  trade  of  the  colonies  would 
inevitably  have  excited  the  same  opposition. 

The  attempt  to  hold  a  people,  circumstanced  as  were  the  American  colo- 
nists, under  the  legislation  of  Great  Britain,  was  as  irrational  as  it  was 


HisroRY.  627 

unjust.  Financial  embarrassments  called  forth  the  erroneous  policy  into 
action,  which,  as  often  happens  in  private  life,  deeply  aggravated  the  evil 
it  was  designed  to  remedy ;  and  the  attempt  to  wring  a  few  thousands  per 
annum  from  the  colonists,  terminated  in  plunging  Great  Britain  into  debt, 
and  in  depriving  her  of  an  immense  territory,  which,  under  a  just  and 
liberal  management,  might  still  have  continued  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
appendages  of  the  British  crown. 

Plans  of  laying  internal  taxes,  and  of  drawing  a  revenue  from  the  colo- 
nies, had  been  at  various  times  suggested  to  the  ministry,  and  particularly 
to  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  This  statesman,  however,  was  too  wise  and  saga- 
cious to  adopt  them.  '  I  will  leave  the  taxation  of  the  Americans,'  Wal- 
pole answered,  '  for  some  of  my  successors,  who  may  have  more  courage 
than  I  have,  and  be  less  friendly  to  commerce  than  I  am.  It  has  been  a 
maxim  with  me,'  he  added,  '  during  my  administration,  to  encourage  the 
trade  of  the  American  colonies  to  the  utmost  latitude ;  nay,  it  has  been 
necessary  to  pass  over  some  irregularities  in  their  trade  with  Europe  ;  for, 
by  encouraging  them  to  an  extensive  and  growing  foreign  commerce,  if 
they  gain  five  hundred  thousand  pounds,  I  am  convinced  that,  in  two 
years  afterwards,  full  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  of  this  gain  will  be 
in  his  majesty's  exchequer  by  the  labor  and  product  of  this  kingdom,  as 
immense  quantities  of  every  kind  of  our  manufactures  go  thither;  and*  as 
they  increase  in  the  foreign  American  trade,  more  of  our  produce  will  be 
wanted.  This  is  taxing  them  more  agreeably  to  their  own  constitution 
and  laws.'  The  first  Pitt,  also,  in  his  celebrated  speech  on  the  repeal  of 
the  stamp  act,  referring  to  the  conduct  of  the  several  preceding  administra- 
tions, says,  '  None  of  these  thought,  or  even  dreamed,  of  robbing  the  colo- 
nies of  their  constitutional  rights.  That  was  reserved  to  mark  an  era  of 
the  late  administration ;  not  that  there  were  wanting  some,  when  I  had 
the  honor  to  serve  his  majesty,  to  propose  to  me  to  burn  my  fingers  with 
an  American  stamp  act.  With  the  enemy  at  their  back,  with  our  bayonets 
at  their  breasts,  in  the  day  of  their  distress,  perhaps  the  Americans  would 
have  submitted  to  the  imposition  ;  but  it  would  have  been  taking  an  unge- 
nerous and  unjust  advantage.' 

Whatever  might  have  been  the  views  or  wishes  of  any  individual  of  the 
British  cabinet,  at  any  period,  relative  to  drawing  a  revenue  directly  from 
the  colonies,  no  one  had  been  bold  enough  to  make  the  attempt  until  after 
the  reduction  of  the  French  power  in  America.  This  was  deemed  a  favor- 
able moment  to  call  upon  the  Americans  for  taxes,  to  assist  in  the  payment 
of  a  debt,  incurred,  as  was  alleged,  in  a  great  measure,  for  their  protection 
against  a  powerful  enemy,  now  no  longer  an  object  of  their  dread.^  A 
British  statesman  should  have  reflected,  that,  if  the  Americans  were  re- 
lieved from  the  dread  of  their  ancient  enemy,  they  no  longer  required  the 
protection  of  the  parent  country  against  that  enemy ;  and  that  the  strong- 
est hold  on  their  dependence  was  gone  when  Canada  was  gained. 

The  conquest  of  Canada  had  scarcely  been  effected,  when  rumors  were 
extensively  prevalent  that  a  different  system  of  government  was  about  to 
be  adopted  by  the  parent  state ;  that  the  charters  would  be  taken  away, 
and  the  colonies  reduced  to  royal  governments.  The  officers  of  the  cus- 
toms began  to  enforce  with  strictness  all  the  acts  of  parliament  regulating 

*  Pitkin,  vol.  i.  p.  157. 


628  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  trade  of  the  colonies,  several  of  which  had  been  suspended,  or  had 
become  obsolete.  Governor  Bernard,  of  Massachusetts,  who  was  always 
a  supporter  of  the  royal  prerogative,  appears  to  have  entered  fully  into 
these  views,  and  to  have  indicated,  by  his  appointment  of  confidential  ad- 
visers, that  his  object  would  be  to  extend  the  power  of  the  government  to 
any  limits  which  the  ministry  might  require.  The  first  demonstration  of 
the  new  course  intended  to  be  pursued,  was  the  arrival  of  an  order  in 
council  to  carry  into  effect  the  acts  of  trade,  and  to  apply  to  the  supreme 
judicature  of  the  province  for  writs  of  assistance,  to  be  granted  to  the  offi- 
cers of  the  customs.  According  to  the  ordinary  course  of  law,  no  searches 
or  seizures  can  be  made  without  a  special  warrant,  issued  upon  probable 
cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  particularly  designating  the  place 
to  be  searched  and  the  goods  to  be  seized.  But  the  writ  of  assistance  was 
to  command  all  sheriffs  and  other  civil  officers  to  assist  the  person  to  whom 
it  was  granted  in  breaking  open  and  searching  every  place  where  he  might 
suspect  any  prohibited  or  uncustomed  goods  to  be  concealed.  It  was  a 
sort  of  commission,  during  pleasure,  to  ransack  the  dwellings  of  the  citi- 
zens, for  it  was  never  to  be  returned,  nor  any  account  of  the  proceedings 
under  it  rendered  to  the  court  whence  it  issued.  Such  a  weapon  of  op- 
pression in  the  hands  of  the  inferior  officers  of  the  customs  might  well 
alarm  even  innocence,  and  confound  the  violators  of  the  law. 

The  mercantile  part  of  the  community  united  in  opposing  the  petition, 
and  was  in  a  state  of  great  anxiety  as  to  the  result  of  the  question.  The 
officers  of  the  customs  called  upon  Mr.  Otis  for  his  official  assistance,  as 
advocate-general,  to  argue  their  cause  :  but  as  he  believed  these  writs  to 
be  illegal  and  tyrannical,  he  resigned  the  situation,  though  very  lucrative, 
and  if  filled  by  a  compliant  spirit,  leading  to  the  highest  favors  of  govern- 
ment. The  merchants  of  Salem  and  Boston  applied  to  Otis  and  Thacher, 
who  engaged  to  make  their  defence.  The  trial  took  place  in  the  council 
chamber  of  the  old  town-house,  in  Boston.  The  judges  were  five  in  num- 
ber, including  lieutenant  governor  Hutchinson,  who  presided  as  chief  jus- 
tice ;  and  the  room  was  rilled  with  all  the  officers  of  government  and  the 
principal  citizens,  to  hear  the  arguments  in  a  cause  that  inspired  the  deep- 
est solicitude.  The  case  was  opened  by  Mr.  Gridley,  who  argued  it  with 
much  learning,  ingenuity,  and  dignity,  urging  every  point  and  authority 
that  could  be  found,  after  the  most  diligent  search,  in  favor  of  the  custom- 
house petition ;  making  all  his  reasoning  depend  on  this  consideration, — 
'  if  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain  is  the  sovereign  legislator  of  the  British 
empire.'  He  was  followed  by  Mr.  Thacher  on  the  opposite  side,  whose 
reasoning  was  ingenious  and  able,  delivered  in  a  tone  of  great  mildness 
and  moderation.  '  But,'  in  the  language  of  president  Adams,  ■  Otis  was  a 
flame  of  fire  ;  with  a  promptitude  of  classical  allusion,  a  depth  of  research, 
a  rapid  summary  of  historical  events  and  dates,  a  profusion  of  legal  autho- 
rities, a  prophetic  glance  into  futurity,  and  a  rapid  torrent  of  impetuous 
eloquence,  he  hurried  away  all  before  him.  American  independence  was 
then  and  there  born.  The  seeds  of  patriots  and  heroes  to  defend  the  Non 
sine  Diis  animosus  infans,  to  defend  the  vigorous  youth,  were  then  and 
there  sown.  Everyman  of  an  immense  crowded  audience  appeared  to  me 
to  go  away  as  I  did,  ready  to  take  arms  against  writs  of  assistance.  Then 
and  there  was  the  first  scene  of  the  first  act  of  opposition  to  the  arbitrary 
claims  of  Great  Britain.     Then  and  there  the  child  Independence  was 


msrroRY.  629 

born.  In  fifteen  years,  i.  e.  in  1776,  he  grew  up  to  manhood  and  declared 
himself  free.'* 

In  consequence  of  this  argument,  the  popularity  of  Otis  was  without 
bounds,  and  at  the  next  election  he  was  for  the  first  time  chosen  a  member 
of  the  house  of  representatives,  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote.  Some  idea 
of  the  state  of  public  sentiment  at  that  period  may  be  derived  from  the 
following  remarkable  language  of  the  governor,  in  his  speech  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  session.  '  Let  me  recommend  to  you  to  give  no  atten- 
tion to  declamations  tending  to  promote  a  suspicion  of  the  civil  rights  of 
the  people  being  in  danger.  Such  harangues  might  suit  well  in  the  times 
of  Charles  and  James,  but  in  the  times  of  the  Georges  they  are  groundless 
and  unjust.  Since  the  accession  of  the  first  George,  there  has  been  no 
instance  of  the  legal  privileges  of  any  corporate  body  being  attacked  by 
any  of  the  king's  ministers  or  servants,  without  public  censure  ensuing. 
His  present  majesty  has  given  uncommon  assurances  how  much  he  has 
at  heart  the  preservation  of  the  liberty,  rights,  and  privileges  of  all  his 
subjects.  Can  it  be  supposed  that  he  can  forfeit  his  word  ;  or  that  he  will 
6iiffer  it  to  be  forfeited  by  the  acts  of  any  servant  of  his  with  impunity  ? 
An  insinuation  so  unreasonable  and  injurious  I  am  sure  will  never  be  well 
received  among  you.' 

In  the  following  session  governor  Bernard  informed  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, that,  during  the  recess  of  the  legislature,  he  had  appropriated  a 
small  sum  towards  fitting  out  the  sloop  Massachusetts  to  protect  the  fishe- 
ry. The  committee  appointed  to  prepare  an  answer  reported  to  the  house 
a  message,  in  which,  after  desiring  his  excellency  to  restore  the  sloop  to 
her  former  condition,  they  add,  '  Justice  to  ourselves  and  to  our  constitu- 
ents obliges  us  to  remonstrate  against  the  method  of  making  or  increasing 
establishments  by  the  governor  and  council.  It  is  in  effect  taking  from 
the  house  their  most  darling  privilege,  the  right  of  originating  all  taxes. 
It  is,  in  short,  annihilating  one  branch  of  the  legislature.  And  when  once 
the  representatives  of  a  people  give  up  this  privilege,  the  government  will 
very  soon  become  arbitrary.  No  necessity,  therefore,  can  be  sufficient  to 
justify  a  house  of  representatives  in  giving  up  such  a  privilege  ;  for  it 
would  be  of  little  consequence  to  the  people  whether  they  were  subject  to 
George  or  Louis,  the  king  of  Great  Britain  or  the  French  king,  if  both 
were  arbitrary,  as  both  would  be  if  both  could  levy  taxes  without  parlia- 
ment.' '  Treason,  treason !'  cried  one  of  the  members  when  these  words 
were  read  ;  but  the  report  was  accepted,  and  the  message  sent  unaltered 
to  the  governor.  The  same  day  he  returned  it,  accompanied  by  a  letter 
requesting  that  a  part  of  it  might  be  expunged,  as  disrespectful  to  the 
king.  It  was  then  proposed  to  insert  an  amendment  in  the  message, 
expressive  of  loyalty ;  but  a  certain  member  crying  '  Rase  them,  rase 
them,'  the  obnoxious  words,  which  had  been  underlined  by  the  governor, 
were  erased  ;  '  it  being  obvious  that  the  remonstrance  would  be  the  same 
in  effect  with  or  without  them.'  The  governor  sent  a  vindication  of  his 
conduct  to  the  house,  and  prorogued  the  assembly  before  there  was  time 
to  answer  it. 

The  year  1764  was  prolific  in  measures  calculated  to  agitate  and  arouse 
the  spirit  of  the  Americans.     Early  in  March  an  act  was  passed,  which 

*  Tudor's  Life  of  Otis,  p.  61. 

63* 


630  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

declared  that  the  bills  which  had  been  issued  by  the  several  colonial  go- 
vernments, should  no  longer  be  regarded  as  legal  currency  ;  an  enactment 
which,  although  in  some  cases  it  might  have  the  beneficial  effect  of  prevent- 
ing an  injurious  excess  of  paper,  was  very  prejudicial  to  the  interests,  as 
well  as  galling  to  the  feelings,  of  the  colonists.  On  the  10th  of  March 
the  house  of  commons  passed  eighteen  resolutions  for  imposing  taxes  and 
duties  on  the  colonies.  The  execution  of  that  which  declared  that  it  might 
be  proper  to  impose  certain  stamp  duties  on  them,  was  deferred  to  the 
next  session  ;  but  the  others  were  immediately  enforced  by  '  An  Act  for 
granting  certain  Duties  in  America  ;'  which,  after  stating  that  it  was  just 
and  expedient  to  raise  a  revenue  there,  imposed  duties  on  silks  and  co- 
lored calicoes  from  Persia,  India,  or  China,  and  on  sugar,  wines,  coffee, 
and  pimento,  made  the  sugar  and  molasses  act  perpetual,  reducing  the 
duty  on  molasses  from  six-pence  to  three-pence  per  gallon  ;  and  this  for  the 
express  and  sole  purpose  of  raising  a  revenue.  The  same  act  increased 
the  number  of  enumerated  commodities,  laid  new  and  harsh  restrictions 
on  commerce,  re-enacted  many  of  the  obsolete  laws  of  trade,  and  provided 
that  all  penalties  and  forfeitures,  accruing  under  any  of  them,  might  be 
sued  for,  at  the  election  of  the  informer,  in  any  court  of  record  or  of  admi- 
ralty, or  in  that  of  vice-admiralty  to  be  established  over  all  America.  The 
declaration  which  was  made,  that  all  these  duties  should  be  devoted  to  the 
maintenance  of  an  army  for  the  defence  of  the  colonies,  was  by  no  means 
satisfactory:  it  was  indeed  urged  by  the  ministry,  to  prove  to  Americans 
that  the  money  which  was  raised  from  them  would  ultimately  be  spent 
again  among  their  own  inhabitants ;  but  the  colonists  sagaciously  conjec- 
tured, that  now  they  had  no  other  enemy  than  a  few  exhausted  tribes  of 
Indians,  there  must  be  some  other  design  than  that  of  defence  in  main- 
taining a  standing  army  among  them;  and  they  could  attribute  the  plan 
to  no  other  source  than  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  ministry  to  secure  the 
destruction  of  their  liberties  by  military  force. 

The  direct  assertion  by  the  British  parliament  of  its  right  to  tax  the 
colonies,  accompanied,  as  it  evidently  was,  by  a  determination  to  carry  the 
principle  into  almost  immediate  effect,  excited  the  most  extensive  clamor 
and  agitation,  not  only  among  individuals,  but  in  the  minds  of  the  consti- 
tuted authorities.  '  Taxation  without  representation  is  tyranny,'  was  the 
universal  watchword  ;  the  proposed  exaction  was  everywhere  the  topic  of 
conversation,  and  the  subject  of  the  severest  animadversion.  Every  day 
beheld  the  affection  of  the  Americans  for  the  parent  country  sensibly  di- 
minish, while  the  disposition  to  resist  by  force  was  silently  but  effectually 
fostered.  Several  of  the  provincial  assemblies  sent  instructions  to  their 
agents  in  London  to  employ  every  means  to  prevent  the  obnoxious  mea- 
sure being  carried  into  effect. 

The  people  of  Boston,  at  their  meeting  in  May,  instructed  their  repre- 
sentatives to  the  general  court  on  this  important  subject.  In  these  instruc- 
tions, (which  were  drawn  up  by  Samuel  Adams,  one  of  the  committee 
appointed  for  that  purpose,)  after  commenting  on  the  sugar  and  molasses 
act,  they  proceed  to  observe  :  '  But  our  greatest  apprehension  is,  that  these 
proceedings  may  be  preparatory  to  new  taxes ;  for  if  our  trade  may  be 
taxed,  why  not  our  lands  ?  why  not  the  products  of  our  lands,  and  every 
thing  we  possess  or  use?  This,  we  conceive,  annihilates  our  charter 
rights  to  govern  and  tax  ourselves.     It  strikes  at  our  British  privileges> 


HISTORY.  §  631 

which,  as  we  have  never  forfeited,  we  hold  in  common  with  our  fellow- 
subjects  who  are  natives  of  Britain.  If  taxes  are  laid  upon  us,  in  any 
shape,  without  our  having  a  legal  representation  where  they  are  laid,  we 
are  reduced  from  the  character  of  free  subjects,  to  the  state  of  tributary 
slaves.  We,  therefore,  earnestly  recommend  it  to  you  to  use  your  utmost 
endeavors  to  obtain  from  the  general  court  all  necessary  advice  and  in- 
struction to  our  agent,  at  this  most  critical  juncture.  We  also  desire  you 
to  use  your  endeavors  that  the  other  colonies,  having  the  same  interests 
and  rights  with  us,  may  add  their  weight  to  that  of  this  province  ;  that  by 
united  application  of  all  who  are  aggrieved,  all  may  obtain  redress.' 

This  was  the  first  act  in  the  eolonies,  in  opposition  to  the  ministerial 
plans  of  drawing  a  revenue  directly  from  America;  and  it  contained  the 
first  suggestion  of  the  propriety  of  that  mutual  understanding  and  corres- 
pondence among  the  colonies,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  their  future 
confederacy.  The  house  of  representatives  of  Massachusetts,  in  June  fol- 
lowing, declared,  '  That  the  sole  right  of  giving  and  granting  the  money  of 
the  people  of  that  province,  was  vested  in  them,  or  their  representatives, 
and  that  the  imposition  of  duties  and  taxes  by  the  parliament  of  Great 
Britain  upon  a  people  not  represented  in  the  house  of  commons,  is  abso- 
lutely irreconcilable  with  their  rights ;  that  no  man  can  justly  take  the 
property  of  another,  without  his  consent ;  upon  which  original  principles, 
the  power  of  making  laws  for  levying  taxes,  one  of  the  main  pillars  of  the 
British  constitution,  is  evidently  founded.'  The  same  sentiments  are  ex- 
pressed, though  in  stronger  language,  in  their  letter  of  instructions  to  their 
agent.  '  If  the  colonists  are  to  be  taxed  at  pleasure,'  they  say,  '  without 
any  representatives  in  parliament,  what  will  there  be  to  distinguish  them, 
in  point  of  liberty,  from  the  subjects  of  the  most  absolute  prince  ?  If  we 
are  to  be  taxed  at  pleasure,  without  our  consent,  will  it  be  any  consolation 
to  us,  that  we  are  to  be  assessed  by  a  hundred  instead  of  one  ?  If  we  are 
not  represented,  we  are  slaves.'  The  house,  also,  at  the  same  time,  ap- 
pointed a  committee,  to  sit  during  the  recess  of  the  court,  to  write  to  the 
other  colonies,  requesting  them  to  join  in  applying  for  a  repeal  of  the 
sugar  act,  and  in  endeavoring  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  act  laying 
stamp  duties,  or  any  other  act  imposing  taxes  on  the  American  provinces. 

In  addition  to  the  acts  and  declarations  of  the  colonial  legislatures,  va- 
rious individuals  enlightened  and  animated  the  colonists  by  numerous 
publications  both  in  the  newspapers  and  by  separate  pamphlets.  Among 
the  latter,  '  The  Rights  of  the  Colonists  asserted  and  proved,'  by  Mr.  Otis, 
and  '  The  Sentiments  of  a  British  American,'  by  Oxenbridge  Thacher, 
were  particularly  distinguished.  Mr.  Otis,  among  other  things,  declared, 
'  That  the  imposition  of  taxes,  whether  on  trade  or  on  land,  on  houses  or 
ships,  on  real  or  personal,  fixed  or  floating  property  in  the  colonies,  is  abso- 
lutely irreconcilable  with  the  rights  of  the  colonists,  as  British  subjects 
and  as  men.'  On  the  subject  of  the  sugar  and  molasses  act,  Mr.  Thacher 
stated  his  objections,  the  first  of  which  was,  '  That  a  tax  was  thereby  laid 
on  several  commodities,  to  be  raised  and  levied  in  the  plantations,  and  to 
be  remitted  home  to  England.  This  is  esteemed,'  he  said  '  a  grievance, 
inasmuch  as  the  same  are  laid  without  the  consent  of  the  representatives 
of  the  colonists.  It  is  esteemed  an  essential  British  right,  that  no  man 
shall  be  subject  to  any  tax  but  what,  in  person  or  by  his  representative, 
he  hath  a  voice  in  laying.' 


632  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  the  winter  of  1 765,  at  the  request  of  the  other  agents  of  the  colonies, 
Dr.  Franklin,  Jared  Ingersoll,  Mr.  Jackson,  and  Mr.  Garth,  had  a  confe- 
rence with  Mr.  Grenville,  on  the  subject  of  the  stamp  duty.  Mr.  Ingersoll 
was  from  Connecticut,  and  had  been  requested  to  assist  Mr.  Jackson  in 
any  matters  relating  to  that  colony  ;  Mr.  Garth  was  agent  for  South  Caro- 
lina, and  he  and  Mr.  Jackson  were  members  of  parliament.  These  gentle- 
men, and  particularly  Dr.  Franklin  and  Mr.  Ingersoll,  informed  the 
minister  of  the  great  opposition  to  the  proposed  tax  in  America,  and  most 
earnestly  entreated  him,  that  if  money  must  be  drawn  from  the  colonies 
by  taxes,  to  leave  it  with  the  colonists  to  raise  it  among  themselves  in  such 
manner  as  they  should  think  proper,  and  best  adapted  to  their  circumstan- 
ces and  abilities.  Dr.  Franklin  informed  the  minister,  that  the  legisla- 
ture of  Pennsylvania  had  by  a  resolution  declared,  '  That  as  they  always 
had,  so  they  always  should,  think  it  their  duty  to  grant  aids  to  the  crown, 
according  to  their  abilities,  whenever  required  of  them  in  the  usual  consti- 
tutional way.' 

Neither  the  remonstrances  of  the  colonists,  however,  nor  the  entreaties 
of  their  agents,  were  of  any  avail  with  the  ministry  or  parliament.  The 
bill  for  laying  the  stamp  and  other  duties  was  soon  brought  before  the 
house,  and  petitions  from  the  colonies  of  Virginia,  Connecticut,  and  South 
Carolina,  were  offered  in  opposition  to  it.  The  house,  however,  refused  to 
receive  them ;  in  the  first  place,  because  they  questioned  or  denied  the 
right  of  parliament  to  pass  the  bill;  and  in  the  second  place,  because  it 
was  contrary  to  an  old  standing  rule  of  the  house, — '  that  no  petition 
should  be  received  against  a  money  bill.'  The  majority  against  receiving 
the  petitions  was  very  large,  and  those  from  the  other  colonies  were  not 
offered.  The  petition  from  New  York  was  expressed  in  such  strong  lan- 
guage, that  no  member  of  the  house  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  present  it. 
The  admirable  speech  of  colonel  Barre  in  reply  to  Charles  Townshend, 
so  familiar  to  all  of  us,  although  it  produced  a  profound  impression,  did 
not  of  course  defeat  the  measure ;  and  the  colonial  petitions  and  remon- 
strances, with  the  petition  of  the  London  merchants  trading  to  America, 
were  equally  unavailing.  In  the  house  of  commons  there  were  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  for,  and  only  fifty  against  it.  In  the  lords  it  passed 
without  debate,  with  entire  unanimity  ;  and  on  the  22d  of  March  it 
obtained  the  royal  assent. 

This  enactment,  which  was  to  come  into  operation  on  the  1st  of  No- 
vember, excited  the  most  serious  alarm  throughout  the  colonies.  It  was 
viewed  as  a  violation  of  the  British  constitution,  and  as  destructive  of  the 
first  principles  of  liberty ;  and  combinations  against  its  execution  were 
everywhere  formed.  The  house  of  burgesses  in  Virginia,  which  was  in 
session  when  intelligence  of  the  act  was  received,  passed  several  spirited 
resolutions,  asserting  the  colonial  rights,  and  denying  the  claim  of  parlia- 
mentary taxation.  The  resolutions  were  introduced  into  the  Virginia 
assembly  by  the  eloquent  Patrick  Henry,  who,  on  the  envelope  of  a  copy 
of  them  in  his  own  hand-writing,  has  given  the  following  interesting  par- 
ticulars :  '  They  formed,'  says  Mr.  Henry,  '  the  first  opposition  to  the 
stamp  act,  and  the  scheme  of  taxing  America  by  the  British  parliament. 
All  the  colonies,  either  through  fear,  or  want  of  opportunity  to  form  an  op- 
position, or  from  influence  of  some  kind  or  other,  had  remained  silent.  I 
had  been  for  the  first  time  elected  a  burgess  a  few  days  before,  was  young 


HISTORY.  $33 

inexperienced,  unacquainted  with  the  forms  of  the  house,  and  the  members 
that  composed  it.  Finding  the  men  of  weight  averse  to  opposition,  and 
the  commencement  of  the  tax  at  hand,  and  that  no  person  was  likely  to 
step  forth,  I  determined  to  venture  ;  and  alone,  unadvised,  and  unassisted, 
on  a  blank  leaf  of  an  old  law  book  wrote  the  within.  Upon  offering  them 
to  the  house,  violent  debates  ensued.  Many  threats  were  uttered,  and 
much  abuse  cast  on  me,  by  the  party  for  submission.  After  a  long  and 
warm  contest,  the  resolutions  passed  by  a  very  small  majority,  perhaps  of 
one  or  two  only.  The  alarm  spread  throughout  America  with  astonishing 
quickness,  and  the  ministerial  party  were  overwhelmed.  The  great  point 
of  resistance  to  British  taxation  was  universally  established  in  the  colonies. 
This  brought  on  the  war,  which  finally  separated  the  two  countries,  and 
gave  independence  to  ours.  Whether  this  will  prove  a  blessing  or  a  curse, 
will  depend  upon  the  use  our  people  make  of  the  blessings  which  a  gra- 
cious God  hath  bestowed  on  us.  If  they  are  wise,  they  will  be  great  and 
happy.  If  they  are  of  a  contrary  character,  they  will  be  miserable. 
Righteousness  alone  can  exalt  them  as  a  nation.' 

'  It  was  in  the  midst  of  this  magnificent  debate,'  says  his  biographer, 
Mr.  Wirt,  '  while  he  was  descanting  on  the  tyranny  of  the  obnoxious  act, 
that  he  exclaimed  in  a  voice  of  thunder,  "  Cresar  had  his  Brutus — Charles 
the  First  his  Cromwell — and  George  the  Third" — ("  Treason,"  cried  the 
speaker  ;  "  Treason,  treason,"  echoed  from  every  part  of  the  house  :  it  was 
one  of  those  trying  moments  which  are  decisive  of  character.  Henry  fal- 
tered not  for  an  instant ;  but  rising  to  a  loftier  attitude,  and  fixing  on  the 
speaker  an  eye  of  the  most  determined  fire,  he  finished  his  sentence  with 
the  firmest  emphasis,) — "  may  profit  by  their  example.  If  this  be  treason, 
make  the  most  of  it."  ' 

In  the  province  of  Massachusetts  the  dissatisfaction  at  the  passing  the 
stamp  act  was  strong,  and  was  strongly  manifested.  On  the  meeting  of 
the  legislature  in  May,  it  was  recommended  that  there  should  be  an  early 
meeting  of  committees  from  the  houses  of  representatives  or  burgesses  in 
the  several  colonies,  to  consult  together  on  their  grievances  and  devise  some 
plan  for  their  relief.  In  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  the  proposed  convention  was  held  at  New  York  in  October, 
and  consisted  of  twenty-eight  delegates  from  the  assemblies  of  the  colonies, 
excepting  the  assemblies  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  which 
were  either  not  in  session,  or  were  otherwise  prevented  from  sending 
representatives.  Timothy  Ruggles  of  Massachusetts  was  chosen  president. 
A  declaration  of  rights  and  grievances  was  adopted.  A  petition  to  the 
king,  and  a  memorial  to  each  house  of  parliament  were  also  agreed  on ; 
and  it  was  recommended  to  the  several  colonies  to  appoint  special  agents, 
who  should  unite  their  utmost  endeavors  in  soliciting  redress. 

The  populace  in  various  parts  of  the  colonies  were  unwilling  to  wait 
for  the  effect  of  the  constitutional  measures  their  representatives  were 
adopting.  One  day  in  the  month  of  August  the  effigy  of  Andrew  Oliver, 
the  proposed  distributor  of  stamps  in  Massachusetts,  was  found  hanging 
on  a  tree,  afterwards  well  known  by  the  name  of  Liberty  tree,  in  the 
main  street  of  Boston.  At  night  it  was  taken  down,  and  carried  on  a  bier, 
amidst  the  acclamations  of  an  immense  collection  of  people,  through  the 
court-h&use,  down  King  street,  to  a  small  brick  building,  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  for  the  reception  of  the  detested  stamps.     This  building  being 


634  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

soon  levelled  with  the  ground,  the  rioters  next  attacked  Mr.  Oliver's  house, 
and  having  broken  the  windows,  entered  it,  and  destroyed  part  of  the  fur- 
niture. The  next  day,  however,  Mr.  Oliver  authorized  several  gentlemen 
to  announce  on  the  exchange,  that  he  had  declined  having  any  concern 
with  the  office  of  stamp  master  ;  but  in  the  evening  a  bonfire  was  made, 
and  a  repetition  of  this  declaration  exacted  of  him.  On  the  26th  the  tu- 
mults were  renewed.  The  rioters  assembled  in  King  street,  and  proceed- 
ed to  the  house  of  the  deputy  register  of  the  court  of  admiralty,  whose 
private  papers,  as  well  as  the  records  and  files  of  the  court,  were  destroy- 
ed. The  house  of  Benjamin  Hallowell,  jun.,  comptroller  of  the  customs, 
was  next  entered  ;  and  elevated  and  emboldened  by  liquors  found  in  his 
cellar,  the  mob,  with  inflamed  rage,  directed  their  course  to  the  house  of 
lieutenant-governor  Hutchinson,  who,  after  vainly  attempting  resistance, 
was  constrained  to  depart  to  save  his  life.  By  four  in  the  morning  one  of 
the  best  houses  in  the  province  was  completely  in  ruins,  nothing  remain- 
ing but  the  bare  walls  and  floors.  The  plate,  family  pictures,  most  of  the 
furniture,  the  wearing  apparel,  about  nine  hundred  pounds  sterling,  and 
the  manuscripts  and  books  which  Mr.  Hutchinson  had  been  thirty  years 
collecting,  besides  many  public  papers  in  his  custody,  were  either  carried 
off  or  destroyed.  The  whole  damage  was  estimated  at  two  thousand  five 
hundred  pounds.^ 

The  town  of  Boston  the  next  day  voted  unanimously,  that  the  selectmen 
and  magistrates  be  desired  to  use  their  utmost  endeavors,  agreeably  to 
law,  to  suppress  the  like  disorders  for  the  future,  and  that  the  freeholders 
and  other  inhabitants  would  do  every  thing  in  their  power  to  assist  them. 
The  officer  appointed  to  receive  the  stamped  paper,  which  was  daily  ex- 
pected, having  resigned  his  commission,  the  governor  determined  to  receive 
the  paper  into  his  own  charge  at  the  castle  ;^  and,  by  advice  of  council,  he 
ordered  the  enlistment  of  a  number  of  men  to  strengthen  the  garrison. 
This  caused  great  murmur  among  the  people.  To  pacify  them  he  made 
a  declaration  in  council,  that  he  had  no  authority  to  open  any  of  the  pack- 
ages, or  to  appoint  a  distributor  of  stamps ;  that  his  views  in  depositing 
the  stamped  paper  in  the  castle,  and  in  strengthening  the  garrison  there,  were 
to  prevent  imprudent  people  from  offering  an  insult  to  the  king ;  and  to 
save  the  town,  or  province,  as  it  might  happen,  from  being  held  to  answer 
for  the  value  of  the  stamps,  as  they  certainly  would  be  if  the  papers  should 
be  taken  away.  This  declaration  the  council  desired  him  to  publish,  but 
it  did  not  stop  the  clamor.  He  was  forced  to  stop  the  enlistment,  and  to 
discharge  such  men  as  had  been  enlisted.  The  first  day  of  November, 
on  which  the  stamp  act  was  to  begin  its  operation,  was  ushered  in  at  Bos- 
ton by  the  tolling  of  bells;  many  shops  and  stores  were  shut;  and  effigies 
of  the  authors  and  friends  of  that  act  were  carried  about  the  streets,  and 
afterwards  torn  in  pieces  by  the  populace. 

Nor  was  Massachusetts  alone  ; — the  obnoxious  act  received  similar  treat- 
ment in  the  other  colonies.  On  the  24th  of  August  a  gazette  extraordina- 
ry was  published  at  Providence,  with  Vox  Populi  vox  Dei,  for  a  motto ; 
effigies  were  exhibited,  and  in  the  evening  cut  down  and  burnt.  Three 
days  afterwards,  the  people  of  Newport  conducted  effigies  of  three  obnox- 
ious persons  in  a  cart,  with  halters  about  their  necks,  to  a  gallows  near  the 

*  Hutchinson's  History  of  Massachusetts  from  1749  to  1774. 


HISTORY.  635 

town-house,  where  they  were  hung,  and  after  a  while  cut  down  and  burnt 
amidst  the  acclamations  of  thousands.  On  the  last  day  of  October,  a  body 
of  people  from  the  country  approached  the  town  of  Portsmouth,  (New 
Hampshire,)  in  the  apprehension  that  the  stamps  would  be  distributed ;  but 
on  receiving  assurance  that  there  was  no  such  intention,  they  quietly  re- 
turned. All  the  bells  in  Portsmouth,  Newcastle,  and  Greenland,  were 
tolled,  to  denote  the  decease  of  Liberty ;  and  in  the  course  of  the  day,  no- 
tice was  given  to  her  friends  to  attend  her  funeral.  A  coffin,  neatly  orna- 
mented, and  inscribed  with  '  Liberty,  aged  cxlv.  years,'  was  prepared  for 
the  funeral  procession,  which  began  from  the  state-house,  attended  with  two 
unbraced  drums  ;  minute  guns  were  fired  until  the  corpse  arrived  at  the 
grave,  when  an  oration  was  pronounced  in  honor  of  the  deceased :  but 
scarcely  was  the  oration  concluded,  when,  some  remains  of  life  having 
been  discovered,  the  corpse  was  taken  up;  and  the  inscription  on  the  lid  of 
the  coffin  was  immediately  altered  to  '  Liberty  revived;'  the  bells  sud- 
denly struck  a  cheerful  sound,  and  joy  appeared  again  in  every  counte- 
nance. In  Connecticut,  Mr.  Ingersoll,  the  constituted  distributor  of  stamps, 
was  exhibited  and  burnt  in  effigy  in  the  month  of  August;  and  the 
resentment  at  length  became  so  general  and  alarming,  that  he  resigned  his 
office. 

The  spirit  manifested  by  the  citizens  of  New  York  produced  a  similar 
resignation ;  and  the  obnoxious  act  was  contemptuously  cried  about  the 
streets,  labelled,  '  The  Folly  of  England  and  Ruin  of  America.'  The  stamp 
papers  arriving  toward  the  end  of  October,  lieutenant-governor  Colden  took 
every  precaution  to  secure  them.  On  the  first  of  November,  many  of  the 
inhabitants  of  New  York,  offended  at  the  conduct  and  disliking  the  politi- 
cal sentiments  of  the  governor,  having  assembled  in  the  evening,  broke 
open  his  stable,  and  took  out  his  coach  ;  and  after  carrying  it  through  the 
principal  streets  of  the  city,  marched  to  the  common,  where  a  gallows 
was  erected,  on  one  end  of  which  they  suspended  his  effigy,  with  a  stamp- 
ed bill  of  lading  in  one  hand,  and  a  figure  of  the  devil  in  the  other. 
When  the  effigy  had  hung  a  considerable  time,  they  carried  it  in  proces- 
sion suspended  to  the  gallows  to  the  gate  of  the  fort,  whence  it  was  re- 
moved to  the  bowling  green,  under  the  muzzle  of  the  guns,  and  a  bonfire 
made,  in  which  the  whole  pageantry,  including  the  coach,  was  consumed, 
amidst  the  acclamations  of  several  thousand  spectators.  The  next  day, 
the  people  insisting  upon  having  the  stamps,  it  was  agreed  that  they 
should  be  delivered  to  the  corporation,  and  they  were  deposited  in  the  city 
hall.  Ten  boxes  of  stamps,  which  arrived  subsequently,  were  committed 
to  the  flames. 

At  Philadelphia,  on  the  appearance  of  the  ships  having  the  stamps  on 
board,  all  the  vessels  in  the  harbor  hoisted  their  colors  half-mast  high,  the 
bells  were  muffled,  and  continued  to  toll  until  evening.  The  body  of 
Quakers,  with  a  part  of  the  church  of  England  and  of  the  Baptists,  seem- 
ed inclined  to  submit  to  the  stamp  act ;  but  great  pains  were  taken  to  en- 
gage the  Dutch  and  the  lower  class  of  people  in  the  opposition,  and  Mr. 
Huges,  the  stamp  master,  found  it  necessary  at  length  to  resign.  In 
Maryland,  Mr.  Hood,  the  stamp  distributor  for  that  colony,  to  avoid  resign- 
ing his  office,  fled  to  New  York  ;  but  he  was  constrained  by  a  number  of 
freemen  to  sign  a  paper,  declaring  his  absolute  and  final  resignation.  In 
Virginia,  when   the  gentleman  who  had  been  appointed  distributor  of 


636  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

stamps  arrived  at  Williamsburg,  he  was  immediately  urged  to  resign ; 
and  the  next  day  he  so  handsomely  declined  acting  in  his  office,  that  he 
received  the  acclamations  of  the  people ;  at  night  the  town  was  illumi- 
nated, the  bells  were  rung,  and  festivity  expressed  the  universal  joy. 

Associations  had  already  been  formed  in  the  colonies,  under  the  title  of 
the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and  were  composed  of  some  of  the  most  respectable  of 
their  citizens.  The  association  in  New  York  held  a  meeting  on  the  7th 
of  November,  at  which  it  was  determined  that  they  would  risk  their  lives 
and  fortunes  to  resist  the  stamp  act.  Notice  of  this  being  sent  to  the 
Sons  of  Liberty  in  Connecticut,  an  union  of  the  two  associations  was  soon 
after  agreed  upon,  and  a  formal  instrument  drawn  and  signed ;  in  which, 
after  denouncing  the  stamp  act  as  a  flagrant  outrage  on  the  British  consti- 
tution, they  most  solemnly  pledged  themselves  to  march  with  their  whole 
force  whenever  required,  at  their  own  proper  cost  and  expense,  to  the  relief 
of  all  who  should  be  in  danger  from  the  stamp  act  or  its  abettors ;  to  be 
vigilant  in  watching  for  the  introduction  of  stamped  paper,  to  consider  all 
who  are  caught  in  introducing  it  as  betrayers  of  their  country,  and  to  bring 
them  if  possible  to  condign  punishment,  whatever  may  be  their  rank ;  to 
defend  the  liberty  of  the  press  in  their  respective  colonies  from  all  viola- 
tions or  impediments  on  account  of  the  said  act;  to  save  all  judges,  attor- 
neys, clerks,  and  others  from  fines,  penalties,  or  any  molestation  whatever, 
who  shall  proceed  in  their  respective  duties  without  regard  to  the  stamp 
act ;  and  lastly,  to  use  their  utmost  endeavors  to  bring  about  a  similar 
union  with  all  the  colonies  on  the  continent.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan, 
circular  letters  were  addressed  to  the  Sons  of  Liberty  in  Boston,  New 
Hampshire,  and  as  far  as  South  Carolina,  and  the  proposal  was  received 
with  almost  universal  enthusiasm. 

Societies  were  formed  also  in  most  of  the  colonies,  including  females, 
and  those  of  the  highest  rank  and  fashion,  of  persons  who  resolved  to  fore- 
go all  the  luxuries  of  life,  sooner  than  be  indebted  for  them  to  the  com- 
merce of  England  under  the  restrictions  imposed  upon  it  by  parliament. 
These  societies  denied  themselves  the  use  of  all  foreign  articles  of  cloth- 
ing; carding,  spinning,  and  weaving  became  the  daily  employment  of  ladies 
of  fashion;  sheep  were  forbidden  to  be  used  as  food,  lest  there  should  not 
be  found  a  sufficient  supply  of  wool ;  and  to  be  dressed  in  a  suit  of  home- 
spun was  to  possess  the  surest  means  of  popular  distinction.  So  true 
were  these  patriotic  societies  to  their  mutual  compact,  that  the  British 
merchants  and  manufacturers  soon  began  to  feel  the  necessity  of  uniting 
with  the  colonies  in  petitioning  parliament  for  the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious 
law;  and  the  table  of  the  minister  was  loaded  with  petitions  and  remon- 
strances from  most  of  the  manufacturing  and  mercantile  towns  in  the 
kingdom. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

While  the  colonies  were  thus  brought  into  a  state  bordering  on  insur- 
rection by  the  injudicious  and  unjust  measures  of  the  Grenville  adminis- 
tration, the  administration  itself  was  rapidly  hastening  to  its  dissolution. 
George  III.  had  ascended  the  throne  not  long  after  the  capture  of  Quebec ; 
and  in  the  following  October,  the  patriot  Pitt,  who  had  devised  and  ex©- 


HISTORY.  637 

puled  the  grand  scheme  of  expelling  the  French  from  North  America, 
resigned  the  seals  of  office.  Lord  Bute,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  the  new  king,  was  appointed  Mr.  Pitt's  successor ;  and  un- 
der his  brief  administration  the  peace  of  Paris  was  concluded.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Grenville,  whose  name  will  always  bear  an  unhappy 
notoriety  as  the  author  of  the  stamp  act ;  and  whose  measures  have  form- 
ed the  subject  of  the  preceding  division.  However  the  king  might  approve 
his  political  sentiments,  and  the  king  was  a  decided  tory,  Grenville  was 
not  personally  in  favor  with  his  majesty ;  and  the  result  was,  (after  some 
unsuccessful  negotiation  with  Mr.  Pitt,  who  expressed  his  unwillingness 
to  go  to  St.  James'  '  without  he  could  carry  the  constitution  along  with 
him,')  the  formation  of  the  Rockingham  administration. 

On  the  twenty-second  of  February,  1766,  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the 
house  of  commons  for  a  repeal  of  the  stamp  act.  The  mover  of  the  bill 
was  general  Conway,  the  same  individual  who  in  the  first  instance  had 
denied  the  authority  of  parliament  to  impose  it.  On  the  proposed  repeal 
a  warm  and  interesting  debate  ensued,  and  it  was  finally  carried  by  a 
large  majority.  In  the  upper  house  it  was  carried  by  a  vote  of  one  hun- 
dred and  five  to  seventy-one. 

On  the  19th  of  March,  his  majesty  went  to  the  house  of  peers,  and 
passed  the  bill  for  repealing  the  American  stamp  act,  as  also  that  for  se- 
curing the  dependency  of  the  colonies  on  the  British  crown.  On  this 
occasion  the  American  merchants  made  a  most  numerous  appearance  to 
express  their  gratitude  and  joy;  ships  in  the  river  displayed  their  colors; 
the  city  was  illuminated  ;  and  every  method  was  adopted  to  demonstrate 
the  sense  entertained  of  the  wisdom  of  parliament  in  conciliating  the  minds 
of  the  people  on  this  critical  occasion.  In  America,  the  intelligence  was 
received  with  acclamations  of  the  most  sincere  and  heart-felt  gratitude  by 
all  classes  of  people.  Public  thanksgivings  were  offered  up  in  all  the 
churches.  The  resolutions  which  had  been  passed  on  the  subject  of  im- 
portations were  rescinded,  and  their  trade  with  the  mother  country  was 
immediately  renewed  with  increased  vigor.  The  homespun  dresses  were 
given  to  the  poor,  and  once  more  the  colonists  appeared  clad  in  the  produce 
of  British  looms. 

The  administration  of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham  terminated  in  July, 
1766,  and  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
composed  of  men  of  different  political  principles  and  parties.  The  duke 
of  Grafton  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  treasury ;  lord  Shelburne  was 
joined  with  general  Conway,  as  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state ;  Charles 
Townshend  was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ;  Camden  lord  chancel- 
lor ;  Pitt  had  the  privy  seal,  and  was  made  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  the 
earl  of  Chatham;  and  lord  North  and  George  Cooke  were  joint  pay- 
masters. Under  this  chequered  administration,  the  scheme  of  taxing 
America  was  revived.  In  May,  1767,  the  new  chancellor  of  the  exche- 
quer submitted  a  plan  of  this  kind  to  parliament.  Charles  Townshend 
-was  a  man  of  genius  and  talents,  but  of  high  passions,  eccentric,  and  ver- 
satile. He  had  warmly  supported  Grenville  in  the  passage  of  the  stamp 
act,  and  had  voted  with  the  marquis  of  Rockingham  in  its  repeal.  The 
ei-minister  Grenville  may  indeed  be  considered  the  real  author  of  the 

34 


038  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

second  plan  for  taxing  the  colonies,  for  he  was  ever  urging  the  subject  on 
the  new  ministers.^ 

The  measure  proposed  by  Townshend  to  the  house  was  for  imposing 
duties  on  glass,  paper,  pasteboard,  white  and  red  lead,  painters'  colors,  and 
tea,  imported  into  the  colonies.  The  preamble  declared,  ■  that  it  was  ex- 
pedient to  raise  a  revenue  in  America,  and  to  make  a  more  certain  and 
adequate  provision  for  defraying  the  charge  of  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice and  the  support  of  the  civil  government  in  the  provinces,  and  for  de- 
fraying the  expenses  of  defending,  protecting,  and  securing  them.'  The 
earl  of  Chatham  was  then  confined  by  sickness  in  the  country ;  the  bill 
passed  both  houses  without  much  opposition,  and  on  the  29th  of  June 
received  the  royal  assent. 

The  conduct  of  the  assemblies  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York  had 
given  great  dissatisfaction  in  Great  Britain.  The  refusal  of  the  assembly 
of  the  latter  to  comply  with  the  requisitions  of  the  mutiny  act,  in  particu- 
lar, had  excited  the  indignation  of  the  ministry  and  parliament  to  such  a 
degree,  that  three  days  after  the  passage  of  the  new  tax  bill  an  act  was 
passed  restraining  the  legislature  of  that  province  from  passing  any  act 
Whatever,  until  they  had  furnished  the  king's  troops  with  all  the  articles 
required  by  the  mutiny  act.  The  ministry  at  the  same  time  determined 
to  establish  a  new  board  of  custom-house  officers  in  America.  An  act 
was  therefore  passed,  enabling  the  king  to  put  the  customs  and  other  duties 
in  America,  and  the  execution  of  the  laws  relating  to  trade  there,  under 
the  management  of  commissioners  to  be  appointed  for  that  purpose,  and  to 
reside  in  the  colonies.  This,  as  the  preamble  declares,  would  '  tend  to  the 
encouragement  of  commerce,  and  to  better  securing  the  rates  and  duties, 
and  the  more  speedy  and  effectual  collection  thereof.'  These  three  acts 
arrived  in  America  about  the  same  time. 

The  appropriation  of  the  new  duties  to  the  support  of  crown  officers 
and  to  the  maintenance  of  troops  in  America,  was  a  subject  of  serious 
complaint.  It  had  long  been  a  favorite  object  of  the  British  cabinet  to 
establish  in  the  colonies  a  fund,  from  which  the  salaries  of  the  governors, 
judges,  and  other  officers  of  the  crown,  should  be  paid,  independent  of  the 
annual  grants  of  the  colonial  legislatures.  As  these  officers  held  their 
places  during  the  pleasure  of  the  king,  the  people  of  Massachusetts,  it  will 
be  remembered,  had  uniformly  resisted  such  establishment,  though  repeat- 
edly urged  on  the  part  of  the  crown.  On  this  subject  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives maintained,  in  resolutions  indicative  of  great  firmness,  their 
former  purpose.  The  house  also,  during  this  session,  addressed  a  circular 
letter  to  the  other  colonies,  stating  the  difficulties  to  be  apprehended  by 
the  operation  of  the  late  acts  of  parliament,  and  requesting  their  co-opera- 
tion for  redress.  When  the  question  of  addressing  a  circular  to  the  colo- 
nies was  first  presented  to  the  house  it  was  opposed,  as  seeming  to  counte- 

*  '  Declaiming,  as  usual,  one  evening  on  American  affairs,  he  addressed  himself 
particularly  to  the  ministers.  "You  are  covrards,"  he  said;  "you  are  afraid  of  the 
Americans ;  you  dare  not  tax  America."  This  he  repeated  in  different  language. 
tJpon  this  Townshend  took  fire,  immediately  rose  and  said,  "  Fear !  fear !  cowards ! 
dare  not  tax  America !  I  dare  tax  America."  Grenville  stood  silent  for  a  moment,  and 
then  said,  "  Dare  you  tax  America  ?  I  wish  to  God  I  could  see  it."  Townshend  replied, 
*I  will,  I  will."' — Manuscript  papers  of  Dr.  William  S.  Johnson,  then  in  England  as 
fcgent  for  Connecticut,  quoted  in  Pitkin's  History,  vol,  i.  p.  217. 


HISTORY.  639 

nance  the  meeting  of  another  congress,  heretofore  so  offensive  to  the 
British  government ;  and  the  motion  was  negatived.  The  subject  was 
afterwards  reconsidered,  and  the  letter  so  worded  as  to  satisfy  a  large 
majority  of  the  house.  The  other  colonies  approved  of  the  proceedings 
of  Massachusetts,  and  joined  in  applying  to  the  king  for  relief. 

The  circular  letter  of  Massachusetts  created  no  little  alarm  in  the  Bri- 
tish cabinet.  Directions  were  issued  by  the  secretary  of  state  to  the  gover- 
nor of  this  colony,  requiring  him  to  demand  of  the  house  of  representatives 
a  recantation  of  that  offensive  measure.  This  the  house  peremptorily 
refused.  They  viewed  the  letter  of  lord  Hillsborough  as  an  unwarrant- 
able attempt  on  their  rights ;  and  in  their  answer  to  the  communication 
of  the  governor  on  this  subject,  express  themselves  with  no  little  warmth. 
1  If  the  votes  of  the  house  were  to  be  controlled  by  the  direction  of  a  minis- 
ter,' they  say,  '  we  have  left  us  but  a  shadow  of  liberty  !'  On  the  question 
to  rescind,  Mr.  Otis,  one  of  the  representatives  from  Boston,  said — 'When 
lord  Hillsborough  knows  that  we  will  not  rescind  our  acts,  let  him  apply 
to  parliament  to  rescind  theirs.  Let  Britain  rescind  their  measures,  or 
they  are  lost  forever.'  On  receiving  information  of  the  decision  of  the 
house,  the  governor  immediately  dissolved  the  assembly.  This  ministerial 
mandate  to  the  other  colonies  was  equally  disregarded. 

Americans  looked  with  astonishment  at  such  a  system  of  policy  proceed- 
ing from  a  ministry  of  which  lord  Chatham  constituted  a  part.  They 
found  it  impossible  to  reconcile  the  conduct  now  adopted  towards  them 
with  their  ideas  of  his  lordship's  character.  They  had  heretofore  regarded 
him  as  a  friend,  in  whose  honest  and  liberal  principles  they  might  securely 
trust  the  management  of  all  that  concerned  the  colonies ;  but  here  was  a 
melancholy  evidence  before  their  eyes  of  the  insincerity  of  ministerial  pro- 
fessions. In  justice  to  the  character  of  lord  Chatham,  however,  it  must  be 
observed,  that  he  was  not  in  parliament  during  any  part  of  the  time  that 
these  measures  of  Mr.  Townshend  were  under  discussion.  The  state  of 
his  health  was  such  as  not  only  to  detain  him  from  his  seat  in  the  house, 
but  to  render  him  incapable  of  attending  to  any  of  the  duties  of  his  high 
station ;  and  it  appears  that  his  opinion  weighed  but  little  with  the  men 
whom  he  had  raised  to  power. 

Charles  Townshend,  from  whom  all  the  troubles  and  commotions  that 
were  now  rapidly  spreading  through  the  colonies  in  a  great  measure  origi- 
nated, did  not  live  to  witness  their  effects.  He  died  in  September,  1767, 
and  was  succeeded  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  by  Frederick  lord  North, 
a  young  nobleman,  then  but  little  known  in  the  political  world,  but  who 
will  be  found  to  make  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  sequel  of  this  history. 
Very  soon  afterwards,  lord  Chatham,  disgusted  at  the  corrupt  influence 
which  manifested  itself  in  every  act  of  the  court,  and  sick  of  the  political 
world,  resigned  the  privy  seal. 

The  colonists  meanwhile  were  adopting  all  the  peaceable  means  in  their 
power  to  show  their  sense  of  the  wrongs  heaped  upon  them.  Petitions, 
memorials,  and  remonstrances  to  the  king  and  parliament,  and  letters  to 
the  individual  friends  of  America,  were  addressed  from  all  the  legisla- 
tures ;  but  the  most  favorable  reply  which  any  of  them  received  was  an 
exhortation  to  suffer  with  patience  and  in  silence.  To  suffer  tamely,  and 
without  seeking  redress,  however,  was  not  the  character  of  the  sturdy  sons 
of  freedom  who  inhabited  the  colonies.     They  entered  into  the  same  kind 


640  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  resolutions  of  non-importation,  the  effects  of  which  had  been  so  severely 
felt  by  the  traders  in  England  under  the  stamp  act.  Boston,  as  beforer 
took  the  lead.  At  a  town  meeting  held  in  October,  it  was  voted  that  mea- 
sures should  be  immediately  taken  to  promote  the  establishment  of  domes- 
tic manufactures,  by  encouraging  the  consumption  of  all  articles  of  Ame- 
rican manufacture.  They  also  agreed  to  purchase  no  articles  of  foreign 
growth  or  manufacture,  but  such  as  were  absolutely  indispensable.  New- 
York  and  Philadelphia  soon  followed  the  example  of  Boston  ;  and  in  a 
short  time  the  merchants  themselves  entered  into  associations  to  import 
nothing  from  Great  Britain  but  articles  that  necessity  required. 

The  new  board  of  commissioners  of  the  customs  established  at  Boston 
had  now  entered  on  the  duties  of  their  office.  From  the  great  excitement 
at  that  place,  a  collision  between  the  new  custom-house  officers  and  the 
people  was  by  no  means  improbable:  The  indignation  of  the  people  of 
Boston  was  at  length  excited  to  open  opposition  by  the  seizure  of  Mr. 
Hancock's  sloop  Liberty,  for  a  violation  of  the  revenue  laws.  Under  the 
idea  that  the  sloop  would  not  be  safe  at  the  wharf  in  tht:r  custody,  the 
custom-house  officers  had  solicited  aid  from  a  ship  of  war  which  lay  in 
the  harbor,  the  commander  of  which  ordered  the  sloop  to  be  cut  from  her 
fastenings  and  brought  under  the  guns  of  his  ship.  It  was  to  prevent  *his 
removal  that  the  mob  collected ;  many  of  the  officers  were  severely 
wounded  in  the  scuffle,  and  the  mob,  being  baffled  in  their  attempts  to  re- 
tain the  sloop  at  the  wharf,  repaired  to  the  houses  of  the  collector,  comp- 
troller, and  other  officers  of  the  customs,  where  they  committed  many  acts 
of  violence  and  injury  to  their  property.  This  riotous  disposition  conti- 
nued for  several  days,  during  which  the  commissioners  applied  to  the 
governor  for  assistance,  but  his  excellency  not  being  able  to  protect  them, 
advised  them  to  remove  from  Boston  ;  they  consequently  retired,  first  on 
board  the  Romney  man-of-war,  and  then  to  castle  William.  The  excite- 
ment at  Boston  was  greatly  increased  about  this  time  by  the  impressment 
of  some  seamen  belonging  to  that  town  by  order  of  the  officers  of  the  Rom- 
ney. The  inhabitants  of  Boston  were  assembled  on  this  occasion,  and  their 
petition  to  the  governor,  praying  his  interference  to  prevent  such  outrages 
for  the  future,  shows  to  what  a  state  of  alarm,  anxiety,  and  even  despair, 
they  were  then  reduced.  '  To  contend,'  they  said,  '  against  our  parent 
state,  is,  in  our  idea,  the  most  shocking  and  dreadful  extremity  ;  but  tamely 
to  relinquish  the  only  security  we  and  our  posterity  retain  for  the  enjoy- 
ment of  our  lives  and  properties  without  one  struggle,  is  so  humiliating 
and  base,  that  we  cannot  support  the  reflection.' 

The  general  court  of  Massachusetts  having  been  dissolved  by  governor 
Bernard,  who  refused  to  convene  it  again  without  his  majesty's  command*. 
on  the  proposal  of  the  selectmen  of  Boston  to  the  several  towns  in  the  colo- 
ny, a  convention  met  in  that  town  on  the  22d  of  September,  to  deliberate: 
on  constitutional  measures  to  obtain  redress  of  their  grievances.  The 
convention,  disclaiming  legislative  authority,  petitioned  the  governor; 
made  loyal  professions ;  expressed  its  aversion  to  standing  armies,  to  tu- 
mults and  disorders,  its  readiness  to  assist  in  suppressing  riots,  and  pre- 
serving the  peace ;  recommended  patience  and  good  order ;  and,  after  a 
short  session,  dissolved  itself. 

The  day  before  the  convention  rose,  advice  was  received  that  a  man-of- 
war  and  some  transports  from  Halifax,  with  about  nine  hundred  troops*. 


HISTORY.  641 

had  arrived  at  Nantasket  harbor.  On  the  day  after  their  arrival,  the  fleet 
was  brought  to  anchor  near  castle  William.  Having  taken  a  station  which 
commanded  the  town,  the  troops,  under  cover  of  the  cannon  of  the  ships, 
landed  without  molestation,  and,  to  the  number  of  upwards  of  seven  hun- 
dred men,  marched,  with  muskets  charged,  bayonets  fixed,  martial  music, 
and  the  usual  military  parade,  into  the  common.  In  the  evening,  the 
selectmen  of  Boston  were  required  to  quarter  the  two  regiments  in  the 
town ;  but  they  absolutely  refused.  A  temporary  shelter,  however,  in 
Faneuil  hall,  was  permitted  to  one  regiment  that  was  without  its  camp 
equipage.  The  next  day,  the  state-house,  by  order  of  the  governor,  was 
opened  for  the  reception  of  the  soldiers ;  and,  after  the  quarters  were  set- 
tled, two  field-pieces,  with  the  main  guard,  were  stationed  just  in  its  front. 
Every  thing  was  calculated  to  excite  the  indignation  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  lower  floor  of  the  state-house,  which  had  been  used  by  gentlemen 
and  merchants  as  an  exchange,  the  representatives-chamber,  the  court- 
house, Faneuil  hall — places  with  which  were  intimately  associated  ideas 
of  justice  and  freedom,  as  well  as  of  convenience  and  utility — were  now 
filled  with  troops  of  the  line. 

Guards  were  placed  at  the  doors  of  the  state-house,  through  which  the 
council  must  pass  in  going  to  their  own  chamber.  The  common  was 
covered  with  tents.  Soldiers  were  constantly  marching  and  countermarch- 
ing to  relieve  the  guards.  The  sentinels  challenged  the  inhabitants  as 
they  passed.  The  Sabbath  was  profaned,  and  the  devotion  of  the  sanctuary 
disturbed,  by  the  sound  of  drums  and  other  military  music.  There  was 
every  appearance  of  a  garrisoned  town.  The  colonists  felt  disgusted  and 
injured,  but  not  overawed,  by  the  presence  of  such  a  body  of  soldiery. 
After  the  troops  had  obtained  quarters,  the  council  were  required  to  pro- 
vide barracks  for  them,  agreeably  to  act  of  parliament ;  but  they  resolutely 
declined  any  measure  which  might  be  construed  into  a  submission  to  that 
act.  In  a  few  weeks  several  more  transports  arrived  at  Boston  from  Cork, 
having  on  board  part  of  the  sixty-fourth  and  sixty-fifth  British  regiments, 
under  colonels  Mackey  and  Pomeroy. 

The  general  court  of  Massachusetts  was  at  length  convened,  on  the  31st 
of  May,  and  their  first  act  was  to  send  a  committee  to  the  governor,  assur- 
ing him  of  their  intention  to  make  a  thorough  inquiry  into  the  grievances 
of  the  people,  and  to  have  them  redressed ;  and  demanding  of  his  excel- 
lency to  order  the  removal  of  the  forces  from  the  harbor,  and  from  the 
gates  of  the  capital,  during  the  sitting  of  the  assembly.  To  this  message 
the  governor  replied,  *  that  he  had  no  control  of  the  king's  troops  stationed 
in  the  town  or  province,  and  that  he  had  received  no  orders  for  their 
removal.' 

The  assembly  proved  to  be  independent  and  resolute,  and  came  to  an 
open  breach  with  governor  Bernard.  This  body  was  accordingly  removed 
to  Cambridge,  and  the  troops  retained  possession  of  the  capital.  On  the 
6th  of  July,  the  assembly  received  a  message  from  the  governor,  desiring 
funds  for  the  expenditures  of  his  majesty's  troops,  and  provision  for  their 
further  quartering  in  Boston  and  Castle  island,  according  to  act  of  parlia- 
ment. This  measure  was  strenuously  resisted,  and  all  provision  of  the 
kind  was  peremptorily  refused.  The  prorogation  of  the  assembly  to  the 
10th  of  January  following  immediately  ensued. 

81  54* 


642  BOOK   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  August,  1769,  Sir  Francis  Bernard  was  recalled,  and  left  the  admi- 
nistration to  lieutenant-governor  Hutchinson.  The  occasion  of  his  taking 
leave  was  one  of  great  joy  to  Boston.  The  bells  were  rung,  guns  were 
iired  fiom  Mr.  Hancock's  wharf,  Liberty  tree  was  covered  with  flags,  and 
in  the  evening  a  great  bonfire  was  made  upon  Fort  hill. 

In  1770,  lord  North  was  elevated  to  the  premiership  ;  and  his  adminis- 
tration will  ever  be  celebrated  by  the  fact,  that  it  cost  the  country  more 
money,  and  lost  it  more  territory,  than  that  of  any  other  man.  His  first 
measure  was  for  the  repeal  of  the  port  duties  of  1767,  Avith  the  exception 
of  the  duty  on  tea  ;  this  was  to  be  retained  in  token  of  the  supremacy  of 
parliament.  This  single  reservation  was  of  course  sufficient  to  frustrate 
all  hopes  of  making  this  bill  a  peace-offering  to  the  Americans. 

The  public  mind  in  the  colonies  was  still  farther  agitated  by  the  conti- 
nuance of  the  troops  of  the  line  in  Boston.  The  inhabitants  felt  that  their 
presence  was  designed  to  overawe  and  control  the  expression  of  their  sen- 
timents, and  the  military  appear  to  have  viewed  their  residence  in  the 
town  in  the  same  light.  Under  the  excitement  that  was  thus  occasioned, 
affrays  were  frequently  occurring  between  the  populace  and  the  soldiers ; 
and  it  would  appear  that,  as  might  be  expected,  neither  party  conducted 
themselves  with  prudence  or  forbearance.  On  the  one  hand,  the  soldiers 
are  represented  as  parading  the  town,  armed  with  heavy  clubs,  insulting 
and  seeking  occasion  to  quarrel  with  the  people  ;*  while,  on  the  other,  the 
populace  are  declared  to  be  the  aggressors,  and  the  military  to  have  acted 
on  the  defensive.!  Early  in  the  evening  of  the  5th  of  March,  the  inhabit- 
ants were  observed  to  assemble  in  different  quarters  of  the  town ;  parties 
of  soldiers  were  also  driving  about  the  streets,  as  if  both  the  one  and  the 
other  had  something  more  than  ordinary  upon  their  minds. 

About  eight  o'clock,  one  of  the  bells  of  the  town  was  rung  in  such  man- 
ner as  is  usual  in  case  of  fire.  This  called  people  into  the  streets.  A 
large  number  assembled  in  the  market-place,  not  far  from  King  street, 
armed  with  bludgeons,  or  clubs.  A  small  fray  between  some  of  the  inha- 
bitants arose  at  or  near  the  barracks  at  the  west  part  of  the  town,  but  it 
was  of  little  importance,  and  was  soon  over.  A  sentinel  who  was  posted 
at  the  custom-house,  uot  far  from  the  main  guard,  was  next  insulted,  and 
pelted  with  pieces  of  ice  and  other  missiles,  which  caused  him  to  call  to 
the  main  guard  to  protect  him.  Notice  was  soon  given  to  captain  Preston, 
whose  company  was  then  on  guard,  and  a  sergeant  with  six  men  was  sent 
to  protect  the  sentinel ;  but  the  captain,  to  prevent  any  precipitate  action, 
followed  them  himself.  There  seem  to  have  been  but  few  people  collected 
when  the  assault  was  first  made  on  the  sentinel ;  but  the  sergeant's  guard 
drew  a  greater  number  together,  and  they  were  more  insulted  than  the 
sentinel  had  been,  and  received  frequent  blows  from  snowballs  and  lumps 
of  ice.  Captain  Preston  thereupon  ordered  them  to  charge  ;  but  this  was 
no  discouragement  to  the  assailants,  who  continued  to  pelt  the  guard, 
daring  them  to  fire.  Some  of  the  people  who  were  behind  the  soldiers, 
and  observed  the  abuse  of  them,  called  on  them  to  do  so.  At  length  one 
received  a  blow  with  a  club,  which  brought  him  to  the  ground  ;  but,  rising 
again,  he  immediately  fired,  and  all  the  rest,  except  one,  followed  the 
example. 

*  Br  idford's  History  of  Massachusetts,  p.  205.  f  Hutchinson,  p.  270 


HISTORY,  613 

This  seems,  from  the  evidence  on  the  trials  and  the  observation  of  per- 
sons present,  to  have  been  the  course  of  the  material  facts.  Three  men 
were  killed,  two  mortally  wounded,  who  died  soon  after,  and  several 
slightly  wounded.  The  soldiers  immediately  withdrew  to  the  main  guard, 
which  was  strengthened  by  additional  companies.  Two  or  three  of  the 
persons  who  had  seen  the  action  ran  to  the  lieutenant-governor's  house, 
which  was  about  half  a  mile  distant,  and  begged  he  would  go  to  King 
street,  where  they  feared  a  general  action  would  come  on  between  the 
troops  and  the  inhabitants.  He  went  immediately,  and,  to  satisfy  the 
people,  called  for  captain  Preston,  and  inquired  why  he  had  fired  upon  the 
inhabitants  without  the  direction  of  a  civil  magistrate.  The  noise  was  so 
great  that  his  answer  could  not  be  understood ;  and  some  persons,  who 
were  apprehensive  of  the  lieutenant-governor's  danger  from  the  general 
confusion,  called  out,  '  The  town-house,  the  town-house  !'  when,  with 
irresistible  violence,  he  was  forced  up  by  the  crowd  into  the  council 
chamber. 

There  demand  was  immediately  made  of  him,  to  order  the  troops  to 
withdraw  from  the  town-house  to  their  barracks.  He  refused  ;  but  calling 
from  the  balcony  to  the  great  body  of  people  who  remained  in  the  street, 
he  expressed  his  great  concern  at  the  unhappy  event;  assured  them  he 
would  do  every  thing  in  his  power  to  obtain  a  full  and  impartial  inquiry, 
that  the  law  might  have  its  course ;  and  advised  them  to  go  peaceably  to 
their  homes.  Upon  this  there  was  a  cry — '  Home,  home !'  and  a  great 
part  separated,  and  went  home.  He  then  signified  his  opinion  to  lieute- 
nant-colonel Carr,  that  if  the  companies  in  arms  were  ordered  to  their  bar- 
racks, the  streets  would  be  cleared  and  the  town  in  quiet  for  that  night. 
Upon  their  retiring,  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants,  except  those  in  the  council 
chamber,  retired  also. 

Lieutenant-colonel  Dalrymple,  at  the  desire  of  the  lieutenant-governor, 
came  to  the  council  chamber,  while  several  justices  were  examining  per- 
sons who  were  present  at  the  transactions  of  the  evening.  From  the  evi- 
dence it  was  apparent  that  the  justices  would  commit  captain  Preston,  if 
taken.  Several  hours  passed  before  he  could  be  found,  and  the  people 
suspected  that  he  would  not  run  the  hazard  of  a  trial ;  but  at  length  he 
surrendered  himself  to  a  warrant  for  apprehending  him,  and,  having  been 
examined,  was  committed  to  prison.  The  next  morning  the  soldiers  who 
were  upon  guard  surrendered  also,  and  were  committed.  This  was  not 
sufficient  to  satisfy  the  people,  and  early  in  the  forenoon  they  were  in  mo- 
tion again.  The  lieutenant-governor  caused  his  council  to  be  summoned, 
and  desired  the  two  lieutenant-colonels  of  the  regiments  to  be  present. 
The  selectmen  of  Boston  were  waiting  the  lieutenant-governor's  coming 
to  council,  and,  being  admitted,  made  their  representation,  that,  from  the 
contentions  arising  from  the  troops  quartered  in  Boston,  and,  above  all, 
from  the  tragedy  of  the  last  night,  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  were  ex- 
ceedingly disturbed ;  that  they  would  presently  be  assembled  in  a  town 
meeting ;  and  that,  unless  the  troops  should  be  removed,  the  most  terrible 
consequences  were  to  be  expected. 

The  justices  also  of  Boston  and  several  of  the  neighboring  towns  had 
assembled,  and  desired  to  signify  their  opinion,  that  it  would  not  be  possi- 
ble to  keep  the  people  under  restraint,  if  the  troops  remained  in  town. 
The  lieutenant-governor  acquainted  both  the  selectmen  and  the  justices, 


644  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

that  he  had  no  authority  to  alter  the  place  of  destination  of  the  king's 
troops  ;  but  that  he  expected  the  commanding  officers  of  the  two  regi- 
ments, and  would  let  them  know  the  applications  which  had  been  made. 
Presently  after  their  coming,  a  large  committee  from  the  town  meeting 
presented  an  address  to  the  lieutenant-governor,  declaring  it  to  be  the  una- 
nimous opinion  of  the  meeting  that  nothing  could  rationally  be  expected  to 
restore  the  peace  of  the  town,  '  and  prevent  blood  and  carnage,'  but  the 
immediate  removal  of  the  troops.  The  committee  withdrew  into  another 
room  to  wait  for  an  answer.  Some  of  the  council  urged  the  necessity  of 
complying  with  the  people's  demand;  but  the  lieutenant-governor  declared 
that  he  would,  upon  no  consideration  whatever,  give  orders  for  their  re- 
moval. Lieutenant-colonel  Dairy mple  then  signified,  that,  as  the  twenty- 
ninth  regiment  had  originally  been  designed  to  be  placed  at  the  castle,  and 
was  now  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  the  town,  he  was  content  that  it  should 
be  removed  to  the  castle,  until  the  general's  pleasure  should  be  known. 
The  committee  was  informed  of  this  offer,  and  the  lieutenant-governor  rose 
from  council,  intending  to  receive  no  further  application  upon  the  subject  ; 
but  the  council  prayed  that  he  would  meet  them  again  in  the  afternoon, 
and  colonel  Dalrymple  desiring  it  also,  he  complied. 

Before  the  council  met  again,  it  had  been  intimated  to  them  that  the 
1  desire '  of  the  governor  and  council  to  the  commanding  officer  to  remove 
the  troops,  would  cause  him  to  do  it,  though  he  should  receive  no  authori- 
tative '  order.'  As  soon  as  they  met,  a  committee  from  the  town  meeting 
attended  with  a  second  message,  to  acquaint  the  lieutenant-governor  that  it 
was  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  people  assembled,  consisting,  as  they  said, 
of  near  three  thousand  persons,  that  nothing  less  than  a  total  and  immedi- 
ate removal  of  the  troops  would  satisfy  them.  Ultimately  the  scruples  of 
the  lieutenant-governor  were  overcome,  and  he  expressed  his  desire  that 
the  troops  should  be  wholly  withdrawn  from  the  town  to  the  castle,  which 
was  accordingly  done.  The  funeral  of  the  victims  was  attended  with  ex- 
traordinary pomp.  Most  of  the  shops  were  closed,  all  the  bells  of  the 
town  tolled  on  the  occasion,  and  the  corpses  were  followed  to  the  grave 
by  an  immense  concourse  of  people  arranged  six  abreast,  the  procession 
being  closed  by  a  long  train  of  carriages  belonging  to  the  principal  gentry 
of  the  town.  Captain  Preston  and  the  party  of  soldiers  were  afterwards 
tried.  The  captain  and  six  of  the  men  were  acquitted,  and  two  were 
brought  in  guilty  of  manslaughter ;  a  result  which  reflected  great  honoi 
on  John  Adams  and  Josiah  Quincy,  the  council  for  the  prisoners,  and  o» 
the  jury. 

During  the  year  1771,  nothing  of  moment  occurred  either  in  Boston  oi 
the  colonies.  The  encouragement  given  by  the  agreement  of  the  mer- 
chants to  smuggling,  occasioned  continual  contests  with  revenue  officers ; 
and  it  appears  that  the  magistrates,  when  appealed  to,  refused  to  interfere. 
One  circumstance,  however,  transpired,  which  must  not  be  omitted.  Early 
in  this  year,  Mr.  Hutchinson  received  his  appointment  to  the  office  of  go- 
vernor of  Massachusetts,  an  office  which  his  political  opponents  allege  to 
have  always  been  the  darling  object  of  his  ambition  ;  while  he  maintains, 
that,  however  in  ordinary  times  he  might  have  desired  it,  he  now  'deter- 
mined, not  only  to  desire  to  be  excused  from  the  honor  intended  for  him, 
but  to  be  superseded  in  his  place  of  lieutenant-governor ;  and  he  wrote  to 
the  secretary  of  state  accordingly.' 


HISTORY.  645 

The  occurrences  of  the  year  1772,  afforded  new  sources  of  mutual  ani- 
mosity. The  destruction  of  his  majesty's  revenue  schooner  Gaspee,  was 
one  of  those  popular  excesses  which  highly  incensed  the  British  ministry. 
Lieutenant  Doddington,  who  commanded  that  vessel,  had  become  very 
obnoxious  to  the  inhabitants  of  Rhode  Island,  by  his  extraordinary  zeal  in 
the  execution  of  the  revenue  laws.  On  the  9th  of  June,  the  Providence 
packet  was  sailing  into  the  harbor  of  Newport,  and  lieutenant  Dodding- 
ton thought  proper  to  require  the  captain  to  lower  his  colors.  This  the 
captain  of  the  packet  deemed  repugnant  to  his  patriotic  feelings,  and  the 
Gaspee  fired  at  the  packet  to  bring  her  to :  the  American,  however,  still 
persisted  in  holding  on  her  course,  and  by  keeping  in  shoal  water,  dexte- 
rously contrived  to  run  the  schooner  aground  in  the  chase. 

As  the  tide  was  upon  the  ebb,  the  Gaspee  was  set  fast  for  the  night,  and 
afforded  a  tempting  opportunity  for  retaliation  ;  and  a  number  of  fishermen, 
aided  and  encouraged  by  some  of  the  most  respectable  inhabitants  of  Pro- 
vidence, being  determined  to  rid  themselves  of  so  uncivil  an  inspector,  in 
the  middle  of  the  night  manned  several  boats,  and  boarded  the  Gaspee. 
The  lieutenant  was  wounded  in  the  affray ;  but,  with  every  thing  belong- 
ing to  him,  he  was  carefully  conveyed  on  shore,  as  were  all  his  crew.  The 
vessel,  with  her  stores,  was  then  burnt ;  and  the  party  returned  unmolested 
to  their  homes.  When  the  governor  became  acquainted  with  this  event, 
he  offered  a  reward  of  five  hundred  pounds  for  the  discovery  of  the  offend- 
ers, and  the  royal  pardon  to  those  who  would  confess  their  guilt.  Com- 
missioners were  appointed  also  to  investigate  the  offence,  and  bring  the 
perpetrators  to  justice  ;  but,  after  remaining  some  time  in  session,  they  re- 
ported that  they  could  obtain  no  evidence,  and  thus  the  affair  terminated ; 
a  circumstance  which  forcibly  illustrates  the  inviolable  brotherhood  which 
then  united  the  people  against  the  government. 

Active  resistance  to  the  measures  of  the  British  government  in  relation 
to  the  colonies,  had  for  some  time  been  principally  confined  to  Massachu- 
setts. The  other  colonists,  however,  had  not  been  idle  or  indifferent  spec- 
tators of  the  scenes  that  had  passed  in  Massachusetts.  To  remain  long  in 
their  present  state  seemed  impossible  ;  and  in  the  event  of  an  opposition 
by  force,  unity  of  action,  as  well  as  of  sentiment,  was  all  important.  To 
promote  this  object,  the  house  of  burgesses  in  Virginia  originated  what 
ultimately  proved  a  powerful  engine  of  resistance — a  committee  for  cor- 
responding with  the  legislatures  of  the  several  colonies ;  and  by  this 
means  a  confidential  communication  and  interchange  of  opinions  was  kept 
up  between  them. 

The  British  government  determined  to  carry  the  duty  on  tea  into  effect, 
and  the  East  India  company  were  authorized  to  export  their  tea  free  of 
duties  to  all  places  whatever ;  by  which  means  it  could  be  furnished  more 
cheaply  in  America  than  before  it  had  been  made  a  source  of  revenue. 

Confident  of  finding  a  market  at  their  reduced  prices,  the  company 
freighted  several  ships  with  that  article,  and  appointed  agents  for  the  dis- 
posal of  it.  Cargoes  were  sent  to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Charleston, 
and  Boston.  The  inhabitants  of  the  two  former  cities  sent  the  ships  back 
to  London ;  and  in  the  latter  the  tea  was  unloaded  and  stored  in  cellars, 
where  it  finally  perished. 

At  Boston,  before  the  vessels  arrived  with  it,  a  town  meeting  was  called 
to  devise  measures  to  prevent  the  landing  and  sale  within  the  provincev 


646  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  agreement  not  to  use  tea  while  a  duty  was  imposed  was  now 
solemnly  renewed ;  and  a  committee  was  chosen  to  request  the  consignees 
of  the  East  India  company  neither  to  sell  nor  unlade  the  tea  which 
should  be  brought  into  the  harbor.  They  communicated  the  wishes  of 
the  town  to  the  merchants,  who  were  to  have  the  custody  and  sale  of  the 
tea ;  but  they  declined  making  any  such  promise,  as  they  had  received  no 
orders  or  directions  on  the  subject.  On  the  arrival  of  the  vessels  with  the 
tea  in  the  harbor  of  Boston,  another  meeting  of  the  citizens  was  immediately 
called.  '  The  hour  of  destruction,'  it  was  said,  '  or  of  manly  opposition, 
had  now  come  ;'  and  all  who  were  friends  to  the  country  were  invited  to 
attend,  '  to  make  an  united  and  successful  resistance  to  this  last  and  worst 
measure  of  the  administration.'  A  great  number  of  the  people  assembled 
from  the  adjoining  towns,  as  well  as  from  the  capital,  in  the  celebrated 
Faneuil  hall,  the  usual  place  of  meeting  on  such  occasions,  but  the  meet- 
ing was  soon  adjourned  to  one  of  the  largest  churches  in  the  town.  Here 
it  was  voted,  as  it  had  been  at  a  meeting  before  the  tea  arrived,  that  they 
would  use  all  lawful  means  to  prevent  its  being  landed,  and  to  have  it  re- 
turned immediately  to  England. 

After  several  days  spent  in  negotiations,  the  consignees  still  refused  to 
return  the  tea,  and,  fearing  the  vengeance  of  an  injured  people,  they  retir- 
ed to  the  castle.  The  owner  of  the  ship  which  brought  the  tea  was  una- 
ble to  obtain  a  pass  for  her  sailing,  as  the  officer  was  in  the  interest  of 
the  British  ministers.  Application  was  then  made  to  the  governor,  to 
order  that  a  pass  be  given  for  the  vessel ;  but  he  declined  interfering  in  the 
affair.  When  it  was  found  no  satisfactory  arrangement  could  be  effected, 
the  meeting  broke  up ;  but,  late  in  the  evening,  a  number  of  men,  disguis- 
ed as  Mohawk  Indians,  proceeded  to  the  vessels,  then  lying  at  the  wharf, 
which  had  the  tea  on  board,  and  in  a  short  time  every  chest  was  taken 
out,  and  the  contents  thrown  into  the  sea;  but  no  injury  was  done  to  any 
other  part  of  their  cargoes.  The  inhabitants  of  the  town,  generally,  had 
no  knowledge  of  the  event  until  the  next  day.  It  is  supposed,  the  number 
of  those  concerned  in  the  affair  was  about  fifty ;  but  who  they  were  has 
been  only  a  matter  of  conjecture  to  the  present  day. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

The  British  ministry  appear  to  have  been  highly  gratified  that  the  town 
of  Boston,  which  they  ever  regarded  as  the  focus  of  sedition  in  America, 
had  rendered  itself,  by  the  violent  destruction  of  the  property  of  the  East 
India  company,  obnoxious  to  their  severest  vengeance.  On  the  7th  of 
March  lord  North  presented  a  message  from  his  majesty  to  both  houses 
of  parliament,  commenting  on  the  outrageous  proceedings  at  the  town  and 
port  of  Boston.  In  a  few  days  a  bill  was  introduced  ■  for  the  immediate 
removal  of  the  officers  concerned  in  the  collection  of  customs  from  Boston, 
and  to  discontinue  the  landing  and  discharging,  lading  and  shipping,  of 
goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,  at  Boston,  or  within  the  harbor  thereof.' 
The  bill  also  levied  a  fine  upon  the  town,  as  a  compensation  to  the  East 
India  company  for  the  destruction  of  their  teas,  and  was  to  continue  in 
force  during  the  pleasure  of  the  king.  The  opposition  to  this  measure  was 
very  slight,  and  it  was  finally  carried  in  both  houses  without  a  division. 


HISTORY.  647 

This,  however,  was  only  a  part  of  lord  North's  scheme  of  coercion.  He 
proposed  two  other  bills,  which  were  intended  to  strike  terror  into  the  pro- 
vince of  Massachusetts,  and  to  deter  the  other  colonies  from  following  her 
example.  By  one  of  these,  the  constitution  and  charter  of  the  province 
were  completely  subverted,  all  power  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  placed  in  those  of  the  servants  of  the  crown.  The  third  scheme 
of  lord  North  was  the  introduction  of  '  a  bill  for  the  impartial  administra- 
tion of  justice  in  Massachusetts.'  By  this  act,  persons  informed  against 
or  indicted  for  any  act  done  for  the  support  of  the  laws  of  the  revenue,  or 
for  the  suppression  of  riots  in  Massachusetts,  might  by  the  governor,  with 
the  advice  of  the  council,  be  sent  for  trial  to  any  other  colony,  or  to  Great 
Britain  ;  an  enactment  which,  in  effect,  conferred  impunity  on  the  officers 
of  the  crown,  however  odious  might  be  their  violations  of  the  law. 

These  plans  of  the  administration  were  opposed  by  Burke,  lord  Cha- 
tham, Barre,  and  others,  in  language  of  the  highest  indignation.  They 
originated  in  mistaken  views  of  the  opinion  and  temper  of  the  people. 
The  government,  too,  maintained  that  any  measures  were  justifiable  for 
supporting  the  authority  of  the  king  and  parliament,  and  calculated  on 
bringing  the  refractory  and  disaffected  to  submission  by  severity  and 
force. 

As  a  measure  indicative  of  a  determination  to  conduct  the  proceedings 
against  the  refractory  colonists  with  the  utmost  vigor,  general  Gage  was 
appointed,  with  powers  of  the  most  unlimited  extent,  to  supersede  gover- 
nor Hutchinson.  The  offices  of  governor  of  the  province  of  Massachu- 
setts and  commander  of  his  majesty's  forces  in  America  were  united  in 
his  person.  The  intelligence  of  the  passing  of  the  Boston  port  bill  had 
preceded  general  Gage  a  few  days.  On  the  day  after  his  arrival,  the  ge- 
neral court  having  been  dissolved  by  the  late  governor,  a  town  meeting 
was  convened  and  very  numerously  attended.  They  declared  and  re- 
solved, '  that  the  impolicy,  injustice,  inhumanity,  and  cruelty  of  the  act, 
exceed  all  their  powers  of  expression;  and  therefore,'  they  say,  'we  leave 
it  to  the  censure  of  others,  and  appeal  to  God  and  the  world.'  They 
also  declared  it  as  their  opinion,  that,  '  if  the  other  colonies  come  into  a 
joint  resolution  to  stop  all  importation  from,  and  exportation  to,  Great 
Britain,  and  every  part  of  the  West  Indies,  till  the  act  be  repealed,  the 
same  would  prove  the  salvation  of  North  America  and  her  liberties.' 

The  idea  was  probably  entertained  by  the  British  ministry,  that  the 
other  colonies  would  be  inclined  rather  to  avail  themselves  of  the  commer- 
cial advantages  which  the  closing  of  one  of  the  chief  sea-ports  would  open 
to  them,  than  to  make  common  cause  with  Boston,  at  the  hazard  of  incur- 
ring a  similar  penalty.  In  this  instance,  as  in  most  others,  the  govern- 
ment made  a  great  miscalculation  of  American  character.  The  several 
colonies  lost  no  time  in  expressing  the  deepest  sympathy  for  the  sufferings 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Boston,  and  in  contributing  to  their  pecuniary  neces- 
sities, as  well  as  in  affording  them  moral  countenance.  In  this  patriotic 
course  Virginia  took  the  lead. 

The  convention  of  Virginia  recommended  to  the  committee  of  corres- 
pondence, that  they  should  communicate  with  their  several  corresponding 
committees,  on  the  expediency  of  appointing  deputies  from  the  several 
colonies  of  British  America,  to  meet  in  general  congress  at  such  place 
annually  as  might  be  deemed  most  convenient;   there  to  deliberate  or* 


"648  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

those  general  measures  which  the  united  interests  of  America  might  from 
time  to  time  require. 

Similar  expressions  of  determined  opposition  to  the  port  bill,  and  assur- 
ances of  support  to  the  disfranchised  citizens  of  Boston,  were  made  wher- 
ever the  act  became  known.  In  some  places  it  was  printed  upon  mourn- 
ing pa*per,  and  hawked  about  the  streets ;  in  others  it  was  publicly  burned, 
with  every  demonstration  of  abhorrence.  At  New  York  there  was  a  con- 
siderable struggle  between  the  friends  of  administration  and  the  friends  of 
liberty,  but  the  latter  at  length  prevailed,  by  the  influence  and  manage- 
ment of  two  individuals,  who  had  on  several  occasions  manifested  great 
activity  and  zeal  in  their  opposition  to  the  obnoxious  measures  of  the  mi- 
nistry. Addresses  were  also  sent  from  Pennsylvania,  the  Carolinas,  and 
some  other  provinces,  to  the  committee  of  Boston,  assuring  them  of  sup- 
port, and  declaring  that  they  considered  the  cause  of  Boston  as  the  com- 
mon cause  of  the  country. 

The  two  last  of  the  coercive  enactments  of  the  British  legislature  did 
*iot  reach  Boston  till  July.  By  one,  the  governor  alone  was  authorized  to 
appoint  all  civil  officers  ;  and  by  the  other,  the  counsellors  were  to  be 
selected  by  the  king  and  his  ministers  in  England.  A  list  of  those  ap- 
pointed was  soon  made  known,  and  gave  great  dissatisfaction,  as  they 
were  the  most  unpopular  characters  in  the  province.  To  add  to  the  anx- 
iety which  now  pervaded  every  breast,  a  large  military  force  was  ordered 
into  the  province,  an  act  of  parliament  having  been  passed,  which  directed 
the  governor  to  provide  quarters  for  them  in  any  town  he  might  choose. 

It  had  been  agreed  by  the  delegates  which  had  now  been  appointed  by 
most  of  the  colonies,  that  they  should  meet  in  general  congress  in  Sep- 
tember ;  and  the  desire  to  await  the  result  of  its  determinations  prevented 
any  violent  proceedings  during  the  interim ;  while,  however,  great  atten- 
tion was  given  by  the  inhabitants  to  military  discipline.  Independent  com- 
panies were  formed,  who  elected  their  own  officers,  many  of  whom  had 
served  during  the  French  war,  and  were  well  able  to  instruct  their  pupils 
in  military  tactics.  On  the  other  hand,  general  Gage  was  no  less  active 
in  adopting  measures  calculated,  in  his  estimation,  to  overawe  the  inha- 
bitants, and  to  deter  them  from  having  recourse  to  force.  With  this  view, 
although  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  desertion,  he  fortified 
the  isthmus  which  connects  Boston  with  the  main  land,  called  Boston 
neck,  the  only  entrance  by  land  into  the  town  of  Boston,  and  therefore  the 
only  route  by  which,  according  to  the  port  bill,  the  merchants  and  traders 
could  carry  on  their  business.  This  measure,  however,  served  only  the 
more  to  exasperate  the  people,  and  the  subsequent  seizure  of  the  gunpow- 
der at  Charlestown  added  to  their  alarm. 

Before  daybreak,  on  the  1st  of  September,  general  Gage  despatched  a 
party  of  soldiers  to  bring  into  his  own  custody  a  quantity  of  provincial 
powder  from  the  arsenal  at  Charlestown.  Immediately  this  transaction 
became  generally  known,  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  towns  flew 
to  arms,  and  agreed  on  Cambridge  as  a  general  rendezvous ;  and  it  was 
with  great  difficulty  that  they  were  dissuaded,  by  their  more  prudent  lead- 
ers, from  marching  at  once  to  Boston  to  require  the  restoration  of  the  pow- 
der, or,  in  case  of  refusal,  to  attack  the  garrison. 

Jt  was  under  the  excitement  of  these  circumstances  that,  in  defiance  of 
the  act  of  parliament,  and  the  governor's  proclamation  founded  upon  it, 


HISTORY.  649 

prohibiting  public  assemblies,  the  county  of  Suffolk,  of  which  Boston  was 
the  capital,  elected  delegates  to  meet  for  the  purpose  of  taking  into  consi- 
deration the  most  proper  course  to  be  adopted  in  the  present  state  of  affairs. 
With  a  boldness  and  decision  surpassing  that  of  any  former  assembly, 
they  passed  resolutions  declaring  themselves  constitutionally  exempt  from 
all  obedience  to  the  late  measures  of  the  British  parliament,  that  the  go- 
vernment of  the  province  was  in  fact  dissolved,  and  that  they  should  con- 
sider all  persons  who  dared  to  act  in  any  official  capacity  under  the  new 
regulations  as  open  enemies  of  their  country.  They  sent  a  copy  of  their 
resolutions,  and  of  their  letter  to  the  governor,  with  his  answer,  to  the  ge- 
neral congress,  upon  whose  judgment  they  rested  the  decision  of  their 
future  conduct. 

This  congress,  which  will  ever  be  celebrated  in  the  page  of  history,  and 
held  sacred  in  the  annals  of  liberty,  met  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  5th  of 
September.  Representatives  from  eleven  of  the  colonies  were  present  at 
the  opening,  and  those  from  North  Carolina  arrived  shortly  after  ;  Georgia 
alone  having  demurred  to  send  delegates.  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia, 
was  elected  president,  and  Charles  Thompson,  of  Philadelphia,  secretary ; 
and  after  a  brief  controversy  on  the  mode  of  voting,  which  resulted  in  the 
determination  that  each  province  should  have  only  one  vote,  whatever 
number  of  delegates  might  be  present,  the  assembly  proceeded  to  business 
with  all  the  solemnity  of  an  organized  legislature. 

4  The  most  eminent  men  of  the  various  colonies  were  now,  for  the  first 
time,  brought  together.  They  were  known  to  each  other  by  fame,  but 
they  were  personally  strangers.  The  meeting  was  awfully  solemn.  The 
object  which  had  called  them  together  was  of  incalculable  magnitude. 
The  liberties  of  no  less  than  three  millions  of  people,  with  that  of  all  their 
posterity,  were  staked  on  the  wisdom  and  energy  of  their  councils.  No 
wonder,  then,  at  the  long  and  deep  silence  which  is  said  to  have  followed 
upon  their  organization ;  at  the  anxiety  with  which  the  members  looked 
round  upon  each  other,  and  the  reluctance  which  every  individual  felt  to 
open  a  business  so  fearfully  momentous.  In  the  midst  of  this  deep  and 
death-like  silence,  and  just  when  it  was  beginning  to  become  painfully  em- 
barrassing, Mr.  Henry  arose  slowly,  as  if  borne  down  by  the  weight  of  the 
subject.  After  faltering,  according  to  his  habit,  through  a  most  impressive 
exordium,  in  which  he  merely  echoed  back  the  consciousness  of  every 
other  heart,  in  deploring  his  inability  to  do  justice  to  the  occasion,  he 
launched  gradually  into  a  recital  of  the  colonial  wrongs.  Rising,  as  he 
advanced,  with  the  grandeur  of  his  subject,  and  glowing  at  length  with  all 
the  majesty  of  the  occasion,  his  speech  seemed  more  than  that  of  mor- 
tal man.'*  Mr.  Henry  was  followed  by  Mr.  Richard  Henry  Lee,  in  a 
speech  scarcely  less  powerful,  and  still  more  replete  with  classic  elo- 
quence. One  spirit  of  ardent  love  of  liberty  pervaded  every  breast,  and 
produced  a  unanimity  as  advantageous  to  the  cause  they  advocated,  as  it 
was  unexpected  and  appalling  to  their  adversaries. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  this  assembly  was  the  appointment  of  a  commit- 
tee, consisting  of  two  from  each  colony,  to  state  the  rights  of  the  colonists 
in  general,  the  several  instances  in  which  those  rights  had  been  violated, 
and  the  means  most  proper  to  be  pursued  for  obtaining  a  restoration  of 

*  Wirt's  Life  of  Henry,  p.  105.  106. 
S2  55 


(f)50  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  , 

them.  The  congress  proceeded  with  great  deliberation ;  its  debates  were 
held  with  closed  doors,  and  it  was  not  till  the  14th  of  October  that  they 
published  a  series  of  resolutions,  embodying  in  spirited  language  their  opi- 
nions on  the  chief  subjects  of  difference  between  the  colonies  and  the  mo- 
ther country.  An  agreement  was  also  signed  by  all  the  members  to  ab- 
stain from  commercial  intercourse  with  Great  Britain. 

Upon  the  principles  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  preceding  resolutions,  was 
composed  an  address  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  as  also  one  to  the 
king ;  a  statement  to  the  aggrieved  colonies,  and  an  address  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Canada.  These  documents  were  drawn  up  with  great  ability. 
The  gentlemen  selected  from  the  several  colonies  for  this  memorable  con- 
gress were  no  less  distinguished  for  their  talents  than  their  patriotism ; 
and  when  perusing  these  state  papers,  no  one  can  fail  to  regret  that  the 
speeches  delivered  on  that  occasion  by  such  distinguished  statesmen  and 
orators  as  John  Adams,  John  Jay,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  Patrick  Henry, 
John  Dickinson,  Samuel  Chase,  John  Rutledge,  and  many  others  of  that 
illustrious  band  of  patriots,  are  lost  to  the  world. 

During  the  session  of  the  congress  most  of  the  colonies  had  adopted  the 
plan  of  instituting  provincial  assemblies,  regardless  of  their  old  form  of 
government.  In  Massachusetts,  general  Gage  had  convoked  a  general 
court,  to  assemble  at  Salem,  on  the  5th  of  October ;  but  events  which  sub- 
sequently transpired,  induced  him  to  issue  a  proclamation  dissolving  the 
assembly.  The  members,  however,  regarded  that  proclamation  as  illegal, 
and  met  at  Salem  on  the  day  appointed.  After  waiting  in  vain  the  whole 
day  for  the  governor's  appearance  to  administer  the  oaths,  they  resolved 
themselves  into  a  provincial  congress,  and  adjourned  to  Concord.  After 
appointing  John  Hancock  president,  and  addressing  a  communication  to 
the  governor,  they  again  adjourned,  to  meet  at  Cambridge  on  the  17th. 
Here  they  appointed  a  committee  of  safety,  and  a  committee  of  supplies. 
They  also  voted  to  enlist  one-fourth  of  the  militia  as  minute  men,  to  be 
frequently  drilled,  and  held  in  readiness  for  service  at  a  minute's  warning; 
and  after  appointing  three  general  officers,  they  adjourned  to  the  23d  of 
November. 

Before  the  close  of  the  year  the  busy  note  of  preparation  resounded 
through  almost  every  colony.  The  Massachusetts  committees  were  inde- 
fatigable in  providing  for  the  most  vigorous  defence  in  the  spring.  They 
liad  procured  all  sorts  of  military  supplies  for  the  service  of  twelve  thou- 
sand men,  and  had  engaged  the  assistance  of  the  three  neighboring  pro- 
vinces of  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut. 

While  these  hostile  preparations  were  proceeding  in  America,  the  Bri- 
tish monarch  was  meeting  a  new  parliament.  The  king  informed  his 
parliament,  that  a  most  daring  resistance  and  disobedience  to  the  law  still 
prevailed  in  Massachusetts,  and  had  broken  out  in  fresh  violences ;  that 
these  proceedings  had  been  countenanced  and  encouraged  in  the  other  colo- 
nies, and  that  unwarrantable  attempts  had  been  made  to  obstruct  the  com- 
merce of  the  kingdom,  by  unlawful  combinations  ;  and  he  expressed  his 
firm  determination  to  withstand  every  attempt  to  weaken  or  impair  the  su- 
preme authority  of  parliament  over  all  the  dominions  of  the  crown.  Ad- 
dresses in  answer  to  the  speech,  concurring  in  the  sentiments  expressed  by 
'the  king,  were  carried  in  both  houses,  by  large  majorities. 

After  the  recess,  parliament  met  on  the  20th  of  January,  and  on  the 


HISTORY.  651 

same  day  lord  Chatham  moved,  '  That  an  humble  address  be  presented  to 
his  majesty,  most  humbly  to  advise  and  beseech  his  majesty,  that,  in  order 
to  open  the  way  towards  our  happy  settlement  of  the  dangerous  troubles 
in  America,  by  beginning  to  allay  ferments  and  soften  animosities  there ; 
and,  above  all,  for  preventing  in  the  mean  time  any  sudden  and  fatal  ca- 
tastrophe at  Boston,  now  suffering  under  daily  irritation  of  an  army  before 
their  eyes,  posted  in  their  town  ;  it  may  graciously  please  his  majesty  that 
immediate  orders  may  be  despatched  to  general  Gage  for  removing  his 
majesty's  forces  from  the  town  of  Boston,  as  soon  as  the  rigor  of  the  sea- 
son and  other 'circumstances,  indispensable  to  the  safety  and  accommoda- 
tion of  the  said  troops,  may  render  the  same  practicable.'  This  motion 
was  supported  by  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  impressive  speeches  ever 
delivered  by  that  distinguished  statesman  and  orator. 

Lord  Chatham's  motion  was  seconded  by  lord  Camden,  who  affirmed 
that  '  whenever  oppression  begins,  resistance  becomes  lawful  and  right ;' 
and  it  was  ably  supported  by  the  marquis  of  Rockingham  and  lord  Shel- 
burne  ;  but,  like  all  other  motions  opposed  to  the  views  of  the  ministry,  it 
was  lost  by  a  large  majority.  The  administration  declared  their  determi- 
nation never  to  relax  in  their  measures  of  coercion,  until  America  was 
forced  into  obedience.  This,  however,  did  not  prevent  lord  Chatham  from 
presenting  to  the  house,  soon  afterwards,  a  bill,  containing  his  favorite 
plan  '  for  settling  the  troubles,  and  for  asserting  the  supreme  legislative 
authority  and  superintending  power  of  Great  Britain  over  the  colonies.' 
Though  this  bill,  as  it  contained  a  direct  avowal  of  the  supreme  authority 
of  parliament  over  the  colonies,  in  all  cases  except  that  of  taxation,  could 
never  have  received  the  assent  of  the  Americans,  yet,  as  it  expressly  de- 
nied the  parliamentary  power  of  taxing  the  colonies,  without  the  consent 
of  their  assemblies,  and  made  other  concessions,  it  was  rejected  by  a  large 
majority  on  its  first  reading.*1 

*  Lord  Chatham  had  shown  this  bill  to  Dr.  Franklin  before  he  submitted  it  to  the 
house  of  lords,  but  the  latter  had  not  an  opportunity  of  proposing  certain  alterations 
which  he  had  sketched.  Dr.  Franklin,  however,  at  the  special  request  of  lord  Chatham, 
was  present  at  the  debates  upon  it.  Lord  Dartmouth  was  at  first  disposed  to  have  the 
bill  lie  upon  the  table  ;  but  lord  Sandwich  opposed  its  being /eceived,  and  moved  that  it 
be  immediately  '  rejected  with  the  contempt  it  deserved.  He  could  never  believe,'  he 
said,  •  that  it  was  the  production  of  a  British  peer  ;  it  appeared  to  him  rather  the  work 
of  some  American.'  Turning  his  face  towards  Dr.  Franklin,  then  standing  at  the  bar, 
1  He  fancied,'  he  said,  '  he  had  in  his  eye  the  person  who  drew  it  up,  one  of  the  bitter- 
est and  most  mischievous  enemies  this  country  had  ever  known.'  To  this  part  of  the 
speech  of  lord  Sandwich,  the  great  Chatham  replied,  by  saying  'that  it  was  entirely 
his  own.  This  declaration,'  he  said,  '  he  thought  himself  the  more  obliged  to  make,  as 
many  of  their  lordships  appeared  to  have  so  mean  an  opinion  of  it ;  for  if  it  was  so 
weak  or  so  bad  a  thing,  it  was  proper  in  him  to  take  care  that  no  other  person  should 
unjustly  share  in  the  censure  it  deserved.  It  had  been  heretofore  reckoned  his  vice 
not  to  be  apt  to  take  advice  ;  but  he  made  no  scruple  to  declare,  that  if  he  were  the  first 
minister  of  this  country,  and  had  the  care  of  settling  this  momentous  business,  he  should 
not  be  ashamed  of  publicly  calling  to  his  assistance  a  person  so  perfectly  acquainted 
with  the  whole  of  American  affairs  as  the  gentleman  alluded  to,  and  so  injuriously 
reflected  on  ;  one  whom  all  Europe  held  in  estimation  for  his  knowledge  and  wisdom, 
and  ranked  with  our  Boyles  and  Newtons  ;  who  was  an  honor,  not  to  the  English  na* 
tion  only,  but  to  human  nature.'— Franklin's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  322,  323.  Pitkin,  vol.  i.  p. 
312.  Among  the  papers  which  had  been  laid  before  the  house  by  lord  Dartmouth,  was 
the  petition  of  the  congress  to  the  king,  in  behalf  of  which  the  American  agents,  Dr. 
Franklin,  Mr.  Bollan,  and  Mr.  Lee,  petitioned  to  be  heard  at  the  bar  of  the  house.  But 
this  privilege  was  refused  to  them  by  the  ministers,  on  the  ground  that  the  congress 
\ras  an  illegal  body,  and  their  petition  was  rejected  by  an  unusually  large  majority. 


652  BOOK   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

On  the  20th  of  February,  lord  North  astonished  both  his  friends  and 
opponents,  by  introducing  into  the  house  of  commons  a  proposition  of 
a  conciliatory  nature.  This  was  at  first  opposed  from  all  quarters,  but 
those  who  usually  acted  with  the  minister  were  finally  persuaded  to  join 
him  in  this  measure.  But  it  did  not  prevent  Mr.  Burke  and  Mr.  Hartley 
from  presenting  to  the  house  their  respective  plans  of  reconciliation. 
They  were  of  course  rejected  by  the  ministerial  majority. 

While  most  of  the  colonies  afforded  sufficient  occupation  for  the  watch- 
fulness of  the  British  government,  those  of  New  England  called  forth  the 
most  vigorous  efforts  of  the  royalists,  both  by  sea  and  land.  The  naval 
forces  were  frequently  engaged  in  destroying  armed  American  vessels, 
congress  having  fitted  out  several,  which  were  very  successful  in  captur- 
ing store  ships  sent  with  supplies  of  provisions  and  ammunition  for  the 
royal  army.  At  Gloucester,  the  Falcon  sloop  of  war,  having  chased 
an  American  vessel  into  the  harbor,  despatched  three  boats,  with  about 
forty  men,  to  bring  her  off,  when  the  party  were  so  warmly  received  by 
the  militia  who  had  collected  on  the  shore,  that  the  captain  thought  it  ne- 
cessary to  send  a  reinforcement,  and  to  commence  cannonading  the  town, 
A  very  smart  action  ensued,  which  was  kept  up  for  several  hours,  but  re- 
sulted in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  assailants,  leaving  upwards  of  thirty 
prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  Americans.  This  repulse  excited  the  British 
to  deeds  of  revenge  upon  several  of  the  defenceless  towns  on  the  coast, 
and  to  declare  that  many  of  them  should  be  reduced  to  ashes,  unless  the 
inhabitants  consented  to  an  unconditional  compliance  with  all  their  de- 
mands. 

Another  occurrence  also  tended  to  mutual  exasperation.  In  compliance 
with  a  resolution  of  the  provincial  congress  to  prevent  tories  from  convey- 
ing out  their  effects,  the  inhabitants  of  Falmouth,  in  the  north-eastern  part 
of  Massachusetts,  had  obstructed  the  loading  of  a  mast  ship.  The  de- 
struction of  the  town  was  therefore  determined  on,  as  an  example  of  vin- 
dictive punishment.  Captain  Mowat,  detached  for  that  purpose  with  armed 
vessels  by  admiral  Greaves,  arrived  off  the  place  on  the  evening  of  the 
17th  of  October,  and  gave  notice  to  the  inhabitants  that  he  would  allow 
them  two  hours  '  to  remove  the  human  species.'  The  next  day,  captain 
Mowat  commenced  a  furious  cannonade  and  bombardment ;  and  a  great 
number  of  people,  standing  on  the  heights,  were  spectators  of  the  confla- 
gration, which  reduced  many  of  them  to  penury  and  despair.  More  than 
four  hundred  houses  and  stores  were  burnt.  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  be- 
ing threatened  with  a  similar  attack,  was  compelled  to  stipulate  for  a 
weekly  supply  to  avert  it. 

Warlike  operations  were  not  confined  to  the  sea-ports.  Their  success  in 
the  reduction  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  stimulated  the  Americans 
to  more  extensive  operations  in  the  north  ;  and  the  movements  of  Sir  G. 
Carleton,  the  governor  of  Canada,  appeared  to  call  for  them,  congress 
having  reason  to  believe  that  a  formidable  invasion  was  intended  from  that 
quarter.  The  management  of  military  affairs  in  this  department  had  been 
committed  to  the  generals  Schuyler  and  Montgomery.  On  the  10th  of 
September,  about  one  thousand  American  troops  effected  a  landing  at  St. 
John's,  the  first  British  port  in  Canada,  lying  one  hundred  and  fifteen  miles 
only  to  the  northward  of  Ticonderoga,  but  found  it  advisable  to  retreat  to 
Isle  aux  Noix,  twelve  miles  south  of  St.  John's.     An  extremely  bad  stato 


HISTORY.  653 

of  health  soon  after  inducing  general  Schuyler  to  retire  to  Ticonderoga, 
the  command  devolved  on  general  Montgomery.  That  enterprising  officer 
in  a  few  days  returned  to  the  vicinity  of  St.  John's,  and  opened  a  battery 
against  it ;  and  the  reduction  of  fort  Chamblee,  by  a  small  detachment, 
giving  him  possession  of  six  tons  of  gunpowder,  enabled  him  to  prosecute 
the  siege  of  St.  John's  with  vigor.  General  Carleton  advanced  against 
him  with  about  eight  hundred  men  ;  but,  in  attempting  to  cross  the  St. 
Lawrence,  with  the  intention  of  landing  at  Langueil,  he  was  attacked  by 
colonel  Warner,  at  the  head  of  three  hundred  Green  Mountain  boys,  and 
compelled  to  retire  with  precipitancy.  This  repulse  induced  the  garrison 
of  St.  John's  to  surrender,  on  honorable  terms  of  capitulation. 

While  Montgomery  was  prosecuting  the  siege  of  St.  John's,  colonel 
Ethan  Allen,  who  had  been  despatched  on  a  service  necessary  to  that  ob- 
ject, hearing  that  Montreal  was  in  a  defenceless  state,  attempted  its  cap- 
ture without  the  knowledge  of  his  superior  in  command  ;  he  was,  however, 
with  a  part  of  his  detachment,  taken  prisoner,  and,  to  the  disgrace  of 
general  Carleton,  loaded  with  irons,  and  in  that  state  sent  to  England. 
After  the  capture  of  St.  John's,  Montgomery  directed  his  attention  to 
Montreal,  with  different  success.  On  his  approach,  the  few  British  troops 
there  repaired  on  board  the  shipping,  in  hopes  of  escaping  down  the  river ; 
but  general  Prescot,  and  several  officers,  with  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty  privates,  were  intercepted,  and  made  prisoners  on  capitulation  ; 
eleven  sail  of  vessels,  with  all  their  contents,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
provincials.  Governor  Carleton  was  secretly  conveyed  away  in  a  boat 
with  muffled  paddles,  and  arrived  safely  at  Quebec.  General  Montgomery, 
leaving  some  troops  in  Montreal,  and  sending  detachments  into  different 
parts  of  the  province  to  encourage  the  Canadians  and  to  forward  provisions, 
advanced  with  his  little  army  to  Quebec,  where  he  found,  to  his  surprise, 
that  a  body  of  American  troops  had  arrived  before. 

General  Washington,  foreseeing  that  the  whole  force  of  Canada  would 
be  concentrated  about  Montreal,  had  projected  an  expedition  against  Que- 
bec in  a  different  direction  from  that  of  Montgomery.  His  plan  was  to 
6end  out  a  detachment  from  his  camp  before  Boston,  to  march  by  way  of 
Kennebec  river;  and,  passing  through  the  dreary  wilderness  lying  be- 
tween the  settled  parts  of  the  province  of  Maine  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  to 
penetrate  into  Canada  about  ninety  miies  below  Montreal.  This  extraor- 
dinary and  most  arduous  enterprise  was  committed  to  colonel  Arnold,  who, 
with  one  thousand  one  hundred  men,  consisting  of  New  England  infantry, 
some  volunteers,  a  company  of  artillery,  and  three  companies  of  riflemen, 
commenced  his  march  on  the  13th  of  September.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  conceive  the  labor,  hardships,  and  difficulties  which  this  detachment  had 
to  encounter  in  their  progress  up  the  rapid  stream  of  the  Kennebec,  fre- 
quently interrupted  by  falls,  where  they  were  obliged  to  land  and  carry 
the  boats  upon  their  shoulders,  until  "they  surmounted  them,  through  a 
country  wholly  uninhabited,  with  a  scanty  supply  of  provisions,  the  season 
cold  and  rainy,  and  the  men  daily  dropping  down  with  fatigue,  sickness, 
and  hunger. 

Arnold  was  indefatigable  in  his  endeavors  to  alleviate  the  distresses  of 
his  men,  but  to  procure  provisions  for  them  was  not  in  his  power.  They 
were  at  one  time  reduced  to  so  great  an  extremity  of  hunger,  that  the  dogs 
belonging  to  the  army  were  killed  and  eaten,  and  many  of  the  soldiers  de- 

55* 


654 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


voured  their  leather  cartouch  boxes.     Arnold  and  his  party  at   lengOi 
arrived  at  Point  Levi,  opposite  the  town  of  Quebec :  but  in  consequence 


"Voyage  up  the  Kennebec. 

of  information  the  British  had  received,  by  the  treachery  of  the  Indian  to 
whom  Arnold  had  intrusted  a  letter  to  general  Schuyler,  the  boats  which 
he  expected  to  find  there  to  transport  his  troops  across  the  river  had  been 
removed,  and  the  enemy  were  no  longer  in  a  state  to  be  surprised.  Ar* 
nold,  however,  was  not  to  be  deterred  from  attempting  something  against 
the  town ;  he  calculated  strongly  upon  the  defection  of  the  inhabitants ; 
and  having  supplied  himself  with  canoes,  he  crossed  the  river  in  the  night, 
and  gained  possession  of  the  heights  of  Abraham.  Here,  though  he  had 
no  artillery,  and  scarcely  half  the  number  of  men  that  composed  the  gar- 
rison of  the  town,  he  made  a  bold  experiment  to  try  the  loyalty  of  ths 
enemy's  troops,  by  sending  a  flag  to  summon  them  to  surrender.  But  no 
message  would  be  admitted,  and  Arnold  found  himself  compelled  to  retire 
to  more  comfortable  quarters,  where  he  awaked  the  arrival  of  general 
Montgomery. 

General  Carleton,  who,  as  wTe  have  already  stated,  had  arrived  at  Que- 
bec, had  taken  the  best  measures  for  its  defence,  and  was  prepared  to  re- 
ceive him.  In  a  few  days  the  American  general  opened  a  six-gun  battery 
within  about  seven  hundred  yards  of  the  walls;  but  his  artillery  was  too 
light  to  make  a  breach,  and  he  could  do  nothing  more  than  amuse  the 
enemy,  and  conceal  his  real  purpose.  After  continuing  a  siege  nearly 
a  month,  he  resolved  on  a  desperate  attempt  to  carry  the  place  by  esca- 
lade. To  distract  the  garrison,  two  feigned  attacks  were  made  on  the 
upper  town  by  two  divisions  of  the  army  under  majors  Brown  and  Living- 
ston, while  two  real  attacks  on  opposite  sides  of  the  lower  town  w7ere  made 
by  two  other  divisions  under  Montgomery  and  Arnold.  Early  in  the 
morning  of  the  last  day  in  the  year,  the  signal  was  given,  and  the  several 
divisions  moved  to  the  assault  in  the  midst  of  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  which 
covered  the  assailants  from  the  sight  of  the  enemy.  Montgomery,  at  the 
head  of  the  New  York  troops,  advanced  along  the  St.  Lawrence,  by  Aunce 
de  Mere,  under  cape  Diamond. 


H2ST0HY.  655 

The  first  barrier  to  be  surmounted  on  that  side  was  defended  by  a  bat- 
tery, in  which  were  mounted  a  few  pieces  of  artillery,  in  front  of  which 
were  a  blockhouse  and  picket.  The  guard  at  the  blockhouse,  after  giving 
a  random  fire,  threw  away  their  arms  and  fled  to  the  barrier,  and  for  a 
time  the  battery  itself  was  deserted.  Enormous  piles  of  ice  impeded  the 
progress  of  the  Americans,  who,  pressing  forward  in  a  narrow  defile, 
reached  at  length  the  blockhouse  and  picket.  Montgomery,  who  was  in 
front,  assisted  in  cutting  down  or  pulling  up  the  pickets,  and  advanced 
boldly  and  rapidly  at  the  head  of  about  two  hundred  men,  to  force  the  ' 
barrier.  By  this  time  one  or  two  persons  had  ventured  to  return  to  the 
battery,  and,  seizing  a  slow  match,  discharged  one  of  the  guns.  Casual 
as  this  fire  appeared,  it  was  fatal  to  general  Montgomery  and  to  two  valu- 
able young  officers  near  his  person,  who,  together  with  his  orderly  sergeant 
and  a  private,  were  killed  on  the  spot.  Colonel  Campbell,  on  whom  the 
command  devolved,  precipitately  retired  with  the  remainder  of  the  divi- 
sion. 

In  the  mean  time,  colonel  Arnold,  at  the  head  of  about  three  hundred 
and  fifty  men,  made  a  desperate  attack  on  the  opposite  side.  Advancing 
with  the  utmost  intrepidity  along  the  St.  Charles,  through  a  narrow  path, 
exposed  to  an  incessant  fire  of  grape-shot  and  musketry,  as  he  approached 
the  first  barrier  at  the  Saut  des  Matelots,  he  received  a  musket  ball  in  the 
leg,  which  shattered  the  bone,  and  he  was  carried  off  to  the  camp.  Cap- 
tain Morgan,  who  commanded  a  company  of  Virginia  riflemen,  rushed 
forward  to  the  batteries  at  their  head,  and  received  a  discharge  of  grape- 
shot,  which  killed  one  man  only.  A  fow  rifles  were  immediately  fired 
into  the  embrasures,  and  the  barricade  was  mounted ;  the  battery  was  in- 
stantly deserted,  but  the  captain  of  the  guard,  with  the  greater  part  of  his 
BtSS,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans.  Morgan  formed  his  men,  but 
from  the  darkness  of  the  night  and  total  ignorance  of  the  situation  of  the 
town,  it  was  judged  unadvisable  to  proceed.  He  was  soon  joined  by  lieu- 
tenant-colonel Green  and  majors  Bigelow  and  Meigs,  with  several  frag- 
ments of  companies,  amounting  collectively  to  about  two  hundred  men. 
At  daylight  this  gallant  party  was  again  formed ;  but  after  a  bloody  and 
desperate  engagement,  in  which  they  sustained  the  force  of  the  whole 
garrison  three  hours,  they  were  compelled  to  surrender  themselves  prison- 
ers of  war.* 

After  this  brave  but  disastrous  assault,  the  commander  of  the  American 

*  In  Montgomery  the  Americans  lost  one  of  the  bravest  and  most  accomplished 
generals  that  ever  led  an  army  to  the  field.  But  he  was  not  more  illustrious  for  his 
skill  and  courage  as  an  officer,  than  he  was  estimable  for  his  private  virtues.  All 
enmity  to  him  on  the  part  of  the  British  ceased  with  his  life,  and  respect  to  his  private 
character  prevailed  over  all  other  considerations.  His  body  was  taken  up  the  next  day, 
and  he  was  decently  interred. — Montgomery  was  a  gentleman  of  good  family  in  Ireland, 
who,  having  married  a  lady  and  purchased  an  estate  in  New  York,  considered  himself 
as  an  American,  and  had  served  with  reputation  in  the  late  French  war.  Congress 
directed  a  monument  to  be  erected  to  his  memory,  with  an  inscription  expressive  of 
their  veneration  for  his  character,  and  of  their  deep  sense  of  his  '  many  signal  and  inv 
portant  services  ;  and  to  transmit  to  future  ages,  as  examples  truly  worthy  of  imitation, 
his  patriotism,  conduct,  boldness  of  enterprise,  insuperable  perseverance,  and  con- 
tempt of  danger  and  death.'  A  monument  of  white  marble,  with  emblematic  de- 
vices, has  accordingly  been  erected  to  his  memory,  in  front  of  St.  Paul's  church  in 
New  York. 


656  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

troops  did  not  muster  more  than  four  hundred  effective  men :  in  the  hope, 
however,  of  receiving  reinforcements,  they  maintained  a  position  at  a  short 
distance  from  Quebec ;  and,  although  the  garrison  was  very  superior  in 
numbers,  the  bravery  the  colonists  had  evinced,  and  the  mixed  character 
of  his  own  troops,  disinclined  general  Carleton  from  leaving  his  ramparts 
to  attack  the  Americans. 

In  the  end  of  May  and  beginning  of  June,  generals  Howe,  Burgoyne, 
and  Clinton,  with  reinforcements  from  Britain,  arrived  at  Boston.  The 
British  general,  in  common  with  his  troops,  resolved  on  active  operations  ; 
but  every  movement  which  they  made  was  watched  with  an  attentive  eye 
by  zealous  Americans  in  Boston,  who  found  means  to  penetrate  every  de- 
sign before  it  was  carried  into  execution,  and  to  transmit  secret  intelligence 
to  the  American  head-quarters.  About  the  middle  of  June,  it  was  sus- 
pected that  general  Gage  intended  to  cross  the  river  Charles,  on  the  north 
side  of  Boston,  and  take  possession  of  Breed's  or  Bunker's  hill,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Charlestown. 

On  the  night  of  the  16th  of  June,  upwards  of  one  thousand  Americans,  un- 
der Colonel  William  Prescot,  were  ordered  to  proceed  to  this  eminence,  and 
to  intrench  themselves  upon  it.  The  movement  was  not. without  difficulty 
and  danger ;  for  British  vessels  of  war  were  lying  both  in  the  Medford 
and  Charles,  on  each  side  of  the  narrow  peninsula.  But  the  provincials 
marched  to  the  place  in  profound  silence ;  and,  about  midnight,  began 
their  operations.  They  labored  with  such  assiduity,  that  before  the  dawn 
of  day  they  had  thrown  up  a  breastwork,  nearly  across  the  peninsula,  and 
constructed  a  small  redoubt  on  their  right. 

About  four  in  the  morning  of  the  17th  of  June,  the  American  works 
were  observed  by  the  captain  of  the  Lively  sloop  of  war,  lying  in  the  river 
Charles,  who  instantly  began  a  heavy  fire  upon  them,  and  was  soon  joined 
by  the  other  ships,  and  by  the  battery  on  Copp's  hill  at  Boston.  Tho 
Americans  steadily  continued  their  labors  under  a  furious  cannonade  and 
an  incessant  shower  of  balls  and  bombs ;  but  so  harmless  was  this  fearful 
noise  that  they  lost  only  one  man  in  the  course  of  the  morning.  As  in 
this  post  the  Americans  overlooked  Boston,  it  was  necessary  to  dislodge 
them ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  soon  after  mid-day,  a  detachment  of  British 
troops,  under  the  command  of  generals  Howe  and  Pigot,  crossed  the  river 
in  boats,  and  landed  near  the  point  of  the  peninsula;  but,  on  observing  the 
formidable  position  of  the  Americans,  they  waited  for  a  reinforcement, 
which  soon  arrived.  Meanwhile  the  steeples  and  the  roofs  of  the  houses 
in  Boston,  the  eminences  in  the  adjacent  country,  and  the  ships  in  the 
rivers,  were  crowded  with  anxious  spectators,  agitated  by  different  hopes 
and  fears  according  to  their  different  attachments  and  interests.  The 
main  body  of  the  American  army  encamped  beyond  Charlestown  neck 
were  looking  on ;  and  generals  Clinton  and  Burgoyne,  and  other  British 
officers  of  high  rank,  took  their  station  in  the  battery  on  Copp's  hill  to 
view  the  approaching  conflict. 

While  general  Howe  waited  for  this  reinforcement,  the  Americans  re- 
ceived an  accession  of  strength,  under  generals  Warren  and  Pomeroy, 
who  crossed  Charlestown  neck  under  a  brisk  cannonade  from  the  shipping 
in  the  rivers,  to  join  their  countrymen  and  take  part  in  the  battle.  By 
their  arrival  the  provincial  force  was  increased  to  fifteen  hundred  at  least. 
The  Americans  also  took  advantage  of  general  Howe's  halt  to  strengthen 


*.    Y 


HISTORY. 


^tfsiTr 


] 


657 


part  of  their  position,  by  pulling  down  some  rail-fences,  forming  the  stakes 
into  two  parallel  lines  at  a  short  distance  from  each  other,  and  filling  the 
interval  with  hay. 

The  British  detachment,  consisting  of  upwards  of  two  thousand  men, 
advanced  towards  the  American  line.  The  light  infantry,  commanded  by 
general  Howe,  was  on  the  right ;  the  grenadiers,  under  general  Pigot,  on 
the  left.  They  began  the  attack  by  a  brisk  cannonade  from  some  field- 
pieces  and  howitzers,  the  troops  proceeding  slowly,  and  sometimes  halting, 
to  give  time  to  the  artillery  to  produce  some  effect.  On  advancing,  the 
left  set  fire  to  Charlestown,  a  thriving  town,  containing  about  three  hun- 
dred wooden  houses,  besides  other  buildings,  and  entirely  consumed  it. 
The  rising  flames  added  not  a  little  to  the  grandeur  and  solemnity  of  the 
scene. 

Secure  behind  their  intrenchments,  the  Americans  reserved  their  fire, 
and  silently  waited  the  approach  of  the  British,  till  within  fifty  or  sixty 
yards,  when  they  poured  upon  them  an  incessant  and  well  directed  dis- 
charge of  musketry.  The  British  returned  the  fire  for  some  time,  without 
attempting  to  advance  ;  but  the  discharge  from  the  American  line  was  so 
close  and  so  destructive,  that  the  troops  at  length  ga've  way,  and  fell  back 
towards  the  landing  place.  By  the  vigorous  exertions  of  their  officers, 
however,  they  were  again  brought  to  the  charge ;  and  the  Americans, 
again  reserving  their  fire  till  the  troops  were  very  near,  directed  it  against 
them  with  the  same  deadly  aim  as  before.  Many  fell :  at  one  time,  gene- 
ral Howe,  for  a  few  seconds,  was  left  alone,  every  officer  and  soldier  near 
him  having  been  killed  or  wounded.  The  troops  gave  way  a  second  time; 
but  at  that  critical  moment  Sir  Henry  Clinton  arrived  from  Boston,  and 
was  very  active  in  leading  them  back  to  a  third  and  more  successful  at- 
tack, in  which  they  entered  the  American  lines  with  fixed  bayonets.    The 


Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill. 

colonists  had  nearly  exhausted  their  powder,  and  hence  their  fire  had 
slackened.  Being  mostly  armed  with  old  rusty  muskets,  and  ill  provided 
with  bayonets,  they  were  unprepared  for  a  close  encounter.  They  there- 
fore  retreated ;  and,  in  passing  Charlestown  neck,  were  exposed  to  the  firo 
83 


658  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  the  Glasgow  sloop  of  war,  and  two  floating  batteries,  from  which  they 
sustained  their  greatest  loss. 

The  British  troops  had  suffered  so  severely  in  the  engagement,  that  no 
pursuit  was  ordered ;  and,  indeed,  a  pursuit  could  have  served  no  good 
purpose,  as  the  main  body  of  the  American  army  was  at  a  small  distance 
beyond  the  neck,  and  the  royal  troops  were  in  no  condition  to  encounter 
it.  They  were  protected  merely  by  the  ships  of  war  and  floating  batteries 
in  the  rivers  Charles  and  Medford.  The  battle  lasted  about  an  hour, 
during  the  greater  part  of  which  time  there  was  an  incessant  blaze  of 
musketry  from  the  American  line. 

This  was  a  severe  battle  ;  and,  considering  the  numbers  engaged,  ex- 
tremely destructive  to  the  British ;  for  nearly  one  half  of  the  detachment 
fell.  According  to  the  return  made  by  general  Gage,  they  lost  one  thou- 
sand and  fifty-four  men ;  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  of  whom  were  slain 
on  the  field,  and  eight  hundred  and  twenty-eight  wounded.  Nineteen 
commissioned  officers  were  killed,  and  seventy  wounded ;  among  the  for- 
mer was  major  Pitcairn,  whose  inconsiderate  conduct  at  Lexington  had 
occasioned  the  first  shedding  of  blood. 

Among  the  killed  on  the  side  of  the  Americans  were  several  lamented 
officers  ;  but  the  death  of  general  Warren  was  particularly  regretted.  By 
profession  this  gentleman  was  a  physician  of  unsullied  reputation.  He 
did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  prevent  a  rupture ;  but  when  an  appeal  to 
arms  became  unavoidable  he  joined  the  colonial  standard. 

After  the  engagement  the  British  intrenched  themselves  on  BunkerV 
hill,  the  scene  of  action  ;  and  the  Americans  on  Prospect  hill,  at  a  small 
distance  in  front  of  them.  The  colonists  had  been  driven  from  their  in- 
trenchments ;  the  royal  troops  had  suffered  severely  in  the  battle,  and  nei- 
ther party  was  forward  to  renew  the  conflict.  Each  fortified  his  post,  and 
stood  on  the  defensive. 

On  the  2d  of  July,  general  Washington,  accompanied  by  general  Lee 
and  several  other  officers  of  rank,  arrived  at  Cambridge,  the  head-quarters 
of  the  provincial  army.  On  his  journey  he  had  everywhere  been  received 
with  much  respect,  and  escorted  by  companies  of  gentlemen,  who  volun- 
teered their  services  on  the  occasion. 

The  existence  of  armed  vessels  in  the  service  of  the  colonies  has  already 
been  adverted  to.  From  the  peculiar  situation  of  Massachusetts,  it  was 
perceived  that  important  advantages  might  be  gained  by  employing  armed 
vessels  on  the  coasts,  to  prevent  the  British  from  collecting  provisions  from 
any  places  accessible  to  them,  and  to  capture  the  enemy's  ships  loaded 
with  military  stores.  Before  the  subject  of  a  naval  armament  was  taken 
up  by  congress,  it  appears  that  not  only  Massachusetts,  but  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut  had  each  of  them  two  vessels,  at  least,  fitted,  armed,  and 
equipped  by  the  colonial  authorities.  Subsequently,  the  general  court  of 
Massachusetts  passed  an  act  for  encouraging  the  fitting  out  of  armed  ves-  > 
sels  to  defend  the  sea-coast  of  America,  and  for  erecting  a  court  to  try  and 
condemn  all  vessels  that  should  be  found  infesting  the  same.  Shortly 
afterwards,  a  committee  of  congress,  appointed  to  devise  ways  and  means 
for  fitting  out  a  naval  armament,  brought  in  their  report,  which  was 
adopted.  It  was  resolved  to  fit  out  for  sea  thirteen  ships,  five  of  thirty-two 
guns,  five  of  twenty-eight,  and  three  of  twenty-four  guns ;  a  committee 
was  nominated,  with  full  powers  to  carry  the  report  into  execution  with  all 


history1.  659 

possible  expedition,  and  Ezekiel  Hopkins  was  appointed  commander.  Thus 
commenced  the  American  navy.  The  advantages  that  had  been  antici- 
pated from  armed  vessels  were  soon  experienced.  Captain  Manly,  of  Mar- 
blehead,  one  of  the  first  who  put  to  sea,  on  the  29th  of  November  took  an 
ordnance  brig  from  Woolwich,  containing,  besides  a  large  brass  mortar, 
several  pieces  of  fine  brass  cannon,  a  large  quantity  of  small  arms  and 
ammunition,  with  all  kinds  of  tools,  utensils,  and  machines,  necessary  for 
camps  and  artillery ;  and,  nine  days  after,  three  ships,  from  London,  Glas- 
gow, and  Liverpool,  with  various  stores  for  the  British  army.  A  brig, 
with  fifteen  thousand  pounds  of  powder,  was  captured  by  a  vessel  fitted 
out  by  the  council  of  safety  of  South  Carolina.  The  supplies  obtained  by 
these  means  were  of  vast  importance  to  the  American  army,  which  was  in 
very  great  want  of  ammunition  and  military  stores. 

Among  other  measures  tending  to  promote  the  general  welfare,  congress 
resolved  that  a  line  of  posts  should  be  appointed  from  Falmouth,  in  New 
England,  to  Savannah,  in  Georgia;  and  Benjamin  Franklin  was  unani- 
mously chosen  postmaster-general.  They  also  directed  the  establishment 
of  an  hospital,  adequate  to  the  necessities  of  an  army  consisting  of  twenty 
thousand  men ;  and  Dr.  Church  was  appointed  director  and  physician  of 
the  establishment.* 

General  Washington,  on  his  first  arrival  in  camp,  found  the  materi- 
als for  a  good  army ;  but  they  were  in  the  crudest  state.  The  troops 
having  been  raised  by  different  colonial  governments,  no  uniformity  exist- 
ed among  the  regiments ;  and  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  that  very  liberty 
for  which  they  were  preparing  to  fight,  and  unaccustomed  to  discipline, 
they  neither  felt  an  inclination  to  be  subject  to  military  rules,  nor  realized 
the  importance  of  being  so.  The  difficulty  of  establishing  subordination 
was  greatly  increased  by  the  shortness  of  the  terms  of  enlistment,  some  of 
which  were  to  expire  in  November,  and  none  to  continue  longer  than  De- 
cember. Various  causes  operated  to  lead  congress  to  the  almost  fatal  plan 
of  temporary  military  establishments.  Among  the  most  important  of  these 
were  a  prospect  of  accommodation  with  the  parent  state,  and  the  want  of 
experience  in  the  management  of  war  upon  an  extensive  scale. 

The  fear  of  accumulating  expenses  which  the  resources  of  the  country 
could  not  discharge,  had  a  further  influence  to  deter  the  American  govern- 
ment from  the  adoption  of  permanent  military  establishments ;  for,  al- 
though the  recommendations  of  congress,  and  the  regulations  of  state 
conventions,  had,  in  the  day  of  enthusiasm,  the  force  of  law,  yet  the  ruling 
power  thought  it  inexpedient  to  attempt  to  raise  large  sums  by  direct  taxes, 
at  a  time  when  the  commerce  of  the  country  was  annihilated^  and  the  cul- 
tivators of  the  ground  were  subjected  to  heavy  services  in  the  field  of  war. 
The  only  recourse  was  to  a  paper  medium,  without  funds  for  its  redemp- 
tion, or  for  the  support  of  its  credit,  and  therefore  of  necessity  subject  to 
depreciation,  and,  in  its  nature,  capable  of  only  a  temporary  currency ; 

*  Not  long  after  his  appointment,  Dr.  Church  was  detected  in  a  traitorous  correspon- 
dence with  the  British  in  Boston.  He  had  sustained  a  high  reputation  as  a  patriot,  and 
was  at  this  time  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives.  He  was 
tried,  convicted,  and  expelled  from  the  house  of  representatives-  and  congress  after- 
wards resolved,  that  he  be  closely  confined  in  some  secure  gaol  in  Connecticut,  without 
the  use  of  pen,  ink,  or  paper ;  and  that  no  person  be  allowed  to  converse  with  him,  ex- 
cept in  the  presence  and  hearing  of  a  magistrate,  or  the  sheriff  of  the  county. 


660  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

/congress,  therefore,  was  justly  afraid  of  the  expense  of  a  permanent  army. 
Jealousy  of  a  standing  army  had  also  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  mili- 
tary arrangements  of  America.  Indeed  this  spirit  early  insinuated  itself 
into  the  legislative  bodies  of  the  colonies,  and  was  displayed  in  many  of 
their  measures :  an  indication  of  this  feeling  appears  in  the  address  pre- 
sented by  the  provincial  assembly  of  New  York  to  general  Washington, 
while  on  his  journey  to  the  American  camp.  '  We  have  the  fullest  assu- 
rance,' say  they,  '  that  whenever  this  important  contest  shall  be  decided, 
by  that  fondest  wish  of  each  American  soul,  an  accommodation  with  our 
mother  country,  you  will  cheerfully  resign  the  important  deposit  committed 
to  your  hands,  and  reassume  the  character  of  our  worthiest  citizen.' 

The  want  of  subordination  was  by  no  means  the  only  difficulty  with 
which  the  commander-in-chief  had  to  contend ;  he  soon  made  the  alarming 
discovery,  that  there  was  no  more  powder  than  would  furnish  each  man 
with  nine  cartridges.  Although  this  dangerous  deficiency  was  carefully 
concealed  from  the  enemy,  yet  the  want  of  bayonets,  which  was  very  con- 
siderable, could  not  be  kept  secret.  The  army  was  also  so  destitute  of 
tents  as  to  be  unavoidably-lodged  in  barracks,  a  circumstance  extremely 
unfavorable  to  sudden  movements,  to  health,  and  to  discipline.  There 
was  no  commissary-general,  and  therefore  no  systematic  arrangement  for 
obtaining  provisions ;  and  a  supply  of  clothes  was  rendered  peculiarly 
difficult  by  the  non-importation  agreements.  Added  to  this  there  was  a 
total  want  of  engineers,  and  a  great  deficiency  of  working  tools. 

The  general,  happily  qualified  at  once  to  meet  difficulties  and  to  remove 
them,  took  immediate  care  to  organize  the  troops,  to  fit  them  for  actual  ser- 
vice, and  to  make  arrangements  for  the  necessary  supplies.  Next  to  these 
objects,  he  considered  the  re-enlistment  of  the  army  the  most  interesting. 
To  this  essential  point  he  had  early  solicited  the  attention  of  congress, 
assuring  that  body  that  he  must  despair  of  the  liberties  of  his  country, 
unless  he  were  furnished  with  an  army  that  should  stand  by  him  until  the 
conclusion  of  their  enterprise.  Congress  at  length  resolved  to  raise  a 
standing  army,  to  consist  of  about  seventy-five  thousand  men,  to  serve  fox 
the  term  of  three  years,  or  during  the  war;  and  that  it  should  be  composed 
of  eighty-eight  battalions,  to  be  raised  in  the  colonies,  according  to  their 
respective  abilities.  Recruiting  orders  were  accordingly  issued;  but  the 
progress  in  raising  recruits  was  by  no  means  proportioned  to  the  public 
exigencies.  On  the  last  day  of  December,  when  all  the  old  troops  not 
engaged  on  the  new  establishments  were  disbanded,  there  had  been  en- 
listed for  the  army  of  1776  no  more  than  nine  thousand  six  hundred  and 
fifty  men.  An  earnest  recommendation  of  general  Washington  to  con- 
gress to  try  the  influence  of  a  bounty  was  not  acceded  to  until  late  in* 
January ;  but  during  the  winter  the  number  of  recruits  was  considerably 
augmented.  '  The  history  of  the  winter  campaign,'  says  the  biographei 
of  Washington,  ■  is  a  history  of  continued  and  successive  struggles  on  the 
part  of  the  American  general,  under  the  vexations  and  difficulties  imposed 
by  the  want  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  permanent  troops,  on  a  person  in  ar* 
uncommon  degree  solicitous  to  prove  himself,  by  some  grand  and  useful' 
achievement,  worthy  of  the  high  station  to  wrhich  the  voice  of  his  country 
had  called  him.' 

In  the  space  of  time  between  the  disbanding  the  old  army  and  the  con* 
stitution  of  an  effective  force  from  the  new  recruits,  the  lines  were  often  in 


HISTORY.  661 

a  defenceless  state ;  the  English  must  have  known  the  fact,  and  no  ade- 
quate reason  can  be  assigned  why  an  attack  was  not  made.  'It  is  not,' 
says  general  Washington  in  his  communications  to  congress,  '  in  the  pages 
of  history  to  furnish  a  case  like  ours.  To  maintain  a  post  within  musket 
shot  of  the  enemy,  for  six  months  together,  without  ammunition,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  to  disband  one  army  and  recruit  another,  within  that  dis- 
tance of  twenty  odd  British  regiments,  is  more,  probably,  than  ever  was 
attempted.  But  if  we  succeed  as  well  in  the  last  as  we  have  heretofore  in 
the  first,  I  shall  think  it  the  most  fortunate  event  of  my  whole  life.' 
Such  a  measure,  with  the  organization  and  discipline  of  the  men,  will  be 
supposed  to  have  employed  every  active  power  of  the  general ;  yet  this  did 
not  satisfy  his  mind.  He  knew  that  congress  anxiously  contemplated 
more  decisive  steps,  and  that  the  country  looked  for  events  of  greater 
magnitude.  The  public  was  ignorant  of  his  actual  situation,  and  con- 
ceived his  means  for  offensive  operations  to  be  much  greater  than  they 
were  •  and  they  expected  from  him  the  capture  or  expulsion  of  the  British 
army  m  Boston.  He  felt  the  importance  of  securing  the  confidence  of  his 
countrymen  by  some  brilliant  action,  and  was  fully  sensible  that  his  own 
reputation  was  liable  to  suffer  if  he  confined  himself  solely  to  measures  of 
defence. 

To  publish  to  his  anxious  country  the  state  of  his  arm}'',  would  be  to  ac- 
quaint the  enemy  with  his  weakness,  and  to  hazard  his  destruction.  The 
firmness  and  patriotism  of  general  Washington  were  displayed,  in  making 
the  good  of  his  country  an  object  of  higher  consideration  than  the  applause 
of  those  who  were  incapable  of  forming  a  correct  opinion  of  the  propriety 
of  his  measures.  While  he  resolutely  rejected  every  measure  which  in  his 
calm  and  deliberate  judgment  he  did  not  approve,  he  daily  pondered  the 
practicability  of  a  successful  attack  upon  Boston.  As  a  preparatory  step, 
he  took  possession  of  Plowed  hill,  Cobble  hill,  and  Lechmere's  point,  and 
erected  fortifications  upon  them.  These  posts  brought  him  within  half  a 
mile  of  the  enemy's  works  on  Bunker's  hill ;  and,  by  his  artillery,  he  drove 
the  British  floating  batteries  from  their  stations  in  Charles  river.  He 
erected  floating  batteries  to  watch  the  movements  of  his  enemy,  and  to  aid 
in  any  offensive  operations  that  circumstances  might  warrant.  He  took 
the  opinion  of  his  general  officers  a  second  time  respecting  the  meditated 
attack  ;  they  again  unanimously  gave  their  opinion  in  opposition  to  the 
measure,  and  this  opinion  was  immediately  communicated  to  congress. 
Congress  appeared  still  to  favor  the  attempt,  and,  that  an  apprehension  of 
danger  to  the  town  of  Boston  might  not  have  an  undue  influence  upon  the 
operations  of  the  army,  resolved,  '  That  if  general  Washington  and  his 
council  of  war  should  be  of  opinion  that  a  successful  attack  might  be  made 
on  the  troops  in  Boston,  he  should  make  it  in  any  manner  he  might  think 
expedient,  notwithstanding  the  town,  and  property  therein,  might  thereby 
be  destroyed.' 

General  Howe  had,  in  October,  succeeded  general  Gage  in  the  command 
of  the  British  army,  and  through  the  winter  confined  himself  to  measures 
of  defence.  The  inability  of  the  American  general  to  accomplish  the  great 
object  of  the  campaign,  repeatedly  pointed  out  by  congress,  was  doubtless 
a  source  of  extreme  mortification  to  him  ;  but  he  indulged  the  hope  of  suc- 
cess in  some  military  operations  during  the  winter  that  would  correspond 
with  the  high  expectations  of  his  country,  and  procure  him  honor  in  his 

56 


662  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

exalted  station  of  commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army.  Early  in 
January  he  summoned  a  council  of  war,  in  which  it  was  resolved,  '  That 
a  vigorous  attempt  ought  to  be  made  on  the  ministerial  troops  in  Boston, 
before  they  can  be  reinforced  in  the  spring,  if  the  means  can  be  provided, 
and  a  favorable  opportunity  shall  offer.' 

It  was  not,  however,  till  the  middle  of  February,  that  the  ice  became 
sufficiently  strong  for  general  Washington  to  march  his  forces  upon  it 
into  Boston ;  he  was  then  inclined  to  risk  a  general  assault  upon  the  Bri- 
tish posts,  although  he  had  not  powder  to  make  any  extensive  use  of  his 
artillery;  but  his  general  officers  in  council  voted  against  the  attempt,  and 
in  their  decision  he  reluctantly  acquiesced.  By  the  end  of  the  month  the 
stock  of  powder  was  considerably  increased,  and  the  regular  army  amount- 
ed to  fourteen  thousand  men,  which  was  reinforced  by  six  thousand  of  the 
militia  of  Massachusetts.  General  Washington  now  resolved  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  heights  of  Dorchester,  in  the  prospect  that  this  movement 
would  bring  on  a  general  engagement  with  the  enemy  under  favorable 
circumstances ;  or,  should  this  expectation  fail,  that  from  this  position  he 
would  be  enabled  to  annoy  the  ships  in  the  harbor,  and  the  troops  in 
the  town.  To  mask  the  design,  a  severe  cannonade  and  bombardment 
were  opened  on  the  British  works  and  lines  for  several  nights  in  succes- 
sion. As  soon  as  the  firing  began  on  the  night  of  the  4th  of  March,  a 
strong  detachment  marched  from  Roxbury  over  the  neck  of  land  connecting 
Roxbury  with  Dorchester  heights,  and,  without  discovery,  took  possession 
of  the  heights.  General  Ward,  who  commanded  the  division  of  the  army 
in  Roxbury,  had  fortunately  provided  fascines  before  the  resolution  passed 
to  fortify  the  place ;  these  were  of  great  use,  as  the  ground  was  deeply 
frozen  ;  and,  in  the  course  of  the  night,  the  party,  by  uncommon  exertions, 
erected  works  sufficient  for  their  defence. 

When  the  British  discovered  these  works,  nothing  could  exceed  their 
astonishment.  Their  only  alternative  was  either  to  abandon  the  town,  or 
to  dislodge  the  provincials.  General  Howe,  with  his  usual  spirit,  chose 
the  latter  part  of  the  alternative,  and  took  measures  for  the  embarkation  on 
that  very  evening  of  five  regiments,  with  the  light  infantry  and  grenadiers, 
on  the  important  but  most  hazardous  service.  The  transports  fell  down  in 
the  evening  towards  the  castle  with  the  troops,  amounting  to  about  two 
thousand  men  ;  but  a  tremendous  storm  at  night  rendered  the  execution 
of  the  design  absolutely  impracticable.  A  council  of  war  was  called  the 
next  morning,  which  agreed  to  evacuate  the  town  as  soon  as  possible.  A 
fortnight  elapsed  before  that  measure  was  effected.  Meanwhile,  the  Ame- 
ricans strengthened  and  extended  their  works  ;  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
17th  of  March  the. king's  troops,  with  those  Americans  who  were  attached 
to  the  royal  cause,  began  to  embark ;  before  ten,  all  of  them  were  under 
sail.  As  the  rear  embarked,  general  Washington  marched  triumphantly 
into  Boston,  where  he  was  joyfully  received  as  a  deliverer. 

The  issue  of  the  campaign  was  highly  gratifying  to  all  classes ;  and 
the  gratulation  of  his  fellow-citizens  upon  the  repossession  of  the  metropo- 
lis of  Massachusetts,  was  more  pleasing  to  the  commander-in-chief  than 
would  have  been  the  honors  of  a  triumph.  Congress,  to  express  the  pub- 
lic approbation  of  the  military  achievements  of  their  general,  resolved, 
'  That  the  thanks  of  congress,  in  their  own  name,  and  in  the  name  of  the 
xumeen  united  colonies,  be  presented  to  his  excellency  general  Washing-? 


HISTORY.  6G3 

tap.  and  the  officers  and  soldiers  under  his  command,  for  their  wise  and 
spirited  conduct  in  the  siege  and  acquisition  of  Boston ;  and  that  a  medal 
of  gold  be  struck,  in  commemoration  of  this  great  event,  and  presented  to 
his  excellency.'  In  his  letter,  informing  congress  that  he  had  executed 
their  order,  and  communicated  to  the  army  the  vote  of  thanks,  he  says, 
•They  were,  indeed,  at  first,  a  band  of  undisciplined  husbandmen;  but  it 
is,  under  God,  to  their  bravery  and  attention  to  their  duty,  that  I  am  in- 
debted for  that  success  which  has  procured  me  the  only  reward  I  wish  to 
receive — the  affection  and  esteem  of  my  countrymen.' 

Although  Halifax  was  mentioned  as  the  destined  place  of  the  British 
armament,  general  Washington  apprehended  that  New  York  was  their 
object.  On  this  supposition,  he  detached  several  brigades  of  his  army  to 
that  city,  before  the  evacuation  of  Boston;  and  as  soon  as  the  necessary 
arrangements  were  made  in  the  latter  city,  he  followed  with  the  main  body 
of  his  army  to  New  York,  where  he  arrived  on  the  14th  of  April.  The 
situation  of  New  York  was  highly  favorable  for  an  invading  army,  sup- 
ported by  a  superior  naval  force ;  and  general  Washington  doubted  the 
practicability  of  a  successful  defence ;  but  the  importance  of  the  place,  the 
wishes  of  congress,  the  opinion  of  his  general  officers,  and  the  expectation 
of  his  country,  induced  him  to  make  the  attempt ;  and  the  resolution  being 
formed,  he  called  into  action  all  the  resources  in  his  power  to  effect  it,  and, 
with  unremitted  diligence,  pushed  on  his  works.  Hulks  were  sunk  in  the 
North  and  East  rivers ;  forts  were  erected  on  the  most  commanding  situa- 
tions on  their  banks ;  and  works  were  raised  to  defend  the  narrow  pas- 
sage between  Long  and  York  islands.  The  passes  in  the  Highlands,  bor- 
dering on  the  Hudson,  became  an  object  of  early  and  solicitous  attention. 
The  command  of  this  river  was  equally  important  to  the  American  and 
the  British  general.  By  its  possession,  the  Americans  easily  conveyed 
supplies  of  provision  and  ammunition  to  the  northern  army,  and  secured 
an  intercourse  between  the  southern  and  northern  colonies  essential  to  the 
success  of  the  war.  If  the  river  were  in  the  hands  of  the  British,  this  ne- 
cessary communication  would  be  interrupted,  and  an  intercourse  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Canada  opened  to  them.  General  Washington  ordered 
the  passes  to  be  fortified,  and  made  their  security  an  object  of  primary 
importance  through  every  period  of  his  command- 
While  these  operations  were  carrying  on  in  New  England,  general  Ar- 
nold, under  all  his  discouragements,  continued  the  blockade  of  Quebec ; 
but,  in  the  month  of  May,  in  a  council  of  war,  it  was  unanimously  deter- 
mined, that  the  troops  were  in  no  condition  to  risk  an  assault,  and  the 
army  was  removed  to  a  more  defensible  position.  The  Canadians  at  this 
juncture  receiving  considerable  reinforcements,  the  Americans  were  com- 
pelled to  relinquish  one  post  after  another,  and  by  the  18th  of  June  they 
had  evacuated  Canada. 

In  Virginia,  the  zeal  and  activity  which  had  been  excited  by  the  spirited 
enterprise  of  Patrick  Henry  still  continued  to  manifest  themselves  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  colony.  The  governor's  family,  alarmed  by  the  threaten- 
ing march  of  Mr.  Henry  towards  Williamsburgh,  had  already  taken  refuge 
on  board  the  Fowey  man-of-war ;  and  only  a  few  weeks  elapsed  before 
lord  Dunmore  himself  adopted  the  same  means  of  personal  safety.  Soon 
after  fixing  his  residence  on  board  the  Fowey,  his  lordship  required  the 
house  of  burgesses  to  attend  him  there ;  but  instead  of  obeying  the  requi- 


664  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

sition,  they  passed  sundry  resolutions,  in  which  they  declared  that  his 
lordship's  message  was  '  a  high  breach  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
house,'  and  that  his  conduct  gave  them  reason  to  fear  '  that  a  dangerous 
attack  was  meditated  against  the  unhappy  people  of  the  colony.'  On  the 
24th  of  July  the  colonial  convention  met ;  they  appointed  a  committee  of 
safety,  passed  an  ordinance  for  regulating  the  militia,  and  for  raising  a 
regular  force  of  two  regiments,  the  command  of  which  was  given  to  Pat- 
rick Henry,  who  was  also  made  the  commander  of  all  the  forces  raised, 
and  to  be  raised,  for  the  defence  of  the  colony.  The  ships  of  war  belong- 
ing to  his  majesty,  which  had  been  cruising  in  James  and  York  rivers 
during  the  whole  summer,  had  committed  many  petty  acts  of  depredation 
and  plunder  along  the  shores,  which  the  people  now  eagerly  desired  to 
resent,  and  an  opportunity  of  gratification  soon  offered. 

The  captain  of  the  Otter  sloop  of  war,  on  the  2d  of  September,  ventured 
upon  one  of  his  plundering  expeditions  in  a  tender,  and  was  driven  on 
shore  near  Hampton  by  a  violent  tempest.  The  crew  left  the  vessel  on 
the  shore,  and  made  their  escape  in  the  night,  and  next  morning  the  people 
boarded  and  set  fire  to  her.  This  naturally  roused  captain  Squire's  resent- 
ment, and  he  threatened  instant  destruction  to  the  town  ;  but  the  committee 
of  safety  at  Williamsburgh,  having  heard  of  the  affair,  detached  colonel 
Woodford  with  three  companies  to  repel  the  attack,  which  was  so  effectu- 
ally done,  that  the  assailants  were  soon  glad  to  make  a  precipitate  flight, 
with  considerable  loss.  This  affair  produced  a  proclamation  from  his  lord- 
ship, (who  continued  to  hold  his  head-quarters  on  board  one  of  the  ships,) 
in  which  he  not  only  declared  martial  law,  but  freedom  to  all  the  slaves 
who  would  join  his  standard.  By  this  means  he  soon  collected  a  crew 
well  suited  to  his  designs  ;  and  having  fortified  himself  at  the  great  bridge, 
near  Norfolk,  continued  for  some  time  to  commit  such  acts  of  wanton  bar- 
barity and  contemptible  depredations,  as  to  disgust  even  those  who  had 
until  now  continued  friendly  to  the  cause  of  the  king. 

The  committee  of  safety  finding  themselves  called  upon  to  put  a  stop  to 
his  lordship's  savage  warfare,  despatched  colonel  Woodford  to  drive  him 
from  his  hold.  Having  arrived  within  cannon  shot  of  lord  Dunmore's 
position,  the  Americans  halted,  and  threw  up  some  hasty  intrenchments. 
His  lordship,  hearing  that  the  provincials  amounted  only  to  three  hundred 
men,  badly  armed,  conceived  the  design  of  surprising  them ;  and  for  this 
purpose  captain  Leslie,  with  the  regulars  and  slaves,  crossed  the  bridge 
before  daylight,  and  entered  the  camp  of  the  provincials,  just  as  they  were 
parading  under  arms.  Captain  Fordyce  advanced  to  the  attack  of  the 
grenadiers,  and  was  among  the  first  that  fell.  The  whole  number  of  gre- 
nadiers were  either  killed,  wounded,  or  made  prisoners,  and  the  rest  of  the 
royal  party  were  obliged  to  make  a  rapid  retreat.  Disappointed  in  their 
hopes,  the  governor's  party  abandoned  their  works  the  following  night,  and 
retired  to  their  shipping,  leaving  Woodford,  who  was  now  joined  by  colo- 
nel Howe  from  North  Carolina,  the  complete  command  of  Norfolk.  Aftei 
continuing  to  assail  the  coasts  of  Virginia  for  a  considerable  time,  but  al- 
most everywhere  unsuccessfully,^  lord  Dunmore  was  at  length  compelled 

*  On  the  1st  of  January,  1776,  the  town  of  Norfolk,  in  Virginia,  was  set  on  fire  by 
the  British,  under  the  direction  of  lord  Dunmore,  and  reduced  to  ashes.  On  the  arrival 
of  the  Liverpool  man-of-war  from  England,  a  flag  was  sent  on  shore  to  put  the  question, 
whether  the  provincials  would  supply  his  majesty's  ship  with  provisions,  and  a  negativt 


HISTORY.  665 

to  abandon  his  hostile  designs  against  the  colonists.  Some  of  his  ships 
were  driven  upon  that  coast,  where  the  wretched  fugitives  were  made  pri- 
soners by  their  own  fellow-citizens,  and  immured  in  dungeons.  To  escape 
a  similar  fate,  Dunmore  burnt  the  ships  of  least  value ;  and  the  miserable 
remains  of  soldiers  and  loyalists,  assailed  at  once  by  tempests,  famine,  and 
disease,  sought  refuge  in  Florida,  Bermudas,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Notwithstanding  the  extent  to  which  hostilities  had  been  carried,  a  large 
portion  of  the  colonists  had  hitherto  continued  to  entertain  some  hope  of  an 
amicable  termination  of  the  dispute ;  and  it  is  evident,  from  the  transac- 
tions we  are  about  to  record,  that  many  felt  sincerely  desirous  not  to  frus- 
trate such  a  result.  The  want  of  more  regular  and  stable  governments 
had  for  some  time  been  felt  in  those  colonies  where  royal  governments 
had  hitherto  existed  ;  and  in  the  autumn  of  1775,  New  Hampshire  applied 
to  congress  for  their  advice  and  direction  on  this  subject.  In  November, 
congress  advised  the  convention  of  that  colony  to  call  a  full  and  free  re- 
presentation of  the  people ;  when  the  representatives,  if  they  thought  it 
necessary,  should  establish  such  a  form  of  government  as,  in  their  judg- 
ment, would  best  promote  the  happiness  of  the  people,  and  most  effectually 
secure  peace  and  good  order  during  the  continuance  of  the  dispute  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  colonies.  On  this  question  the  members  of  congress 
were  not  unanimous.  It  was  viewed  by  some  as  a  step  necessarily  leading 
to  independence ;  and  by  some  of  its  advocates  it  was  probably  intended 
as  such.  To  render  the  resolution  less  exceptionable,  the  duration  of  the 
government  was  limited  to  the  continuance  of  the  dispute  with  the  parent 
country.  Soon  afterwards  similar  directions  and  advice  were  given  to 
South  Carolina  and  Virginia. 

The  last  hopes  of  the  colonists  for  reconciliation  rested  on  the  success 
of  their  second  petition  to  the  king ;  and  the  answer  of  their  sovereign  to 
this  application  was  expected  with  extreme  solicitude.  Information,  how- 
•ever,  was  soon  received  from  Mr.  Penn,  who  was  intrusted  with  the  peti- 
tion, that  no  answer  -would  be  given.  This  intelligence  was  followed  by 
that  of  great  additional  preparations  to  subdue  the  '  American  rebels.' 
The  king,  in  his  speech  at  the  opening  of  parliament  in  October,  not  only 
accused  the  colonists  of  revolt,  hostility,  and  rebellion,  but  stated  that  the 
rebellious  war  carried  on  by  them  was  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  an 
independent  empire.  To  prevent  this  he  declared  that  the  most  decisive 
and  vigorous  measures  were  necessary ;  that  he  had  consea^ently  in- 
creased his  naval  establishment,  had  augmented  his  land  forces,  and  had 
also  taken  measures  to  procure  the  aid  of  foreign  troops.  He  at  the  same 
time  stated  his  intention  of  appointing  certain  persons  with  authority  to 
grant  pardons  to  individuals,  and  to  receive  the  submission  of  whole  colo- 
nies disposed  to  return  to  their  allegiance.  Large  majorities  in  both 
houses  assured  the  king  of  their  firm  support  in  his  measures  for  reducing 
the  colonists  to  obedience.  The  addresses,  however,  in  answer  to  the 
speech,  were  opposed  with  great  ability.  The  project  of  employing  foreign 
troops  to  destroy  American  subjects  was  reprobated  by  the  minority  in  the 
strongest  terms.  The  plans  of  the  ministry,  however,  were  not  only  ap- 
proved by  parliament,  but  by  a  majority  of  the  nation. 

answer  being  returned,  it  was  determined  to  destroy  the  town.  The  whole  loss  was  esti- 
mated at  three  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling.  The  provincials  themselves  destroyed 
the  houses  and  plantations  near  the  water,  to  deprive  the  ships  of  every  resource  of  supply 

56* 


666  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  idea  of  making  the  colonists  share  their  burdens  could  not  easily 
be  relinquished  by  the  people  of  Great  Britain ;  and  national  pride  would 
not  permit  them  to  yield  the  point  of  supremacy.  War  was  now  therefore 
to  be  waged  against  the  colonies,  and  a  force  sent  out  sufficiently  powerful 
to  compel  submission,  even  without  a  struggle.  For  these  purposes  the 
aid  of  parliament  was  requisite ;  and  about  the  last  of  December  an  act 
was  passed,  prohibiting  all  trade  and  commerce  with  the  colonies,  and 
authorizing  the  capture  and  condemnation,  not  only  of  all  American  ves- 
sels with  their  cargoes,  but  all  other  vessels  found  trading  in  any  port  or 
place  in  the  colonies,  as  if  the  same  were  the  vessels  and  effects  of  open 
enemies ;  and  the  vessels  and  property  thus  taken  were  vested  in  the  cap- 
tors, and  the  crews  were  to  be  treated,  not  as  prisoners,  but  as  slaves. 

The  passing  of  this  act  shut  the  door  against  the  application  of  the  colo- 
nies for  a  reconciliation.  The  last  petition  of  congress  to  the  king  had, 
indeed,  been  laid  before  parliament,  but  both  houses  refused  to  hear  it,  or 
even  to  treat  upon  any  proposition  coming  from  such  an  unlawful  assem- 
bly, or  from  those  who  were  then  in  arms  against  their  lawful  sovereign. 
In  the  house  of  lords,  on  the  motion  of  the  duke  of  Richmond,  Mr.  Penn 
was  examined  on  American  affairs.  He  stated,  among  other  things,  that 
the  colonists  were  desirous  of  reconciliation,  and  did  not  aim  at  indepen- 
dence ;  that  they  were  disposed  to  conform  to  the  acts  regulating  their  trade, 
but  not  to  taxation;  and  that  on  this  point  a  spirit  of  resistance  was  uni- 
versal. After  this  examination  the  duke  of  Richmond  moved  a  resolution, 
declaring  that  the  petition  of  congress  to  the  king  was  a  ground  for  a  re- 
conciliation of  the  differences  between  the  two  countries.  This  motion 
was  negatived,  after  a  warm  debate,  by  eighty-six  to  thirty-three.  These 
proceedings  of  the  king  and  parliament,  with  the  employment  of  sixteen 
thousand  foreign  mercenaries,  convinced  the  leading  men  in  each  colony 
that  the  sword  alone  must  decide  the  contest,  and  that  the  colonists  must 
now  declare  themselves  totally  independent  of  Great  Britain. 

Time,  however,  was  still  requisite,  to  convince  the  great  mass  of  the 
American  people  of  the  necessity  of  a  complete  separation  from  their  parent 
country,  and  the  establishment  of  independent  governments.  The  ablest 
pens  were  employed  throughout  America,  in  the  winter  of  1775-6,  on  this 
momentous  subject.  The  propriety  and  necessity  of  the  measure  was 
enforced  in  the  numerous  gazettes,  and  in  pamphlets.  Among  the  latter, 
1  Common  Sense,'  from  the  popular  pen  of  Thomas  Paine,  produced  a 
wonderful  effect  in  the  different  colonies  in  favor  of  independence.  Influ- 
ential individuals  in  every  colony  urged  it  as  a  step  absolutely  necessary 
to  preserve  the  rights  and  liberties,  as  well  as  to  secure  the  happiness  and 
prosperity  of  America.1^ 

*  The  chief  justice  of  South  Carolina,  "William  Henry  Drayton,  appointed  under  the 
new  form  of  government  just  adopted,  in  his  charge  to  the  grand  jurors,  in  April,  after 
justifying  the  proceedings  of  that  colony  in  forming  a  new  government,  on  the  princi- 
ples of  the  revolution  in  England  in  1688,  thus  concludes:  'The  Almighty  created 
America  to  be  independent  of  Great  Britain  :  let  us  beware  of  the  impiety  of  being 
backward  to  act  as  instruments  in  the  Almighty  hand,  now  extended  to  accomplish  his 
purpose ;  and  by  the  completion  of  which  alone,  America,  in  the  nature  of  human 
affairs,  can  be  secure  against  the  crafty  and  insidious  designs  of  her  enemies,  whc 
think  her  power  and  prosperity  already  by  far  too  great.  In  a  word,  our  piety  and 
political  safety  are  so  blended,  that  to  refuse  our  labors  in  this  divine  work,  is  to  refuse 
to  be  a  great,  a  free,  a  pious,  and  a  happy  people.' — Pitkin,  vol.  i.  p.  359. 


HISTORY  667 

When  the  prohibitory  act  reached  America,  congress,  justly  viewing  it 
us  a  declaration  of  war,  directed  reprisals  to  be  made,  both  by  public  and 
private  armed  vessels,  against  the  ships  and  goods  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Great  Britain,  found  on  the  high  seas,  or  between  high  and  low  water 
mark.  They  also  burst  the  shackles  of  commercial  monopoly,  which  had 
so  long  kept  them  in  bondage,  and  opened  their  ports  to  all  the  world, 
except  the  dominions  of  Great  Britain.  In  this  state  of  things,  it  was 
preposterous  for  the  colonists  any  longer  to  consider  themselves  as  holding 
or  exercising  the  powers  of  government  under  the  authority  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. Congress,  therefore,  on  the  10th  of  May,  recommended  to  the  as- 
semblies and  conventions  of  the  colonies  where  no  sufficient  government 
had  been  established,  '  to  adopt  such  government  as  should,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  representatives  of  the  people,  best  conduce  to  the  happiness  and 
safety  of  their  constituents  in  particular,  and  America  in  general.'  They 
also  declared  it  necessary,  that  the  exercise  of  every  kind  of  authority  un- 
der the  crown  should  be  suppressed,  and  that  all  the  powers  of  govern- 
ment should  be  exercised  '  under  the  authority  of  the  people  of  the  colo- 
nies, for  the  preservation  of  internal  peace,  virtue,  and  good  order,  as  well 
as  for  the  defence  of  their  lives,  liberties,  and  properties,  against  the  hostile 
invasions  and  cruel  depredations  of  their  enemies.'  This  was  a  prelimi- 
nary step  to  a  general  declaration  of  independence.  Some  of  the  colonial 
assemblies  and  conventions  about  the  same  time  began  to  express  their 
opinions  on  this  great  question.  On  the  22d  of  April,  the  convention  of 
North  Carolina  empowered  their  delegates  in  congress  '  to  concur  with 
those  in  the  other  colonies  in  declaring  independency.'  This,  it  is  be- 
lieved, was  the  first  direct  public  act  of  any  colonial  assembly  or  conven- 
tion in  favor  of  the  measure.^  The  convention  of  Virginia  soon  after- 
wards expressed  itself  still  more  decidedly.  After  full  deliberation,  the 
following  resolutions  were  passed  unanimously  : — 

'  That  the  delegates  appointed  to  represent  this  colony  in  general  con- 
gress be  instructed  to  propose  to  that  respectable  body,  to  declare  the 
United  Colonies  free  and  independent  states,  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to 
or  dependence  upon  the  crown  or  parliament  of  Great  Britain ;  and  that 
they  give  the  assent  of  this  colony  to  such  declaration,  and  to  whatever 
measures  may  be  thought  proper  and  necessary  by  the  congress  for  form- 
ing foreign  alliances,  and  a  confederation  of  the  colonies,  at  such  time  and 
in  the  manner  as  to  them  shall  seem  best :  provided  that  the  power  of 
forming  governments  for,  and  the  regulations  of,  the  internal  concerns  of 
each  colony,  be  left  to  the  respective  colonial  legislatures. 

1  That  a  committee  be  appointed  to  prepare  a  declaration  of  rights,  and 
such  a  plan  of  government  as  will  be  most  likely  to  maintain  peace  and 
order  in  this  colony,  and  secure  substantial  and  equal  liberty  to  the 
people.'! 

*  Pitkin's  Political  and  Civil  History,  vol.  i.  p.  361. 

t  '  This  measure  was  followed  by  the  most  lively  demonstrations  of  ioy.  The  spirit 
of  the  times  is  interestingly  manifested  by  the  following  paragraph  from  Purdie's  paper 
of  the  17th  of  May,  which  immediately  succeeds  the  annunciation  of  the  resolutions : — 
"In  consequence  of  the  above  resolutions,  universally  regarded  as  the  only  door  which 
will  lead  to  safety  and  prosperity,  some  gentlemen  made  a  handsome  collection  for  the 
purpose  of  treating  the  soldiery,  who  next  day  were  paraded  in  Waller's  grove,  before 
brigadier-general  Lewis,  attended  by  the  gentlemen  of  the  committee  of  safety,  the 
members  of  the  general  convention,  the  inhabitants  of  this  city,  fee.    The  resolution* 


668  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Early  in  the  year  the  British  government  had  prepared  a  considerable 
expedition  to  reduce  the  southern  colonies  to  obedience.  The  command 
was  intrusted  to  Sir  Peter  Parker  and  earl  Cornwallis.  On  the  3d  of 
May,  admiral  Parker,  with  twenty  sail,  arrived  at  cape  Fear.  They  found 
general  Clinton  ready  to  co-operate  with  them.  He  had  left  New  York, 
and  proceeded  to  Virginia,  where  he  had  an  interview  with  lord  Dunmore  ; 
hut  finding  nothing  could  be  effected  in  that  colony,  he  repaired  to  cape 
Fear,  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  armament  from  England.  Meanwhile, 
the  Carolinians  had  been  making  great  exertions.  In  Charleston  the  ut- 
most energy  and  activity  was  evinced.  The  citizens  pulled  down  the  valu- 
able storehouses  on  the  wharves,  barricadoed  the  streets,  and  constructed 
lines  of  defence  along  the  shore.  Abandoning  their  commercial  pursuits, 
they  engaged  in  incessant  labor,  and  prepared  for  bloody  conflicts.  The 
troops,  amounting  to  between  five  and  six  thousand  men,  were  stationed  in 
the  most  advantageous  positions.  Amidst  all  this  bustle  and  preparation, 
lead  was  so  extremely  scarce,  that  the  windows  of  Charleston  were  strip- 
ped of  their  weights,  in  order  to  procure  a  small  supply  of  that  necessary 
article  for  bullets. 

Early  in  June,  the  armament,  consisting  of  between  forty  and  fifty  ves- 
sels, appeared  off  Charleston  bay,  and  thirty-six  of  the  transports  passed 
the  bar,  and  anchored  about  three  miles  from  Sullivan's  island.  Some 
hundreds  of  the  troops  landed  on  Long  island,  which  lies  on  the  west  of  Sul- 
livan's island,  and  which  fs  separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  channel,  often 
fordable.  On  the  10th  of  the  month,  the  Bristol,  a  fifty-gun  ship,  having 
taken  out  her  guns,  got  safely  over  the  bar ;  and  on  the  25th,  the  Experi- 
ment, a  ship  of  equal  force,  arrived,  and  next  day  passed  in  the  same  way. 
On  the  part  of  the  British  every  thing  was  now  ready  for  action.  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  had  nearly  three  thousand  men  under  his  command.  The 
naval  force,  under  Sir  Peter  Parker,  consisted  of  the  Bristol  and  Experi- 
ment, of  fifty  guns  ;  the  Active,  Acteon,  Solebay,  and  Syren  frigates  ;  the 
Friendship,  of  twenty-two,  and  the  Sphinx,  of  twenty  guns ;  the  Ranger 
sloop,  and  Thunder  bomb.  On  the  forenoon  of  the  28th  of  June,  this  fleet 
advanced  against  the  fort  on  Sullivan's  island,  which  was  defended  by 
colonel  Moultrie,  with  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  regular  troops,  and 
some  militia.  The  Thunder  bomb  began  the  battle.  The  Active,  Bristol, 
Experiment,  and  Solebay,  followed  boldly  to  the  attack,  and  a  terrible 
cannonade  ensued.  The  fort  returned  the  fire  of  the  ships  slowly,  but 
with  deliberate  and  deadly  aim ;  and  the  contest  was  carried  on  during 
the  whole  day  with  unabating  fury.  The  Sphinx,  Acteon,  and  Syren 
were  ordered  to  attack  the  western  extremity  of  the  fort,  which  was  in  a 
very  unfinished  state ;  but,  as  they  proceeded  for  that  purpose,  they  got 

"being  read  aloud  to  the  army,  the  following  toasts  were  given,  each  of  them  accompa- 
nied by  a  discharge  of  the  artillery  and  small  arms,  and  the  acclamations  of  all  pre- 
sent : — 1.  The  American  Independent  States. — 2.  The  grand  congress  of  the  United 
States,  and  their  respective  legislatures. — 3.  General  Washington,  and  victory  to  the 
American  arms. — The  union  flag  of  the  American  states  waved  upon  the  capitol  during 
the  whole  of  this  ceremony;  which  being  ended,  the  soldiers  partook  of  the  refreshments 
prepared  for  them  by  the  affection  of  their  countrymen,  and  the  evening  concluded  with 
illuminations  and  other  demonstrations  of  joy ;  every  one  seeming  pleased  that  the  do- 
mination of  Great  Britain  was  now  at  an  end,  so  wickedly  and  tyrannically  exercised 
tor  these  twelve  or  thirteen  years  past,  notwithstanding  our  repeated  prayers  and  remon- 
strances for  redress."  ' — Wirt's  Life  of  Henry,  p.  195. 


HISTORY. 


669 


entangled  with  a  shoal,  called  the  Middle-ground.  Two  of  them  ran  fout 
of  each  other:  the  Acteon  stuck  fast;  the  Sphinx  and  Syren  got  off;  but, 
fortunately  for  the  Americans,  that  part  of  the  attack  completely  failed. 

It  was  designed  that  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  with  his  corps,  should  co-ope- 
rate with  the  naval  operations  by  passing  the  narrow  channel  which  sepa- 
rates Long  island  from  Sullivan's  island,  and  assail  the  fort  by  land ;  but 
this  the  general  found  impracticable,  for  the  channel,  though  commonly 
fordable,  was  at  that  time,  by  a  long  prevalence  of  easterly  winds,  deeper 


Attack  on  Fort  Moultrie. 


than  usual ;  and  even  had  the  channel  been  fordable,  the  British  troops 
would  have  found  the  passage  an  arduous  enterprise  ;  for  colonel  Thom- 
son, with  a  strong  detachment  of  riflemen,  regulars,  and  militia,  was  posted 
on  the  east  end  of  Sullivan's  island  to  oppose  any  attack  made  in  that 
quarter.  The  engagement,  which  began  about  eleven  o'clock  in  the  fore- 
noon, continued  with  unabated  fury  till  seven  in  the  evening,  when  the 
fire  slackened,  and  about  nine  entirely  ceased  on  both  sides.  During  tho 
night  all  the  ships,  except  the  Acteon,  which  was  aground,  removed  about 
two  miles  from  the  island.  Next  morning  the  fort  fired  a  few  shots  at  the 
Acteon,  and  she  at  first  returned  them  ;  but,  in  a  short  time,  her  crew  set 
her  on  fire  and  abandoned  her.  She  blew  up  shortly  afterwards.  In  this 
obstinate  engagement  both  parties  fought  with  great  gallantry.  The  loss 
of  the  British  was  very  considerable,  upwards  of  sixty  being  killed,  and 
one  hundred  and  sixty  wounded ;  while  the  garrison  lost  only  ten  men 
killed,  and  twenty-two  wounded. 

Although  the  Americans  were  raw  troops,  yet  they  behaved  with  the 
steady  intrepidity  of  veterans.  One  circumstance  may  serve  to  illustrate 
the  cool  but  enthusiastic  courage  which  pervaded  their  ranks.  In  the 
course  of  the  engagement  the  flag-staff  of  the  fort  was  shot  away ;  but 
sergeant  Jasper  leaped  down  upon  the  beach,  snatched  up  the  flag,  fasten- 
ed it  to  a  sponge-staff,  and,  while  the  ships  were  incessantly  directing  their 
broadsides  upon  the  fort,  he  mounted  the  merlon  and  deliberately  replaced 
the  flag.  The  fate  of  this  expedition  contributed  greatly  to  establish  the 
popular  government  it  was  intended  to  destroy,  while  the  news  of  it  spread 


670  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

rapidly  through  the  continent,  and  exercised  an  equally  unfavorable  inn  lic- 
ence on  the  royal  cause :  the  advocates  of  the  irresistibility  of  British 
fleets  and  armies  were  mortified  and  silenced ;  and  the  brave  defence  of 
fort  Moultrie  saved  the  southern  states  from  the  horrors  of  war  for  several 
years. 

In  South  Carolina  the  government  took  advantage  of  the  hour  of  success 
to  conciliate  their  opponents  in  the  province.  The  adherents  of  royal 
power,  who,  for  a  considerable  time,  had  been  closely  imprisoned,  on  pro- 
mising fidelity  to  their  country,  were  set  at  freedom  and  restored  to  all  the 
privileges  of  citizens.  The  repulse  of  the  British  was  also  attended  with 
another  advantage,  that  of  leaving  the  Americans  at  liberty  to  turn  their 
undivided  force  against  the  Indians,  who  had  attacked  the  western  frontier 
of  the  southern  states  with  all  the  fury  and  carnage  of  savage  warfare.  In 
1775,  when  the  breach  between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  was  daily 
becoming  wider,  one  Stuart,  the  agent  employed  in  conducting  the  inter- 
course between  the  British  authorities  and  the  Cherokees  and  Creeks,  used 
all  his  influence  to  attach  the  savages  to  the  royal  cause,  and  to  inspire 
them  with  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  Americans. 

He  found  little  difficulty  in  persuading  them  that  the  Americans, 
without  provocation,  had  taken  up  arms  against  Britain,  and  were  the 
means  of  preventing  them  from  receiving  their  yearly  supplies  of  arms, 
ammunition,  and  clothing,  from  the  British  government.  The  Americans 
had  endeavored  to  conciliate  the  good  will  of  the  Indians,  but  their  scanty 
presents  were  unsatisfactory,  and  the  savages  resolved  to  take  up  the 
hatchet.  Deeming  the  appearance  of  the  British  fleet  in  Charleston  bay  a 
fit  opportunity,  the  Cherokees  invaded  the  western  frontier  of  the  province, 
marking  their  track  with  murder  and  devastation.  The  speedy  retreat  of 
the  British  left  the  savages  exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  the  Americans, 
who,  in  separate  divisions,  entered  their  country  at  different  points,  from 
Virginia  and  Georgia,  defeated  their  warriors,  burned  their  villages,  laid 
waste  their  corn-fields,  and  incapacitated  the  Cherokees  for  a  considerable 
time  from  giving  the  settlers  further  annoyance.  Thus,  in  the  south,  the 
Americans  triumphed  both  over  the  British  and  the  Indians. 

On  the  7th  of  June,  the  great  question  of  independence  was  brought 
directly  before  congress,  by  Richard  Henry  Lee,  one  of  the  delegates  from 
Virginia.  He  submitted  a  resolution,  declaring  \  that  the  United  Colonies 
are,  and  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states;  that  they  are  absolved 
from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown ;  and  that  all  political  connection 
between  them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally 
dissolved.'  The  resolution  was  postponed  until  the  next  day,  and  every 
member  enjoined  to  attend,  to  take  the  same  into  consideration.  On  the 
Sth  it  was  debated  in  committee  of  the  whole  house.  No  question  of 
greater  magnitude  was  ever  presented  to  the  consideration  of  a  deliberative 
body,  or  debated  with  more  energy,  eloquence,  and  ability.  On  the  10th 
it  was  adopted  in  committee,  by  a  bare  majority.  The  delegates  from 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  were  instructed  to  oppose  it,  and  the  delegates 
from  some  of  the  other  colonies  were  without  special  instructions  on  the 
subject.  To  give  time  for  greater  unanimity,  the  resolution  was  postponed 
in  the  house  until  the  1st  of  July.  In  the  mean  time,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  prepare  a  declaration  of  independence.  During  this  interval, 
measures  were  taken  to  procure  the  assent  of  all  the  colonies. 


HISTORY.  671 

On  the  day  appointed,  the  resolution  relating  to  independence  was  re- 
sumed in  the  general  congress,  referred  to  a  committee  of  the  whole  house, 
and  assented  to  by  all  the  colonies,  except  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware. 
The  committee  appointed  to  prepare  a  declaration  of  independence  selected 
Mr.  Adams  and  Mr.  Jefferson  as  a  sub-committee,  and  the  original  draft 
was  made  by  Mr.  Jefferson.  This  draft,  without  any  amendment  by  the 
committee,  was  reported  to  congress,  and,  after  undergoing  several  amend- 
ments, received  their  sanction. 

The  course  of  time  has  now  brought  us  to  the  decisive  hour  when  a 
new  empire,  of  a  character  the  most  extraordinary,  springs  into  being. 
The  world  has  known  no  rest  since  this  grand  confederacy  took  her  rank 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth  ;  her  example  infused  a  power  into  the  princi- 
ples of  liberty  which  for  nearly  two  centuries  had  been  dormant ;  although  in 
another  hemisphere,  it  has  exercised  more  influence  on  the  state  of  the 
public  mind  in  Europe  than  did  the  great  struggle  in  the  days  of  the  com- 
monwealth ;  and  the  world  will  know  rest  no  more,  till,  under  whatever 
form,  the  great  lessons  of  freedom  which  American  history  enforces,  have 
been  listened  to,  and  embodied  in  action,  by  every  nation  of  the  globe. 


FROM   THE    CAMPAIGN    OF    1776   TO   THAT    OF    1779. 

General  Washington,  after  compelling  the  British  to  abandon  Boston, 
had  made  every  possible  preparation  for  the  defence  of  New  York,  where 
he  had  fixed  his  head-quarters.  To  second  his  exertions,  the  congress 
instituted  a  flying  camp,  to  consist  of  an  intermediate  corps,  between  regu- 
lar soldiers  and  militia ;  and  called  for  ten  thousand  men  from  the  states 
of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Delaware,  to  be  in  constant  service  to  the 
first  day  of  the  ensuing  December;  and  for  thirteen  thousand  eight 
hundred  of  the  common  militia  from  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  and  New  Jersey.  The  command  of  the  naval  force  destined  to 
operate  against  New  York  was  given  to  admiral  Howe,  while  his  brother, 
Sir  William,  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  army ;  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  their  military  powers,  the  brothers  were  appointed  commissioners 
for  restoring  peace  to  the  colonies.  General  Howe,  after  waiting  two 
months  at  Halifax  for  expected  reinforcements  from  England,  sailed  with 
the  force  which  he  had  previously  commanded  in  Boston  ;  and,  directing 
his  course  towards  New  York,  arrived  on  the  25th  of  June  off  Sandy  Hook. 
Admiral  lord  Howe,  with  part  of  the  reinforcement  from  England,  arrived 
at  Halifax  soon  after  his  brother's  departure,  and,  without  dropping  anchor, 
followed,  and  joined  him  on  the  12th  of  July  at  Staten  island.  General 
Clinton  arrived  there  about  the  same  time  with  the  troops  brought  back 
from  the  expedition  of  Charleston  and  South  Carolina;  commodore  Ho- 
tham  also  appeared  there  with  the  reinforcement  under  his  escort ;  and  in 
a  short  time  the  British  army  amounted  to  about  twenty-feur  thousand 
men,  English,  Hessians,  and  Waldeckers. 

The  royal  commissioners,  before  they  commenced  military  operations, 
attempted  to  effect  a  reunion  between  the  colonies  and  Great  Britain. 
Lord  Howe  announced  his  pacific  powers  to  the  principal  magistrates  of 
the  several  colonies.  He  promised  pardon  to  all  who,  in  the  late  times, 
had  deviated  from  their  allegiance,  on  condition  of  their  speedily  returning 


$72  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

to  their  duty ;  and,  in  case  of  their  compliance,  encouraged  their  expecta- 
tion of  the  future  favor  of  their  sovereign.  In  his  declaration,  he  observed, 
4  that  the  commissioners  were  authorized,  in  his  majesty's  name,  to  declare 
any  province,  colony,  county,  district,  or  town,  to  be  at  peace  with  his 
majesty ;  that  due  consideration  should  be  had  to  the  meritorious  services 
of  any  who  should  aid  or  assist  in  restoring  the  public  tranquillity  ;  that 
their  dutiful,  representations  should  be  received,  pardons  granted,  and  suit- 
able encouragement  to  such  as  would  promote  the  measures  of  legal  govern- 
ment and  peace,  in  pursuance  of  his  majesty's  most  gracious  purposes.' 
These  pacific  proposals  were  regarded  by  the  Americans  as  only  an  attempt 
to  sow  dissensions  among  them,  and  were  never  for  a  moment  seriously 
regarded  by  any  of  the  patriotic  party.  The  British  forces  waited  so  long 
to  receive  accessions  from  Halifax,  the  Carolinas,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Europe,  that  the  month  of  August  was  far  advanced  before  they  commenc- 
ed the  campaign.  The  commanders,  having  resolved  to  make  their  first 
attempt  on  Long  island,  landed  their  troops,  estimated  at  about  twenty-four 
thousand  men,  at  Gravesend  bay,  to  the  right  of  the  Narrows. 

The  Americans,  to  the  amount  of  fifteen  thousand,  under  major-general 
Sullivan,  were  posted  on  a  peninsula  between  Mill  creek,  a  little  above 
Red  Hook,  and  an  elbow  of  East  river,  called  Whaaleboght  bay.  Here 
they  had  erected  strong  fortifications,  which  were  separated  from  New 
York  by  East  river,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile.  A  line  of  intrenchment 
from  the  Mill  creek  inclosed  a  large  space  of  ground,  on  which  stood  the 
American  camp,  near  the  village  of  Brooklyn.  This  line  was  secured  by 
abatis,  and  flanked  by  strong  redoubts.  The  armies  were  separated  by  a 
range  of  hills,  covered  with  a  thick  wood,  which  intersects  the  country 
from  west  to  east,  terminating  on  the  east  near  Jamaica.  Through  these 
hills  there  were  three  roads ;  one  near  the  Narrows,  a  second  by  the  Flat- 
bush  road,  and  a  third  by  the  Bedford  road  ;  these  were  the  only  passes 
from  the  south  side  of  the  hills  to  the  American  lines,  excepting  a  road 
which  led  to  Jamaica  round  the  easterly  end  of  the  hills ;  and  general 
Putnam,  agreeably  to  the  instructions  of  general  Washington,  had  detach- 
ed a  considerable  part  of  his  men  to  occupy  them. 

On  the  26th,  the  main  body  of  British  troops,  with  a  large  detachment 
of  Germans,  landed  under  cover  of  the  ships,  on  the  south-western  extre- 
mity of  Long  island,  and  advancing  in  three  divisions,  took  post  upon  the 
Bouth  skirt  of  the  wood ;  general  Grant  upon  their  left,  near  the  coast ; 
the  German  general,  de  Heister,  in  the  centre,  at  Flatbush  ;  and  general 
Clinton  upon  their  right,  at  Flatland.  Only  the  range  of  hills  now  sepa- 
rated the  two  armies,  and  the  different  posts  of  the  British  were  distant 
from  the  American  camp  from  four  to  six  miles.  In  the  evening,  general 
Clinton,  without  beat  of  drum,  marched  with  the  infantry  of  his  division,  a 
party  of  light-horse,  and  fourteen  field-pieces,  to  gain  the  defile  on  the 
Jamaica  road.  During  the  night  he  surprised  an  American  party  station- 
ed here  to  give  the  alarm  of  an  approaching  enemy,  and,  undiscovered  by 
Sullivan,  seized  the  pass.  At  daybreak  he  passed  the  heights,  and  de- 
scended into  the  plain  on  the  side  of  Brooklyn.  Early  in  the  morning, 
general  de  Heister,  at  Flatbush,  and  general  Grant,  upon  the  west  coast, 
opened  a  cannonade  upon  the  American  troops,  and  began  to  ascend  the 
hill ;  but  they  moved  very  slowly,  as  their  object  was  to  draw  the  attention 
pf  the  American  commander  from  his  left,  and  give  general  Clinton  oppoi* 


HISTORY.  673 

tunity  to  gain  the  rear  of  the  American  troops  stationed  on  the  heights. 
General  Putnam,  in  the  apprehension  that  the  serious  attack  would  he 
made  by  de  Heister  and  Grant,  sent  detachments  to  reinforce  general  Sul- 
livan and  lord  Sterling  at  the  defiles,  through  which  those  divisions  of 
the  enemy  were  approaching. 

When  general  Clinton  had  passed  the  left  flank  of  the  Americans,  about 
eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  27th,  de  Heister  and  Grant  vigorously 
ascended  the  hill ;  the  troops  which  opposed  them  bravely  maintained  their 
ground,  until  they  learned  their  perilous  situation  from  the  British  columns 
which  were  gaining  their  rear.  As  soon  as  the  American  left  discovered 
the  progress  of  general  Clinton,  they  attempted  to  return  to  the  camp  at 
Brooklyn,  but  their  flight  was  stopped  by  the  front  of  the  British  column. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  Germans  pushed  forward  from  Flatbush,  and  the 
troops  in  the  American  centre,  under  the  immediate  command  of  general 
Sullivan,  having  also  discovered  that  their  flank  was  turned,  and  that  the 
enemy  was  gaining  their  rear,  in  haste  retreated  towards  Brooklyn. 
Clinton's  columns  continuing  to  advance,  intercepted  them ;  they  were 
attacked  in  front  and  rear,  and  alternately  driven  by  the  British  on  the 
Germans,  and  by  the  Germans  on  the  British.  Desperate  as  their  situation 
was,  some  regiments  broke  through  the  enemy's  columns  and  regained  the 
fortified  camp ;  but  most  of  the  detachments  upon  the  American  left  and 
centre  were  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  The  detachment  on  the 
American  right,  under  lord  Sterling,  maintained  a  severe  conflict  with 
general  Grant  for  six  hours,  until  the  van  of  general  Clinton's  division, 
having  crossed  the  whole  island,  gained  their  rear. 

Lord  Sterling  perceived  his  danger,  and  found  that  his  troops  could  be 
saved  only  by  an  immediate  retreat  over  a  creek  near  the  cove.  He  gave 
orders  to  this  purpose  ;  and,  to  facilitate  their  execution,  he  in  person  at- 
tacked lord  Cornwallis,  who,  by  this  time  having  gained  the  coast,  had 
posted  a  small  corps  in  a  house,  just  above  the  place  where  the  American 
troops  must  pass  the  creek.  The  attack  was  bravely  made  with  four 
hundred  men  ;  but  his  lordship  being  reinforced  from  his  own  column,  and 
general  Grant  attacking  lord  Sterling  in  the  rear,  this  brave  band  was 
overpowered  by  numbers,  and  those  who  survived  were  compelled  to  sur- 
render themselves  prisoners  of  war  ;  but  this  spirited  assault  gave  opportu- 
nity for  a  large  proportion  of  the  detachment  to  escape.  General  Wash- 
ington passed  over  to  Brooklyn  in  the  heat  of  the  action  ;  but,  unable  to 
rescue  his  men  from  their  perilous  situation,  was  constrained  to  be  the 
inactive  spectator  of  the  slaughter  of  his  best  troops.  The  loss  of  the  Ame- 
ricans on  this  occasion,  for  the  number  engaged,  was  great ;  general 
Washington  stated  it  at  a  thousand  men ;  but  his  returns  probably  includ- 
ed only  the  regular  regiments.  General  Howe,  in  an  official  letter,  made 
the  prisoners  amount  to  one  thousand  and  ninety-seven.  Among  these 
were  major-general  Sullivan,  and  brigadier-generals  Sterling  and  Wood- 
hull.  The  amount  of  the  killed  was  never  with  precision  ascertained. 
The  British  loss,  as  stated  by  general  Howe,  was  twenty-one  officers,  and 
three  hundred  and  forty-six  privates  killed,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoners. 

The  British  now  encamped  in  front  of  the  American  lines,  and  on  the 

succeeding  night  broke  ground  within  six  hundred  yards  of  a  redoubt  on 

the  left.     In  this  critical  state  of  the  American  army  on  Long  island, — in 

front  a  numerous  and  victorious  enemy  with  a  formidable  train  of  artillery, 

85  .  57 


674  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  fleet  indicating  an  intention  to  torce  a  passage  into  East  river  to  make 
some  attempt  on  New  York,  the  troops  lying  without  shelter  from  heavy 
rains,  fatigued  and  dispirited, — it  was  determined  to  withdraw  from  tho 
island  ;  and  this  difficult  movement  was  effected  with  great  skill  and  judg- 
ment, and  with  complete  success. 

The  defeat  of  the  27th  made  a  most  unfavorable  impression  upon  the 
army.  A  great  proportion  of  the  troops  lost  their  confidence  in  their  offi- 
cers, and  in  themselves.  Before  this  unfortunate  event,  they  met  the 
enemy  in  the  spirit  of  freemen  fighting  for  their  highest  interests,  and 
under  the  persuasion  that  their  thorough  use  of  arms  rendered  them  equal  to> 
the  disciplined  battalions  which  they  were  to  oppose.  But  on  this  occa- 
sion, by  evolutions  which  they  did  not  comprehend,  they  found  themselves 
encompassed  with  difficulties  from  which  their  utmost  exertions  could  not 
extricate  them,  ar--  involved  in  dangers  from  which  their  bravery  could 
not  deliver  them;  and  entertaining  a  high  opinion  of  the  adroitness  of  the 
enemy,  in  every  movement  they  apprehended  a  fatal  snare. *  No  sooner 
had  the  British  secured  the  possession  of  Long  island,  than  they  made 
dispositions  to  attack  New  York.  It  was  a  serious  question  whether  that 
place  was  def«-nsib»&  against  so  formidable  an  enemy ;  and  general  Wash- 
ington called  a  council  of  general  officers,  to  decide  whether  it  should  be 
evacuated  without  delay,  or  longer  defended.  The  general  officers,  in 
compliance  with  th«  views  of  congress,  were  very  averse  from  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  city ;  und  it  was  resolved,  contrary  to  the  individual  opinion 
of  Washington,  to  endeavor  to  defend  the  city. 

The  army  was  accordingly  arranged  into  three  divisions,  one  of  which, 
consisting  ot  five  'Housand  men,  was  to  remain  in  New  York;  another, 
amounting  to  mm  thousand,  was  to  be  stationed  at  King's  Bridge ;  and 
the  residue  of  the  army  was  to  occupy  the  intermediate  space,  so  as  to 
support  either  extreme.  The  unexpected  movements  of  the  British  soon 
evinced  the  correctness  of  the  opinion  of  the  general-in-chief ;  and  in  a 
ppccmd  council  it  was  determined,  by  a  large  majority,  that  it  had  become 
»of  only  prudent,  but  necessary,  to  withdraw  the  army  from  New  York. 
Several  English  ships  of  war  passed  up  North  river  on  the  one  side  of 
fork  island,  and  East  river  on  the  other  side ;  Sir  Henry  Clinton  era- 
Darked  at  Long  island,  at  the  head  of  four  thousand  men,  proceeded  through 
Newtown  bay,  crossed  East  river,  and  landed,  under  cover  of  the  ships,  at 
Kipp's  bay,  about  three  miles  above  New  Ydrk.     Works  of  considerable 

*  These  melancholy  facts  were  thus  narrated  by  general  Washington,  in  his  letter  to 
congress  :—'  Our  situation  is  truly  distressing.  The  check  our  detachment  sustained  on 
the  27th  ultimo,  has  dispirited  too  great  a  proportion  of  our  troops,  and  filled  their  minds 
with  apprehension  and  despair.  The  militia,  instead  of  calling  forth  their  utmost  efforts 
'  to  a  brave  and  manly  opposition,  in  order  to  repair  our  losses,  are  dismayed,  intractable, 
and  impatient  to  return.  Great  numbers  of  them  have  gone  off;  in  some  instances 
almost  by  whole  regiments,  by  half  ones,  and  by  companies  at  a  time.  This  circum- 
stance of  itself,  independent  of  others,  when  fronted  by  a  well-appointed  enemy,  superior 
in  number  to  our  whole  collected  force,  would  be  sufficiently  disagreeable  ;  but  when 
their  example  has  infected  another  part  of  the  army, — when  their  want  of  discipline, 
and  refusal  of  almost  every  kind  of  restraint  and  government,  have  produced  a  like 
conduct,  but  too  common  to  the  whole,  and  an  entire  disregard  of  that  order  and  subor- 
dination necessary  to  the  well  doing  of  an  army,  and  which  had  been  inculcated  before, 
as  well  as  the  nature  of  our  military  establishment  would  admit  of, — our  condition  is 
still  more  alarming ;  and  with  the  deepest  concern  I  am  obliged  to  confess  my  want  of 
confidence  in  the  generality  of  the  troops.' 


ftlSTGRt.  675 

Strength  had  been  thrown  up  at  this  place,  to  oppose  the  landing  of  the 
enemy  ;  but  they  were  immediately  abandoned  by  the  troops  stationed  in 
them,  who,  terrified  at  the  fire  of  the  ships,  fled  precipitately  toward  their 
main  body,  and  communicated  their  panic  to  a  detachment  marching  to 
their  support.  General  Washington,  to  his  extreme  mortification,  met  this 
whole  party  retreating  in  the  utmost  disorder,  and  exerted  himself  to  rally 
them  ;  but,  on  the  appearance  of  a  small  corps  of  the  British,  they  again 
broke,  and  fled  in  confusion.  Nothing  was  now  left  him  but  to  withdraw 
the  few  remaining  troops  from  New  York,  and  to  secure  the  posts  on  the 
heights.  The  retreat  from  New  York  was  effected  with  a  very  inconsider- 
able loss  of  men ;  but  all  the  heavy  artillery,  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
baggage,  provisions,  and  military  stores,  were  unavoidably  abandoned. 

The  British,  taking  possession  of  New  York,  stationed  a  few  troops  in 
the  capital ;  but  the  main  body  of  their  army  was  on  York  island,  at  no 
great  distance  from  the  American  lines.  The  day  after  the  retreat  from 
New  York,  a  considerable  body  of  the  British  appearing  in  the  plains  be- 
tween the  two  camps,  the  general  ordered  colonel  Knowlton,  with  a  corps 
of  rangers,  and  major  Leitch,  with  three  companies  of  a  Virginia  regiment, 
to  get  in  their  rear,  while  he  amused  them  by  making  apparent  dispositions 
to  attack  their  front.  The  plan  succeeded ;  and  a  skirmish  ensued,  in 
which  the  Americans  charged  the  enemy  with  great  intrepidity,  and  gain- 
ed considerable  advantage  ;  but  the  principal  benefit  of  this  action  was  its 
influence  in  reviving  the  depressed  spirits  of  the  whole  army.  The  armies 
did  not  long  retain  their  position  on  York  island.  The  British  frigates 
having  passed  up  North  river  under  a  fire  from  fort  Washington  and  the 
post  opposite  to  it  on  the  Jersey  shore,  general  Howe  embarked  a  great 
part  of  his  army  in  flat-bottomed  boats,  and,  passing  through  Hellgate  into 
the  sound,  landed  at  Frog's  neck. 

The  object  of  the  British  general  was,  either  to  force  Washington  out  of 
his  present  lines,  or  to  inclose  him  in  them.  Aware  of  this  design,  gene- 
ral Washington  moved  a  part  of  his  troops  from  York  island  to  join  those 
at  King's  Bridge,  and  detached  some  regiments  to  West  Chester.  A  coun- 
cil of  war  was  now  called,  and  the  system  of  evacuating  and  retreating  was 
adopted,  with  the  exception  of  fort  Washington,  for  the  defence  of  which 
nearly  three  thousand  men  were  assigned.  After  a  halt  of  six  days  the 
royal  army  advanced,  not  without  considerable  opposition,  along  the  coast 
of  Long  Island  sound,  by  New  Rochelle,  to  White  Plains,  where  the  Ame- 
ricans took  a  strong  position  behind  intrenchments.  This  post  was  main- 
tained for  several  days,  till  the  British  having  received  considerable  rein- 
forcements, general  Washington  withdrew  to  the  heights  of  North  Castle, 
about  five  miles  from  White  Plains,  where,  whether  from  the  strength  of 
his  position,  or  from  the  British  general  having  other  objects  in  view,  no 
attempt  at  attack  was  made. 

1  Immediately  on  leaving  White  Plains,  general  Howe  directed  his  atten- 
tion to  fort  Washington  and  fort  Lee,  as  their  possession  would  secure  the 
Davigation  of  the  Hudson,  and  facilitate  the  invasion  of  New  Jersey.  On 
the  1 5th  of  November,  general  Howe,  being  in  readiness  for  the  assault, 
summoned  the  garrison  to  surrender.  Colonel  Magaw,  the  commanding 
officer,  in  spirited  language,  replied,  that  he  should  defend  his  works  to 
extremity.  On  the  succeeding  morning  the  British  made  the  assault  in 
four  separate  divisions  ;  and  having,  after  a  brave  and  obstinate  resistance, 


G7(>  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

surmounted  the  outworks,  again  summoned  the  garrison  to  surrender.  His 
ammunition  being  nearly  expended,  and  his  force  incompetent  to  repel  the 
numbers  which  were  ready  on  every  side  to  assail  him,  colonel  Magaw 
surrendered  himself  and  his  garrison,  consisting  of  two  thousand  men, 
prisoners  of  war.  The  enemy  lost  in  the  assault  about  eight  hundred  men, 
mostly  Germans. 

The  conquest  of  fort  Washington  made  the  evacuation  of  fort  Lee  ne- 
cessary. Orders  were  therefore  issued  to  remove  the  ammunition  and 
stores  in  it ;  but,  before  much  progress  had  been  made  in  this  business, 
lord  Cornwallis  crossed  the  Hudson,  with  a  number  of  battalions,  with  the 
intention  to  inclose  the  garrison  between  the  Hackensack  and  North  rivers. 
This  movement  made  a  precipitate  retreat  indispensable,  which  was  happily 
effected  with  little  loss  of  men  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  artillery,  stores, 
and  baggage  was  left  for  the  enemy.  The  loss  at  fort  Washington  was 
heavy.  The  regiments  captured  in  it  were  some  of  the  best  troops  in  the 
army.  The  tents,  camp-kettles,  and  stores,  lost  at  this  place  and  at  fort 
Lee,  could  not,  during  the  campaign,  be  replaced,  and  for  the  want  of  them 
the  men  suffered  extremely.  This  loss  was  unnecessarily  sustained,  as 
those  posts  ought,  unquestionably,  to  have  been  evacuated  before  general 
Howe  was  in  a  situation  to  invest  them  ;  and  this  event  was  the  more  to 
be  deplored,  as  the  American  force  was  daily  diminished  by  the  expiration 
of  the  soldiers'  term  of  enlistment,  and  by  the  desertion  of  the  militia. 

These  successes  encouraged  the  British  to  pursue  the  remaining  Ame- 
rican force,  with  the  prospect  of  annihilating  it.  General  Washington, 
who  had  taken  post  at  Newark,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Passaic,  finding 
himself  unable  to  make  any  real  opposition,  withdrew  from  that  place  as 
the  enemy  crossed  the  Passaic,  and  retreated  to  Brunswick,  on  the  Kari- 
ton ;  and  lord  Cornwallis  on  the  same  day  entered  Newark.  The  retreat 
was  still  continued  from  Brunswick  to  Princeton;  from  Princeton  to 
Trenton ;  and  from  Trenton  to  the  Pennsylvania  side  of  the  Delaware. 
The  pursuit  was  urged  with  so  much  rapidity,  that  the  rear  of  one  army 
was  often  within  shot  of  the  van  of  the  other.^  The  winter  being  now 
set  in,  the  British  army  went  into  quarters,  between  the  Delaware  and  the 
Hackensack.  Trenton,  the  most  important  post  and  barrier,  was  occupied 
by  a  brigade  of  Hessians,  under  colonel  Rawle.  General  Howe  now  issu- 
ed a  proclamation,  in  the  name  of  his  brother  and  himself,  in  which  pardon 
was  offered  to  all  persons  who,  within  the  space  of  sixty  days,  should  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  British  govern- 
ment. The  effects  of  this  proclamation  were  soon  apparent.  People  from 
several  quarters  availed  themselves  of  it,  and  threw  down  their  arms.  No 
city  or  town,  indeed,  in  its  corporate  capacity,  submitted  to  the  British  go- 
vernment ;  but  many  families  of  fortune  and  influence  discovered  an  incli- 

•  '  On  the  17th  of  December,  our  army  marched  from  Brunswick  at  four  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  and  about  the  same  hour  in  the  afternoon  arrived  at  Princeton.  This 
place  general  Washington,  in  person,  with  Stirling's  brigade,  left  not  one  hour  before 
the  British  arrived.  At  Princeton  the  British  general  waited  seventeen  hours,  marched 
at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  8th,  and  arrived  at  Trenton  at  four  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  just  when  the  last  boat  of  general  "Washington's  embarkation  crossed  the 
river,  as  if  he  had  calculated,  it  was  observed,  with  great  accuracy,  the  exact  time  ne- 
cessary for  his  enemy  to  make  his  escape.' — Steadmati's  History  of  the  American  War, 
vol.  i.  p.  220. 


BISTORT.  '  677 

nation  to  return  to  their  allegiance.  Many  of  the  yeomanry  claimed  the 
benefit  of  the  commissioners'  proclamation ;  and  the  great  body  of  them, 
were  too  much  taken  up  with  the  security  of  their  families  and  their  pro- 
perty, to  make  any  exertion  in  the  public  cause.  Another  source  of  morti- 
fication to  the  Americans  was  the  capture  of  general  Lee,  who  had  im- 
prudently ventured  to  lodge  at  a  house  three  miles  distant  from  his  corps. * 

This  was  the  most  gloomy  period  of  the  revolutionary  war.  It  was  the 
crisis  of  the  struggle  of  the  United  States  for  independence.  The  Ameri- 
can army,  reduced  in  numbers,  depressed  by  defeat,  and  exhausted  by 
fatigue,  naked,  barefoot,  and  destitute  of  tents,  and  even  of  utensils  with 
which  to  dress  their  scanty  provisions,  was  fleeing  before  a  triumphant 
enemy,  well  appointed  and  abundantly  supplied.  A  general  spirit  of  de- 
spondency through  New  Jersey  was  the  consequence  of  this  disastrous  state 
of  public  affairs.  But  in  this  worst  of  times  congress  stood  unmoved; 
their  measures  exhibited  no  symptoms  of  confusion  or  dismay ;  the  public 
danger  only  roused  them  to  more  vigorous  exertions,  that  they  might  give 
a  firmer  tone  to  the  public  mind,  and  animate  the  citizens  of  United  Ame- 
rica to  a  manly  defence  of  their  independence.  Beneath  this  cloud  of 
adversity,  too,  general  Washington  shone  with  a  brighter  lustre  than  in 
the  day  of  his  highest  prosperity.  Not  dismayed  by  all  the  difficulties 
which  encompassed  him,  he  accommodated  his  measures  to  his  situation, 
and  still  made  the  good  of  his  country  the  object  of  his  unwearied  pursuit. 
He  ever  wore  the  countenance  of  composure  and  confidence,  by  his  own 
example  inspiring  his  little  band  with  firmness  to  struggle  with  adverse 
fortune. 

While  Washington  was  retreating  over  the  Delaware,  the  British,  under 
Sir  Pelew  Parker  and  general  Clinton,  took  possession  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  blocked  up  commodore  Hopkins'  squadron  and  a  number  of  privateers 
at  Providence ;  but  this  measure  was  disadvantageous  to  the  British,  as  it 
required  the  presence  of  troops  which  might  have  been  much  more  advan- 
tageously employed. 

The  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia  now  becoming  the  seat  of  war,  con- 
gress adjourned  to  Baltimore ;  resolving  at  the  same  time  '  that  general 
Washington  should  be  possessed  of  full  powers  to  order  and  direct  all 
things  relative  to  the  department  and  the  operations  of  the  war.'  In  this 
extremity,  judicious  determinations  in  the  cabinet  were  accompanied  with 
vigorous  operations  in  the  field.  The  united  exertions  of  civil  and  military 
officers  had  by  this  time  brought  a  considerable  body  of  militia  into  their 
ranks.  General  Sullivan  too,  on  whom  the  command  of  general  Lee's 
division  devolved  on  his  capture,  promptly  obeyed  the  orders  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief, and  at  this  period  joined  him,  and  general  Heath  marched 
a  detachment  from  Peck's  Kill. 

*  General  Lee  had  been  a  British  officer,  and  had  engaged  in  the  American  service 
before  the  acceptance  of  the  resignation  of  his  commission.  Sir  William  Howe  for  this 
reason  pretended  to  view  him  as  a  traitor,  and  at  first  refused  to  admit  him  to  his  pa- 
role, or  to  consider  him  as  a  subject  of  exchange.  Congress  directed  the  commander- 
in-chief  to  propose  to  Sir  William  Howe  to  exchange  six  field-officers  for  general  Lee.  In 
case  the  proposal  was  rejected,  that  body  resolved,  that  these  officers  should  be  closely 
confined,  and  in  every  respect  receive  the  treatment  that  general  Lee  did.  The  proposi- 
tion not  being  acceded  to,  the  resolution  of  congress  was  carried  into  effect,  bv  the  exe 
•cutives  of  the  states  in  whose  custody  the  selected  field-officers  were,  with  a  degree  of 
severity  which  perhaps  even  the  treatment  of  general  Lee  hardly  warranted. 

57* 


678  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  army,  with  these  reinforcements,  amounted  to  seven  thousand  men, 
and  general  Washington  determined  to  commence  active  and  bold  opera* 
tions.  He  had  noticed  the  loose  and  uncovered  state  of  the  winter  quarters 
of  the  British  army,  and  contemplated  the  preservation  of  Philadelphia, 
and  the  recovery  of  New  Jersey,  by  sweeping,  at  one  stroke,  all  the  British 
cantonments  upon  the  Delaware.  The  present  position  of  his  forces 
favored  the  execution  of  his  plan.  The  troops  under  the  immediate  com- 
mand of  general  Washington,  consisting  of  about  two  thousand  four  hun- 
dred men,  were  ordered  to  cross  the  river  at  M'Konkey's  ferry,  nine  miles 
above  Trenton,  to  attack  that  post.  General  Irvine  was  directed  to  cross 
with  his  division  at  Trenton  ferry,  to  secure  the  bridge  below  the  town, 
and  prevent  the  retreat  of  the  enemy  that  way.  General  Cadwallader 
received  orders  to  pass  the  river  at  Bristol  ferry,  and  assault  the  post  at 
Burlington.  The  night  of  the  twenty-fifth  was  assigned  for  the  execution 
of  this  daring  scheme.  It  proved  to  be  severely  cold,  and  so  much  ice  was 
made  in  the  river,  that  general  Irvine  and  general  Cadwallader,  after  hav- 
ing strenuously  exerted  themselves,  found  it  impracticable  to  pass  their 
divisions,  and  their  part  of  the  plan  totally  failed.  The  commander-in- 
chief  was,  however,  more  fortunate,  and,  though  with  much  difficulty  and 
considerable  loss  of  time,  succeeded  in  crossing  the  river,  and  reached 
Trenton  by  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

The  brave  colonel  Rawle,  the  commanding  officer,  assembled  his  forces 
for  the  defence  of  his  post ;  but  he  was  mortally  wounded  by  the  first  fire, 
and  his  men,  in  apparent  dismay,  attempted  to  file  off  towards  Princeton. 
General  Washington,  perceiving  their  intention,  moved  a  part  of  his  troops 
into  this  road  in  their  front,  and  defeated  the  design.  Their  artillery  being 
seized,  and  the  Americans  pressing  upon  them,  they  surrendered.  Twenty 
of  the  Germans  were  killed,  and  a  thousand  made  prisoners.  By  the  fail- 
ure of  general  Irvine,  a  small  body  of  the  enemy  stationed  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  town  escaped  over  the  bridge  to  Bordentown.  Of  the  American 
troops,  two  privates  were  killed  and  two  frozen  to  death,  and  one  officer 
and  three  or  four  privates  were  wounded.  Could  the  other  divisions  have 
crossed  the  Delaware,  general  Washington's  plan,  in  its  full  extent,  would 
probably  have  succeeded.  Not  thinking  it  prudent  to  hazard  the  fruits  of 
this  gallant  stroke  by  more  daring  attempts,  the  general  the  same  day  re- 
crossed  the  Delaware  with  his  prisoners,  with  six  pieces  of  artillery,  a 
thousand  stand  of  arms,  and  some  military  stores. 

This  display  of  enterprise  and  vigor  on  the  part  of  the  Americans  asto- 
nished and  perplexed  general  Howe,  and,  though  in  the  depth  of  winter,  he 
found  it  necessary  to  commence  active  operations.  Such  was  the  reviving 
influence  on  the  minds  of  the  American  soldiers,  and  such  the  skill  which 
the  commander-in-chief  exercised,  that,  after  several  successful  operations 
following  that  of  Trenton,  he  not  only  saved  Philadelphia  and  Pennsylva- 
nia, but  recovered  the  greatest  part  of  the  Jerseys,  in  defiance  of  an  army 
vastly  superior  to  his,  in  discipline,  resources,  and  numbers.  Of  all  their 
recent  extensive  possessions  in  the  Jerseys,  the  English  retained  now  only 
the  posts  of  Brunswick  and  Amboy.  These  successful  operations  on  the 
part  of  the  Americans  were  immediately  followed  by  a  proclamation,  in  the 
name  of  general  Washington,  absolving  all  those  who  had  been  induced 
to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  tendered  by  the  British  commissioners,  and 
promising  them  protection  on  condition  of  their  subscribing  to  a  form  of 


HISTORY.  679 

oath  prescribed  by  congress.  The  effects  of  this  proclamation  were  almost 
instantaneous.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Jerseys,  who  had  conceived  a  vio- 
lent hatred  to  the  British  army,  on  account  of  their  unchecked  course  of 
jplundering,  instantly  renounced  their  allegiance  to  Great  Britain,  and  attach- 
ed themselves  to  the  cause  of  America.  Several  who  were  resolved  to 
avenge  their  wrongs,  joined  the  army  under  general  Washington,  while 
others  rendered  equal  service  to  the  side  to  which  they  attached  themselves, 
by  supplying  the  American  army  with  provisions  and  fuel,  and  by  convey- 
ing intelligence  of  the  operations  of  the  British  army. 

Before  entering  on  the  campaign  of  1777,  it  will  be  proper  briefly  to  no- 
tice the  state  of  affairs  in  Canada.  The  Americans  still  possessed  Crown 
Point  and  Ticonderoga,  and  were  masters  of  lake  Champlain.  To  dispos- 
sess them  of  these  posts  was  an  arduous  and  a  difficult  task,  inasmuch  as 
the  British  had  not  a  vessel  on  lake  Champlain  to  oppose  the  American 
fleet.  Difficult,  however,  as  it  was,  general  Carieton  resolved  to  use  every 
effort  to  procure  an  adequate  naval  force,  and  at  length  succeeding  in  the 
attainment  of  his  object,  he  acquired  a  decided  superiority.  On  the  11th 
of  October,  the  British  fleet  discovered  that  of  their  opponents  very  advan- 
tageously posted  off  the  island  Valicour,  with  an  intention  of  defending  the 
passage  between  that  island  and  the  western  main.  A  schooner  and  some 
gun-boats,  being  considerably  ahead  of  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  began  the  en- 
gagement, which  was  continued  for  some  hours  on  both  sides  with  great 
intrepidity.  Brigadier-general  Waterbury,  in  the  Washington  galley, 
fought  with  undaunted  bravery,  until  nearly  all  his  officers  were  killed  or 
wounded,  and  his  vessel  greatly  injured,  when  Arnold  ordered  the  remain- 
ing shattered  vessels  to  retire  up  the  lake  towards  Crown  Point,  to  refit. 

Two  days  afterwards  they  were  overtaken  by  the  British,  and  the  action 
was  renewed.  The  Washington  galley,  crippled  in  the  first  action,  was 
soon  obliged  to  strike  and  surrender.  General  Arnold,  having  obstinately 
defended  himself  with  great  judgment  and  gallantry  against  a  superior 
force,  was  at  length  so  closely  pressed,  that  he  was  compelled  to  run  on 
shore  his  own  vessel,  the  Congress  galley,  which,  with  five  gondolas,  was 
abandoned  and  blown  up.  Of  sixteen  American  vessels,  eleven  were  taken 
or  destroyed ;  of  the  British,  two  gondolas  were  sunk,  and  one  blown  up 
with  sixty  men.  The  loss  of  men  on  each  side  was  supposed  to  be  nearly 
equal ;  that  of  the  Americans  was  estimated  at  about  a  hundred.  The 
British  army  and  fleet  now  established  themselves  at  Crown  Point,  and 
proceeded  to  strengthen  the  old  fortifications,  originally  erected  at  this 
place  by  the  French  in  1756 ;  but  they  very  soon  abandoned  this  station, 
and  retired  into  Canada.  « 

Having  secured  the  Hessian  prisoners  on  the  Pennsylvania  side  of  the  ' 
Delaware,  Washington  recrossed  the  river  two  days  after  the  action,  and  ; 
took  possession  of  Trenton.     Generals  Mifflin  and  Cadwallader,  who  lay  ' 
at  Bordentown  and  Crosswix  with  three  thousand  six  hundred   militia, 
were  ordered  to  march  up  in  the  night  of  the  1st  of  January,  to  join  the 
commander-in-chief,  whose  whole  effective  force,  including  this  accession, 
did  not  exceed  five  thousand  men.     The  detachments  of  the  British  army 
which  had  been  distributed  over  New  Jersey,  now  assembled  at  Princeton, 
and  were  joined  by  the  army  from  Brunswick  under  lord  Cornwallis. 
From  this  position  they  advanced  toward  Trenton  in  great  force,  on  the 
morning  of  the  2d  of  January ;  and,  after  some  slight  skirmishing  with 


680  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

troops  detached  to  harass  and  delay  their  march,  the  van  of  their  army- 
reached  Trenton  about  four  in  the  afternoon.  On  their  approach,  general 
Washington  retired  across  the  Assumpinck,  a  rivulet  that  runs  through 
the  town,  and  by  some  field-pieces,  posted  on  its  opposite  banks,  compelled 
them,  after  attempting  to  cross  in  several  places,  to  fall  back  out  of  the 
reach  of  his  guns.  The  two  armies,  kindling  their  fires,  retained  their 
positions  on  opposite  sides  of  the  rivulet,  and  kept  up  a  cannonade  until 
night. 

The  situation  of  the  American  general  was  at  this  moment  extremely 
critical.  Nothing  but  a  stream,  in  many  places  fordable,  separated  his 
■army  from  an  enemy  in  every  respect  its  superior.  If  he  remained  in  his 
present  position,  he  was  certain  of  being  attacked  the  next  morning,  at  the 
hazard  of  the  entire  destruction  of  his  little  army.  If  he  should  retreat  over 
the  Delaware,  the  ice  in  that  river  not  being  firm  enough  to  admit  a  pas- 
sage upon  it,  there  was  danger  of  great  loss,  perhaps  of  a  total  defeat ;  the 
Jerseys  would  be  in  full  possession  of  the  enemy ;  the  public  mind  would 
be  depressed ;  recruiting  would  be  discouraged ;  and  Philadelphia  would 
be  within  the  reach  of  general  Howe.  In  this  extremity,  he  boldly  deter- 
mined to  abandon  the  Delaware,  and,  by  a  circuitous  march  along  the  left 
flank  of  the  enemy,  fall  into  their  rear  at  Princeton.  When  it  was  dark, 
the  army,  leaving  its  fires  lighted,  and  the  sentinels  on  the  margin  of  the 
creek,  decamped  with  perfect  secrecy.  About  sunrise  two  British  regi- 
ments, that  were  on  their  march  to  join  the  rear  of  the  British  army  at 
Maidenhead,  fell  in  with  the  van  of  the  Americans,  conducted  by  general 
Mercer,  and  a  very  sharp  action  ensued.  The  advanced  party  of  Ameri- 
cans, composed  chiefly  of  militia,  soon  gave  way,  and  the  few  regulars 
attached  to  them  could  not  maintain  their  ground.  General  Mercer,  while 
gallantly  exerting  himself  to  rally  his  broken  troops,  received  a  mortal 
wound. 

General  Washington,  however,  who  followed  close  in  their  rear,  now 
led  on  the  main  body  of  the  army,  and  attacked  the  enemy  with  great  spirit. 
While  he  exposed  himself  to  their  hottest  fire,  he  was  so  well  supported  by 
the  same  troops  which  had  aided  him  a  few  days  before  in  the  victory  at 
Trenton,  that  the  British  were  compelled  to  give  way,  and  Washington 
pressed  forward  to  Princeton.  A  party  of  the  British  that  had  taken  re- 
fuge in  the  college,  after  receiving  a  few  discharges  from  the  American 
field-pieces,  surrendered  themselves  prisoners  of  war ;  but  the  principal 
part  of  the  regiment  that  was  left  there,  saved  itself  by  a  precipitate  retreat 
to  Brunswick.  In  this  action  upwards  of  a  hundred  of  the  British  were 
killed,  and  nearly  three  hundred  were  taken  prisoners.  Great  was  the 
surprise  of  lord  Cornwallis  when  the  report  of  the  artillery  at  Princeton, 
and  the  arrival  of  breathless  messengers,  apprized  him  that  the  enemy  was 
in  his  rear.  Alarmed  by  the  danger  of  his  position,  he  commenced  a 
retreat ;  and,  being  harassed  by  the  militia  and  the  countrymen  who  had 
suffered  from  the  outrages  perpetrated  by  his  troops  on  their  advance,  he 
did  not  deem  himself  in  safety  till  he  arrived  at  Brunswick,  from  whence, 
by  means  of  the  Rariton,  he  had  communication  with  New  York. 

The  successes  of  the  American  arms  at  Trenton  and  at  Princeton  were 
followed  by  important  consequences.  The  affairs  of  the  United  States, 
before  these  events,  appeared  to  be  desperate.  Two  thousand  of  the  regu- 
lar troops  had  a  right,  on  the  1st  of  January,  to  demand  their  discharge. 


HISTORY.  681 

The  recruiting  service  was  at  an  end,  and  general  despondency  prevailed. 
The  triumphs  of  the  British  through  the  previous  parts  of  the  campaign 
produced  a  common  apprehension,  in  the  citizens  of  the  middle  states,  that 
any  further  struggle  would  be  useless,  and  that  America  must  eventually 
return  to  her  allegiance  to  Great  Britain.  Many  individuals  made  their 
peace  with  the  commissioners,  and  took  protection  from  the  officers  of  the 
crown ;  and  more  discovered  an  inclination  to  do  it,  when  opportunity 
should  present  itself.  General  Howe  supposed  New  Jersey  restored  to  the 
British  government,  and  thought  the  war  drawing  to  a  close.  But  these 
successes  were  considered  as  great  victories,  and  produced  important  effects 
upon  the  public  mind.  The  character  of  the  commander-in-chief  propor- 
tionably  rose  in  the  estimation  of  the  great  mass  of  American  people,  who 
now  respected  themselves,  and  confided  in  their  persevering  efforts  to  secure 
the  great  object  of  contention — the  independence  of  their  country.  Other 
causes  had  a  powerful  operation  upon  the  minds  of  the  yeomanry  of  New 
Jersey. 

The  British  commanders  tolerated,  or  at  least  did  not  restrain,  gross  li- 
centiousness in  their  army.  The  inhabitants  of  the  state  which  they  boast- 
ed was  restored  to  the  bosom  of  the  parent  country,  were  treated  not  as 
reclaimed  friends,  but  as  conquered  enemies.  The  soldiers  were  guilty  of 
every  species  of  rapine,  and  with  little  discrimination  between  those  who 
had  opposed  or  supported  the  measures  of  Britain.  The  abuse  was  not 
limited  to  the  plundering  of  property.  Every  indignity  was  offered  to  the 
persons  of  the  inhabitants,  not  excepting  those  outrages  to  the  female  sex 
which  are  felt  by  ingenuous  minds  with  the  keenest  anguish,  and  excite 
noble  spirits  to  desperate  resistance.  These  aggravated  abuses  roused  the 
people  of  New  Jersey  to  repel  that  army  to  which  they  had  voluntarily 
submitted,  in  the  expectation  of  protection  and  security.  At  the  dawn  of 
success  upon  the  American  arms,  they  rose  in  small  bands  to  oppose  their 
invaders.  They  scoured  the  country,  cut  off  every  soldier  who  straggled 
from  his  corps,  and  in  many  instances  repelled  the  foraging  parties  of  the 
enemy.  Early  in  this  year  also  the  Americans  were  gratified  by  the  arri- 
val of  a  vessel  from  France  at  Portsmouth,  in  New  Hampshire,  with  up- 
wards of  eleven  thousand  stand  of  arms,  and  a  thousand  barrels  of  powder; 
and  about  the  same  time  ten  thousand  stand  of  arms  arrived  in  another 
part  of  the  United  States. 

This  supply  was,  however,  in  some  measure  counterbalanced.  In  the 
month  of  March  the  British  sent  out  two  detachments  to  destroy  the  Ame- 
rican stores  at  Peekskill,  on  the  North  river,  and  at  Danbury,  in  Connec- 
ticut. Both  succeeded  in  their  attempt ;  and  although  the  stores  destroy- 
ed did  not  equal  in  quantity  the  report  on  which  the  expeditions  were 
planned,  yet  their  loss  was  sensibly  felt  by  the  Americans  in  the  active 
season  of  the  campaign. 

Sir  William  Howe,  having  in  vain  attempted  to  entice  or  provoke  gene- 
ral Washington  to  an  engagement,  had,  in  June,  retired  with  his  army 
from  the  Jerseys  to  Staten  island.  After  keeping  the  American  general 
in  long  and  perplexing  suspense  concerning  his  intended  operations,  he  at 
length  sailed  from  Sandy  Hook  with  about  sixteen  thousand  men,  entered 
Chesapeake  bay,  and  on  the  24th  of  August  arrived  at  the  head  of  Elk 
river.  Generals  Grant  and  Knyphausen  having  joined  him  on  the  8th  of 
September  with  the  troops  under  their  command,  the  whole  army  moved 
S6 


682  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

onward  in  two  columns  toward  Philadelphia,  the  possession  of  which  was 
now  evidently  the  object  of  the  British  commander.  Washington,  who 
regulated  his  movements  by  those  of  the  enemy,  had  by  this  time,  with  the 
whole  American  army  excepting  the  light  infantry,  which  remained  on  the 
lines,  taken  a  position  behind  Red  Clay  creek,  on  the  road  leading  directly 
from  the  enemy's  camp  to  Philadelphia.  The  British  rapidly  advanced 
until  they  were  within  two  miles  of  the  Americans  ;  while  Washington 
crossed  the  Brandywine,  and  took  post  on  a  height  behind  that  river. 

At  daybreak  on  the  morning  of  the  11th  it  was  ascertained  that  Sir 
William  Howe  in  person  had  crossed  the  Brandywine  at  the  forks,  and 
was  rapidly  marching  down  the  north  side  of  the  river  to  attack  the  Ame- 
rican army.  The  commander-in-chief  now  ordered  general  Sullivan  to 
form  the  right  wing  to  oppose  the  column  of  Sir  William.  General  Wayne 
was  directed  to  remain  at  Chadd's  ford  with* the  left  wing,  to  dispute  the 
passage  of  the  river  with  Knyphausen.  General  Green,  with  his  division, 
was  posted  as  a  reserve  in  the  centre  between  Sullivan  and  Wayne,  to 
reinforce  either,  as  circumstances  might  require.  General  Sullivan  march- 
ed up  the  river,  until  he  found  favorable  ground  on  which  to  form  his 
men ;  his  left  was  near  the  Brandywine,  and  both  flanks  were  covered 
with  thick  wood.  At  half-past  four  o'clock,  when  his  line  was  scarcely 
formed,  the  British,  under  lord  Cornwallis,  commenced  a  spirited  attack. 
The  action  was  for  some  time  severe  ;  but  the  American  right,  which  was 
not  properly  in  order  when  the  assault  began,  at  length  gave  way,  and  ex- 
posed the  flank  of  the  troops  that  maintained  their  ground  to  a  destructive 
fire,  and  continuing  to  break  from  the  right,  the  whole  line  finally  gave 
way.  As  soon  as  the  firing  began,  general  Washington,  with  general 
Green's  division,  hastened  towards  the  scene  of  action,  but  before  his  arri- 
val Sullivan  was  routed,  and  the  commander-in-chief  could  only  check  the 
pursuit  of  the  enemy,  and  cover  the  retreat  of  the  beaten  troops.  During 
these  transactions  general  Knyphausen  assaulted  the  works  erected  for  the 
defence  of  Chadd's  ford,  and  soon  carried  them.  General  Wayne,  by  this 
time  learning  the  fate  of  the  other  divisions,  drew  off  his  troops.  General 
Washington  retreated  with  his  whole  force  that  night  to  Chester.  The 
American  loss  in  this  battle  was  about  three  hundred  killed  and  six  hun- 
dred wounded.  Four  hundred  were  made  prisoners,  but  these  chiefly  of 
the  wounded. 

Perceiving  that  the  enemy  were  moving  into  the  Lancaster  road,  towards 
the  city,  general  Washington  took  possession  of  ground  near  the  Warren 
tavern,  on  the  left  of  the  British,  and  twenty-three  miles  from  Philadelphia. 
The  protection  of  his  stores  at  Reading  was  one  object  of  this  movement. 
The  next  morning  he  was  informed  of  the  approach  of  the  British  army. 
He  immediately  put  his  troops  in  motion  to  engage  the  enemy.  The  ad- 
vance of  the  two  hostile  armies  met  and  began  to  skirmish,  when  a  violent 
6torm  came  on,  which  prevented  a  general  engagement,  and  rendered  the 
retreat  of  the  Americans  absolutely  necessary.  The  inferiority  of  the 
muskets  in  the  hands  of  the  American  soldiery,  which  had  been  verified  in 
every  action,  was  strikingly  illustrated  in  this  retreat.  The  gun-locks  be- 
ing badly  made,  and  the  cartridge-boxes  imperfectly  constructed,  this  storm 
rendered  most  of  the  arms  unfit  for  use ;  and  all  the  ammunition  was 
damaged.  The  army  was  in  consequence  extremely  exposed,  and  their 
danger  became  the  greater,  as  many  of  the  soldiers  were  destitute  of  bayo* 


msrroRr.  693 

nets.  Fortunately  the  tempest,  which  produced  such  serious  mischief  to 
the  Americans,  prevented  the  pursuit  of  the  British.  Washington  still 
continued  to  make  every  effort  to  save  the  capital ;  but  Sir  William  Howe* 
having  secured  the  command  of  the  Schuylkill,  on  the  23d  of  September, 
crossed  it  with  his  whole  army  ;  on  the  26th  he  advanced  to  Germantown  ; 
and  on  the  succeeding  day  lord  Cornwallis,  at  the  head  of  a  strong  detach- 
ment, entered  Philadelphia  in  triumph. 

The  American  army,  reinforced  to  eight  thousand  continental  troops  and 
three  thousand  militia,  took  a  position  at  Shippack  creek,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Schuylkill,  about  twenty  miles  from  Philadelphia,  and  sixteen  from 
Germantown.  At  the  latter  place  was  posted  the  main  body  of  the  British 
army.  The  first  object  of  Sir  William  Howe  was  to  subdue  the  defences, 
and  remove  the  impediments  of  the  Delaware,  that  a  communication  might 
be  opened  with  the  British  shipping.  General  Washington  made  every 
effort  to  prevent  the  execution  of  his  enemy's  design,  in  the  hope  of  forcing 
general  Howe  out  of  Philadelphia,  by  preventing  supplies  of  provisions 
from  reaching  him.  Of  the  attainment  of  this  important  object  he  had  no 
doubt,  could  the  passage  of  the  Delaware  be  rendered  impracticable.  For 
this  purpose  works  had  been  erected  on  a  bank  of  mud  and  sand  in  the 
river,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Schuylkill,  and  about  seven  miles  below 
Philadelphia.  The  place,  from  these  works,  was  denominated  Fort  island, 
and  the  works  themselves  fort  Mifflin.  On  a  neck  of  land  on  the  opposite 
shore  of  New  Jersey,  called  Red  Bank,  a  fort  was  constructed  and  mount- 
ed with  heavy  artillery,  and  called  fort  Mercer.  Fort  island  and  Red 
Bank  were  distant  from  each  other  half  a  mile.  In  the  channel  of  the  Dela- 
ware, which  ran  between  them,  two  ranges  of  chevaux-de-frise  were  sunk. 
These  consisted  of  large  pieces  of  timber,  strongly  framed  together,  and  point- 
ed with  iron,  and  they  completely  obstructed  the  passage  of  ships.  These 
works  were  covered  by  several  galleys,  floating  batteries,  and  armed  ships. 

Sir  William  Howe  having  detached  a  considerable  force  from  German- 
town  to  operate  against  the  works  on  the  Delaware,  general  Washington 
thought  this  a  favorable  opportunity  to  attack  the  British  army  in  their 
cantonments.  The  line  of  the  British  encampment  crossed  the  village  of 
Germantown  at  right  angles,  near  its  centre,  and  its  flanks  were  strongly 
covered.  The  army,  having  moved  from  its  ground  about  seven  in  the 
afternoon  of  the  3d  of  October,  began  an  attack  about  sunrise  the  next 
morning.  The  advance  of  the  column,  led  by  Sullivan,  and  accompanied 
by  the  commander-in-chief,  encountered  and  drove  in  a  picket,  which  pre- 
sently gave  way  ;  and  his  main  bpdy,  soon  following,  engaged  the  light 
infantry  and  other  troops  encamped  near  the  picket,  and  forced  them  from 
their  ground.  Though  closely  pursued,  lieutenant-colonel  Musgrove,  with 
six  companies,  took  post  in  a  strong  stone  house,  which  lay  in  the  way  of 
the  Americans,  and  severely  galled  them  by  a  fire  of  musketry  from  the 
doors  and  windows.  General  Washington  immediately  ordered  a  brigade 
to  surround  the  house ;  but  colonel  Musgrove  refused  to  surrender. 

Four  pieces  of  cannon  were  brought  against  him,  but  he  sustained  the 
fire  of  them  until  major-general  Gray,  with  the  third  brigade,  and  briga- 
dier-general Agnew,  with  the  fourth,  came  to  his  assistance,  and  attacked 
the  Americans  with  great  spirit.  In  the  mean  time  general  Green  arrived 
with  his  column,  and  attacked  the  right  wing  of  the  British.  Colonel 
JVIatthews  routed  a  party  of  the  British  opposed  to  him ;  but  being  envelope*} 


684  BOOK  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

in  a  most  extraordinary  fog,  he  lost  sight  of  the  brigade  to  which  he  be- 
longed, and  was  taken  prisoner  with  his  whole  regiment.  At  length  a 
part  of  the  right  wing  of  the  British  attacked  the  Americans  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  town  ;  and  the  embarrassments  among  the  American  troops, 
occasioned  by  the  darkness,  gave  the  English  time  to  recover  from  their 
consternation.  Sullivan's  division  had  penetrated  far  into  Germantown ; 
but  the  main  body  of  the  American  army  now  commenced  a  retreat,  and 
all  efforts  to  rally  it  proved  ineffectual.  In  this  battle  the  loss  of  the  Ame- 
ricans in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  was  not  less  than  twelve  hundred 
men,  while  that  of  the  British  did  not  exceed  half  that  number.  The 
American  army  encamped  again  on  Shippack  creek,  but  soon  after  ad- 
vanced to  White  Marsh,  while  the  royal  army  removed  from  Germantown 
to  Philadelphia. 

The  works  in  the  Delaware  now  engaged  the  attention  of  the  British 
and  American  generals.  Lord  Howe,  by  continued  exertion,  having  over- 
come the  obstructions  which  the  Americans  had  placed  in  the  river  at 
Billingsport,  a  joint  attack  by  sea  and  land  was  planned  against  Red  Bank 
and  Fort  island.  The  Augusta,  a  sixty-four  gun  ship,  the  Merlin  frigata, 
and  several  small  armed  vessels,  moved  up  the  Delaware  to  assault  th<* 
works  on  Fort  or  Mud  island.  Count  Donop  crossed  into  New  Jersey 
with  twelve  hundred  Germans,  and  in  the  evening  of  the  22d  appeared 
before  fort  Mercer,  on  Red  Bank.  His  assault  was  highly  spirited,  and  the 
defence  intrepid  and  obstinate.  Colonel  Green,  the  commandant,  whos* 
garrison  did  not  exceed  five  hundred  men,  was  unable  adequately  to  man 
the  outworks ;  but  he  galled  the  Germans  in  their  advance,  and  on  their 
near  approach  he  quitted  them,  and  retired  within  the  inner  intrenchments. 
They  pressed  forward  with  undaunted  bravery,  and  the  Americans  poured 
upon  them  a  deadly  fire.  Count  Donop  was  himself  mortally  wounded  at 
the  head  of  his  gallant  corps  ;  the  second  in  command  soon  after  fell,  and 
the  third  immediately  drew  off  his  forces.  The  assailants  had  four  hun- 
dred men  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  garrison,  fighting  under  cover, 
had  only  thirty.  In  the  mean  time,  fort  Mifflin  was  attacked  by  the  ship- 
ping, and  by  batteries  erected  on  the  Pennsylvania  shore.  Incessant  volleys 
of  bombs  and  cannon-balls  were  discharged  upon  it.  But  at  ebb  tide  the 
Augusta  and  Merlin  grounded,  and  were  burnt.  The  garrison  supported 
this  tremendous  fire  without  material  injury.  The  resistance  of  the  forts 
on  the  Delaware  far  exceeding  the  expectations  of  the  British  commanders, 
they  adopted  measures  to  overcome  it  without  the  hazard  of  a  second 
assault.  They  erected  batteries  upon  Providence  island,  within  five  hun- 
dred yards  of  the  American  fort.  They  also  brought  up  their  shipping, 
gun-boats,  &c,  and  from  the  10th  to  the  16th  of  November,  battered  the 
American  works.  By  this  time  the  defences  were  entirely  beaten  down, 
every  piece  of  cannon  was  dismounted,  and  one  of  the  ships  approached  so 
near  fort  Mifflin  as  to  throw  hand-grenades  from  her  tops  into  it,  which 
killed  the  men  upon  the  platform.  The  brave  garrison  received  orders  to 
quit  the  post.  Red  Bank  being  no  longer  useful,  its  garrison  and  stores 
were  also  withdrawn  on  the  approach  of  lord  Cornwallis  with  five  thousand 
men  to  invest  it. 

While  these  inauspicious  operations  were  carried  on  in  the  south,  the 
northern  portion  of  the  country  was  a  theatre  of  events  that  more  than 
eounterbalanced  them.     A  principal  object  of  the  British  in  the  campaign 


HISTORY.  685 

cf  this  year,  was  to  open  a  free  communication  between  New  York  and 
Canada.  The  British  ministry  were  sanguine  in  their  hopes,  that,  by 
effecting  this  object,  New  England,  which  they  considered  as  the  soul  of 
the  confederacy,  might  be  severed  from  the  neighboring  states,  and  com- 
pelled to  submission.  In  prosecution  of  this  design,  an  army  of  British 
and  German  troops,  amounting  to  upwards  of  seven  thousand  men,  exclu- 
sive of  artillery,  was  put  under  the  command  of  lieutenant-general  Bur- 
goyne,  an  enterprising  and  able  officer.  The  plan  of  operations  consisted 
of  two  parts.  General  Burgoyne  with  the  main  body  was  to  advance  by 
way  of  lake  Champlain,  and  force  his  way  to  Albany,  or,  at  least,  so  far  as 
to  effect  a  junction  with  the  royal  army  from  New  York;  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  St.  Leger,  with  about  two  hundred  British,  a  regiment  of  New 
York  loyalists,  raised  and  commanded  by  Sir  John  Johnson,  and  a  large 
body  of  Indians,  was  to  ascend  the  St.  Lawrence  to  lake  Ontario,  and  from 
that  quarter  to  penetrate  toward  Albany  by  the  way  of  the  Mohawk  river. 
General  Burgoyne  arrived  at  Quebec  in  May.  In  the  latter  end  of 
June  he  advanced  with  his  army  to  Crown  Point,  and  from  thence  proceed- 
ed to  invest  Ticonderoga,  which  was  soon  abandoned  by  the  Americans, 
under  general  St.  Clair,  who,  after  a  distressing  march,  joined  general 
Schuyler  at  fort  Edward,  on  the  river  Hudson.  General  Burgoyne,  hav- 
ing with  incredible  labor  and  fatigue  conducted  his  army  through  the  wil- 
derness from  Skenesborough,  reached  fort  Edward  on  the  30th  of  July. 
As  he  approached  that  place,  general  Schuyler,  whose  forces,  even  since 
the  junction  of  St.  Clair,  did  not  exceed  four  thousand  four  hundred  men, 
retired  over  the  Hudson  to  Saratoga.  Early  in  August  St.  Leger  invested 
fort  Schuyler,  and  at  first  obtained  some  advantages  over  the  Americans ; 
but,  by  stratagem,"*  the  Indians  were  induced  to  desert  him,  and  finding 
himself  abandoned  by  seven  or  eight  hundred  of  these  important  auxilia- 
ries,! he  decamped  in  great  confusion,  and  returned  to  Montreal,  leaving 
his  tents,  with  most  of  his  artillery  and  stores,  in  the  field.  While  St. 
Leger  was  thus  unsuccessful  at  fort  Schuyler,  a  detachment  under  colonel 
Baum,  despatched  to  seize  a  large  depot  in  New  Hampshire  grants,  was 
also  defeated  by  a  body  of  militia  under  general   Stark. I     Meanwhile, 

*  Thacher's  Military  Journal,  p.  107. 

f  It  has  ever  been  a  source  of  reproach  against  the  British,  that  they  employed  the 
sanguinary  Indians  as  their  allies.  The  atrocities  they  committed  might  be  somewhat 
exaggerated  by  general  Gates  and  others  ;  but  that  instances  did  occur,  to  the  disgrace 
of  their  civilized  associates,  cannot  be  denied.  The  melancholy  case  of  Miss  M'Rea 
will  long  be  remembered.  Captain  Jones,  her  lover,  an  officer  in  the  British  army, 
anxious  on  her  account,  engaged  some  Indians  of  two  different  tribes  to  convey  her 
away  from  among  the  Americans  for  the  purpose  of  security ;  fearing  for  her,  probably, 
on  account  of  her  father's  being  interested  in  the  royal  cause,  and  of  her  attachment  to 
himself.  Having  promised  to  reward  the  person  who  should  bring  her  safe  to  him  with 
a  barrel  of  rum,  the  two  Indians,  who  had  already  conveyed  her  to  some  distance,  dis- 
puted which  of  them  should  present  to  captain  Jones  the  object  of  his  affections.  Each 
was  anxious  for  the  reward ;  and  that  the  other  might  not  receive  it,  one  of  them  killed 
her  with  a  blow  of  his  tomahawk.  Upon  the  first  intelligence  of  what  had  happened, 
Burgoyne  obliged  the  Indians  to  deliver  up  the  murderer,  and  threatened  to  put  him  to 
death.  Many  thought  the  threat  would  have  been  executed  ;  but  he  was  pardoned  upon 
the  Indians  agreeing  to  terms  enjoined  them  by  Burgoyne,  which  the  general  thought 
would  be  more  efficacious  than  an  execution  to  prevent  similar  mischiefs. — Gordon,  vol. 
ii.  p.  544. 

%  l  The  colonel  was  furnished  with  the  following  curious  instructions,  which  fell  into 

58 


686  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

general  Burgoyne,  having  collected  about  thirty  days'  provision,  and  thrown 
a  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Hudson,  crossed  that  river  on  the  13th  and  14th 
of  September,  and  encamped  on  the  heights  and  plains  of  Saratoga.  Ge- 
neral Gates,  who  had  recently  taken  the  chief  command  of  the  northern 
department  of  the  American  army,  advanced  toward  the  British,  and  en- 
camped three  miles  above  Stillwater. 

On  the  night  of  the  17th,  Burgoyne  encamped  within  four  miles  of  the 
American  army  ;  and  about  noon  on  the  19th  advanced  in  full  force  against 
it.  The  right  wing  was  commanded  by  general  Burgoyne,  and  covered 
by  general  Frazer  and  colonel  Breyman  with  the  grenadiers  and  light  in- 
fantry, who  were  posted  along  some  high  grounds  on  the  right.  The  front 
and  flanks  were  covered  by  Indians,  provincials,  and  Canadians.  The 
left  wing  and  artillery  were  commanded  by  major-generals  Phillips  and 
Reidesel,  who  proceeded  along  the  great  road.  Colonel  Morgan,  who  was 
detached  to  observe  their  motions,  and  to  harass  them  as  they  advanced, 
soon  fell  in  with  their  pickets  in  front  of  their  right  wing,  attacked  them 
sharply,  and  drove  them  in.  A  strong  corps  was  brought  up  to  support 
them,  and,  after  a  severe  encounter,  Morgan  was  compelled  to  give  way  ; 
but  a  regiment  was  ordered  to  assist  him,  and  the  action  became  more  ge- 
neral. The  commanders  on  both  sides  supported  and  reinforced  their  re- 
spective parties ;  and  about  four  o'clock,  Arnold,  with  nine  continental 
regiments  and  Morgan's  corps,  was  completely  engaged  with  the  whole 
right  wing  of  the  British  army.  The  engagement  began  at  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  and  continued  till  after  sunset,  when  the  Americans 
thought  proper  to  retire,  and  leave  the  British  masters  of  the  field  of  battle. 
The  loss  on  each  side  was  nearly  equal,  six  hundred  being  killed  and 
wounded  on  the  part  of  the  British,  and  the  same  number  on  the  side  of 
the  Americans.  No  advantages  resulted  to  the  British  troops  from  this 
encounter;  while  the  conduct  of  the  Americans  fully  convinced  every  one 
1  that  they  were  able  to  sustain  an  attack  in  open  plains  with  the  intrepidi- 
ty, the  spirit,  and  the  coolness  of  veterans.  For  four  hours  they  maintained 
a  contest  hand  to  hand ;  and  when  they  retired,  it  was  not  because  they 
were  conquered,  but  because  the  approach  of  night  made  a  retreat  to  their 
camp  absolutely  necessary.' 

the  hands  of  general  Stark : — "  To  proceed  to  New  Hampshire  grants,  cross  the  moun- 
tains, scour  the  country,  with  Peter's  corps  (tories)  and  the  Indians,  from  Rockingham 
to  Otter  creek,  to  get  horses,  carriages,  and  cattle,  and  mount  Reidesel's  regiment  of 
dragoons ;  to  go  down  Connecticut  river  as  far  as  Brattleborough,  and  return  by  the 
great  road  to  Albany,  there  to  meet  general  Burgoyne  ;  to  endeavor  to  make  the  country 
believe  it  was  the  advanced  body  of  the  general's  army,  who  was  to  cross  Connecticut 
river  and  proceed  to  Boston,  and  that  at  Springfield  they  were  to  be  joined  by  the  troops 
from  Rhode  island.  All  officers,  civil  and  military,  acting  under  the  congress,  were  to 
be  made  prisoners.  To  tax  the  towns  where  they  halted  with  such  articles  as  they 
wanted,  and  take  hostages  for  the  performance,  &c.  You  are  to  bring  all  horses  fit  to 
mount  the  dragoons  or  to  serve  as  battalion  horses  for  the  troops,  with  as  many  saddles 
and  bridles  as  can  be  found.  The  number  of  horses  requisite,  besides  those  for  the 
dragoons,  ought  to  be  thirteen  hundred ;  if  you  can  bring  more,  so  much  the  better. 
The  horses  must  be  tied  in  strings  of  ten  each,  in  order  that  one  man  may  lead  ten 
horses."  This  redoubtable  commander  surely  must  be  one  of  the  happiest  men  of  the 
age,  to  imagine  that  such  prodigious  achievements  were  at  his  command, — that  such 
invaluable  resources  were  within  his  grasp.  But,  alas !  the  wisest  of  men  are  liable  to 
disappointment  in  their  sanguine  calculations,  and  to  have  their  favorite  projects  frus-i 
trated  by  the  casualties  of  war.  This  is  remarkably  verified  in  the  present  instance  * 
-r-Thacher's  Military  Journal,  p.  109. 


HISTORY.  687 

Both  armies  lay  some  time  in  sight  of  each  other,  each  fortifying  its 
camp  in  the  strongest  manner  possible.  Meanwhile,  the  difficulties  of 
the  British  general  were  daily  increasing ;  his  auxiliary  Indians  deserted 
him  soon  after  the  battle  of  Stillwater ;  and  his  army,  reduced  to  littlo 
more  than  five  thousand  men,  was  limited  to  half  the  usual  allowance  of 
provisions  ;  the  stock  of  forage  also  was  entirely  exhausted,  and  his  horses 
were  perishing  in  great  numbers  ;  the  American  army  had  become  so  aug- 
mented as  to  render  him  diffident  of  making  good  his  retreat ;  and,  to 
aggravate  his  distress,  no  intelligence  had  yet  been  received  of  the  approach 
of  general  Clinton,  or  of  any  diversion  in  his  favor  from  New  York.  In 
this  exigency,  general  Burgoyne  resolved  to  examine  the  possibility  of  dis- 
lodging the  Americans  from  their  posts  on  the  left,  by  which  means  he 
would  be  enabled  to  retreat  to  the  lakes.  For  this  purpose  he  drew  out 
fifteen  hundred  men,  which  he  headed  himself,  attended  by  generals  Phil- 
lips, Eeidesel,  and  Frazer.  This  detachment  had  scarcely  formed,  within 
less  than  half  a  mile  of  the  American  intrenchments,  when  a  furious  attack 
was  made,  which,  though  bravely  resisted,  was  decidedly  to  the  advantage 
of  the  assailants.  General  Burgoyne  now  became  convinced  that  it  was 
impossible  to  conduct  any  further  offensive  operations,  and  endeavored  to 
make  good  his  retreat  to  fort  George.    - 

Artificers  were  accordingly  despatched,  under  a  strong  escort,  to  repair 
the  bridges,  and  open  the  roads,  but  they  were  compelled  to  make  a  pre- 
cipitate retreat.  The  situation  of  general  Burgoyne  becoming  every  hour 
more  hazardous,  he  resolved  to  attempt  a  retreat  by  night  to  fort  Edward ; 
but  even  this  retrograde  movement  was  rendered  impracticable.  While 
the  army  was  preparing  to  march,  intelligence  was  received  that  the  Ame- 
ricans had  already  possessed  themselves  of  the  fort,  and  that  they  were 
well  provided  with  artillery.  No  avenue  to  escape  now  appeared.  In- 
cessant toil  and  continual  engagements  had  worn  down  the  British  army; 
its  provisions  were  nearly  exhausted,  and  there  were  no  means  of  procuring 
a  supply ;  while  the  American  army,  which  was  daily  increasing,  was 
already  much  greater  than  the  British  in  point  of  numbers,  and  almost 
encircled  them.  In  this  extremity,  the  British  general  called  a  council  of 
war;  and  it  was  unanimously  resolved  to  enter  into  a  convention  with 
general  Gates.  Preliminaries  were  soon  settled,  and  the  royal  army,  to 
the  number  of  five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty,  surrendered  prisoners 
of  war. 

The  capture  of  an  entire  army  was  justly  viewed  as  an  event  that  must 
essentially  affect  the  contest  between  Great  Britain  and  America ;  and 
while  it  excited  the  highest  joy  among  the  Americans,  it  could  not  but  have  a 
most  auspicious  influence  on  their  affairs  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  field. 
The  thanks  of  congress  were  voted  to  general  Gates  and  his  army ;  and  a 
medal  of  gold,  in  commemoration  of  this  splendid  achievement,  was  order- 
ed to  be  struck,  to  be  presented  to  him  by  the  president,  in  the  name  of 
the  United  States. 

General  Burgoyne's  surrender  is  certainly,  in  a  considerable  degree,  to 
be  attributed  to  the  want  of  co-operation  both  on  the  part  of  general  Carle- 
ton,  in  Canada,  and  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  at  New  York.  The  latter,  in- 
deed, performed  a  service,  which,  if  effected  a  little  earlier,  might  possibly 
have  relieved  Burgoyne.  With  nearly  three  thousand  men,  convoyed  hy 
some  ships  of  war  under  commodore  Hotham,  he  conducted  an  expedition  up 


688 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Hudson's  river,  in   October,  against  the  forts  Montgomery  and  Clinton. 
When  arrived  within  a  mile  of  the  place  of  destination,  the  troops  sepa* 


jjf            1    'm<u         -^r^jjji 

m^^mn 

--5a«*  fiS§R|         '^Sfes&T 

is^a^ll 

Surrender  at  Saratoga.. 

rated  into  two  columns ;  the  one,  consisting  of  nine  hundred  men,  under 
lieutenant  Campbell,  was  destined  for  the  attack  on  fort  Montgomery ;  the 
other,  under  the  immediate  command  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  was  to  storm 
the  stronger  post  of  fort  Clinton.  The  garrison,  when  summoned,  having 
refused  to  surrender,  the  assault  was  made  on  both  forts  at  the  same  instant. 
These  fortresses,  which  were  separated  from  each  other  by  a  creek  only, 
were  commanded  by  governor  Clinton,  a  brave  and  intelligent  officer,  who 
made  a  gallant  resistance  from  four  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  attack  be- 
gan, until  dark;  but,  the  post  having  been  designed  principally  to  prevent 
the  passing  of  ships,  the  works  on  the  land  side  were  incomplete  and 
untenable,  and  the  assailants  entered  them  with  fixed  bayonets.  Most  of 
the  garrison,  however,  effected  their  escape,  undercover  of  the  thick  smoke 
and  darkness. 

Having  noticed  the  most  important  features  of  the  military  operations  of 
the  year  1777,  it  will  be  proper,  before  entering  on  those  of  the  following 
years,  to  afford  the  reader  some  information  on  two  very  important  points 
— the  progress  made  by  the  Americans  in  their  foreign  relations,  and  the 
steps  which  had  been  taken  to  consolidate  the  general  government.  In 
both  cases  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  give  a  clear  and  comprehensive 
view  of  the  subject,  slightly  to  deviate  from  strict  chronological  order. 

The  contest  between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  had  not  long  com- 
menced, before  congress  directed  their  attention  to  the  possibility  of  attain- 
ing foreign  assistance.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1775,  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  hold  secret  correspondence  with  the  friends  of  America, 
both  in  Europe  and  other  parts  of  the  world. *  Early  in  the  year  1776, 
the  committee,  seeing  little  prospect  of  an  accommodation,  and  well  aware 
that  France  would  be  disposed  to  make  great  sacrifices  to  reduce  the  power 

*  The  committee  consisted  of  Mr.  Harrison,  Br.  Franklin,  Mr.  Johnson,  Mr.  Dickia 
son,  and  Mr.  Jay.  * 


HISTORY.  6S9 

©f  Great  Britain  by  the  separation  of  her  North  American  colonies,  sent 
Silas  Deane,  as  a  commercial  and  political  agent,  to  the  French  court.'* 
Mr.  Deane  arrived  in  Paris  about  the  1st  of  July,  and  was  indefatigable 
in  pursuing  the  objects  of  his  mission;  and  through  Dr.  Dubourg,  a  friend 
to  America,  was  in  a  few  days  introduced  to  Vergennes.  His  arrival  at 
Paris  was  immediately  known  in  London,  and  lord  Stormont  was  sent 
express  to  Paris  to  watch  his  movements.  Mr.  Deane  stated  to  the  French 
minister  the  objects  of  his  mission,  agreeably  to  his  instructions,  and  in  his 
first  conference  he  touched  upon  the  subject  of  forming  treaties  with  the 
Americans  in  case  of  their  declaring  themselves  independent.  The  Ameri- 
can agent  was  favorably  received  by  the  French  minister,  and  was  asked 
many  questions  in  relation  to  American  affairs.  Vergennes  informed  Mr. 
Deane,  that  though  the  French  court  estimated  highly  the  importance  of 
American  commerce,  yet,  considering  the  good  understanding  between  the 
courts  of  Versailles  and  London,  they  could  not  openly  encourage  the  ship- 
ping of  warlike  stores ;  but  no  obstructions  of  any  kind,  he  said,  would  be 
given.  On  the  subject  of  independence,  he  observed  that  was  an  event  in 
the  womb  of  time,  and  it  would  be  highly  improper  for  him  to  say  any 
thing  on  that  point  until  it  had  actually  taken  place.  This  first  conference 
with  the  French  minister  ended  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  American 
agent. 

As  soon  as  the  question  of  independence  was  decided  in  the  affirmative, 
congress  took  the  subject  of  foreign  affairs  into  their  own  hands  ;  and,  on 
the  11th  of  June,  appointed  a  committee  to  prepare  a  plan  of  treaties  with, 
foreign  powers.!  In  the  month  of  September,  congress  appointed  Dr. 
Franklin,  Mr.  Deane,  and  Mr.  Jefferson,  commissioners  to  proceed  to 
France. t  Dr.  Franklin  and  Mr.  Lee  arrived  at  Paris  in  December,  and 
the  objects  of  their  mission  were  soon  made  known  to  the  French  court. 
The  court  was  not  yet  prepared  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  to  form  treaties  with  them,  or  openly  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the 
Americans  ;  to  prove,  however,  his  good  wishes  towards  the  United  States, 
the  king  ordered  two  millions  of  livres  to  be  paid  to  them  by  quarterly 
payments,  which  should  be  augmented  as  the  state  of  his  finances  would 
permit.     The  most  profound  secrecy,  in  relation  to  this  donation,  was  en- 

*  c  He  was  to  appear  in  the  character  of  a  merchant,  and  was  directed,  among  other 
things,  immediately  after  his  arrival  at  Paris,  to  solicit  an  interview  with  the  count  de 
Vergennes,  the  French  minister,  and  to  inform  him,  that  congress,  being  unable  to  ob- 
tain for  America  the  quantity  of  arms  and  ammunition  necessary  for  its  defence,  had 
despatched  him  to  apply  to  some  of  the  European  powers  for  a  supply.  That  he  was  in- 
structed to  make  his  first  application  to  France,  from  an  opinion  that,  in  case  of  a  total 
separation  of  America  from  Great  Britain,  which  every  circumstance  seemed  to  indicate, 
it  would  be  most  proper  to  obtain  and  cultivate  her  friendship.  That  in  such  case  the 
commercial  advantages  formerly  enjoyed  by  Great  Britain  would  be  transferred  to  France. 
That  the  Americans  were  in  want  of  clothing  and  arms  for  twenty-five  thousand  men, 
with  a  suitable  quantity  of  ammunition,  and  a  hundred  field-pieces.  Mr.  Deane  was 
also  directed  to  sound  the  French  minister  with  regard  to  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
colonies,  in  case  they  should  be  forced  to  declare  themselves  independent.' — Pitkin,  vol. 
i.  p.  387.  The  instructions  will  be  found  at  length  in  the  Diplomatic  Correspondence 
of  the  American  Revolution,  edited  by  J.  Sparkes,  vol.  i.  p.  5 — 9. 

f  This  important  committee  consisted  of  Mr.  Dickinson,  Dr.  Franklin,  John  Adams, 
Mr.  Harrison,  and  Robert  Morris. 

%  Mr.  Jefferson,  on  account  of  the  situation  of  his  family,  being  unable  to  accept  the 
appointment,  Arthur  Lee,  then  in  London,  was  substituted, 

87  58* 


090  BOOK   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

joined.  The  course  of  policy  France  intended  to  pursue,  in  the  contest 
between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  was  now  obvious  ;  and  with  her 
views  of  the  subject,  was  perhaps,  as  it  regarded  herself  at  least,  a  very 
natural  as  well  as  wise  course,  as  she  evidently  entertained  serious  doubt?? 
whether  the  states  would  be  able  to  form  a  lasting  union  among  them- 
selves, or  to  persevere  in  maintaining  their  independence. 

Although  the  court  were  thus  undecided,  the  cause  of  the  United  States 
was  extremely  popular  in  France,  both  among  the  people  and  the  army, 
and  many  French  officers  sought  an  opportunity  of  engaging  in  their  ser- 
vice. Among  these  the  young  marquis  de  la  Fayette  was  most  conspicu- 
ous for  his  rank,  and  most  distinguished  for  his  ardor  and  enthusiasm. »  At 
an  early  period  he  communicated  to  the  American  agents  his  wish  to  join 
the  republican  armies.  At  first  they  encouraged  his  zeal,  but  learning  the 
disasters  which  preceded  the  victory  at  Trenton,  they,  with  honorable 
frankness,  communicated  the  information  to  him,  and  added,  that  they  were 
so  destitute  of  funds,  that  they  could  not  even  provide  for  his  passage  across 
the  ocean.  '  If  your  country,'  replied  the  gallant  youth,  '  is  indeed  reduc- 
ed to  this  extremity,  it  is  at  this  moment  that  my  departure  to  join  her  ar- 
mies will  render  her  the  most  essential  service.'  He  immediately  hired  a 
vessel  to  convey  him  to  America,  where  he  arrived  in  the  spring  of  1777. 
He  was  received  with  cordial  affection  by  the  people,  became  the  bosom 
friend  of  Washington,  solicited  permission  to  serve  without  pay,  and  was 
appointed  major-general  in  the  army. 

The  disastrous  state  of  American  affairs  at  the  close  of  the  year  1776, 
induced  congress  to  attend  more  seriously  to  the  subject  of  securing  foreign 
aid ;  and  a  new  committee  was  appointed.  Some  of  the  members  of  this 
committee  were  disposed  to  make  great  sacrifices  to  obtain  the  aid  of 
France,  and  were  almost  prepared  to  offer  her  the  same  monopoly  of 
American  commerce  as  had  been  enjoyed  by  Great  Britain.^  On  the 
tBOth  of  December,  congress  came  to  the  resolution  of  sending  commission- 
ers to  the  courts  of  Vienna,  Madrid,  and  Berlin,  and  to  the  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany.t  These  commissioners  were  instructed  to  assure  the  courts  to 
which  they  were  sent,  that  the  Americans  were  determined  to  maintain 
their  independence,  notwithstanding  the  suggestions  of  the  British  to  the 
contrary. 

*  ?  To  induce  France  to  embark  in  the  war,  the  American  envoys  were  authorized  to 
stipulate,  that  all  the  trade  between  the  United.  States  and  the  West  India  islands,  should 
be  carried  on  either  in  French  or  American  vessels  ;  and  were  specially  instructed  to 
assure  the  French  king,  that  if,  by  their  joint  efforts,  the  British  should  be  excluded  from 
any  share  in  the  cod-fishery  of  America,  by  the  reduction  of  the  islands  of  Newfound- 
land and  Cape  Breton,  and  ships  of  war  should  be  furnished,  at  the  expense  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  to  reduce  Nova  Scotia,  that  the  fishery  should  be  enjoyed  equally  between 
them,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  nations  j  and  that  one-half  of  Newfoundland  should 
belong  to  France,  and  the  other  half,  with  Cape  Breton  and  Nova  Scotia,  to  the  United 
States.  Should  these  proposals  be  insufficient  to  induce  France  to  join  in  the  war,  and 
the  commissioners  were  convinced  that  the  open  co-operation  of  France  could  not  other- 
wise be  obtained,  they  were  directed  to  assure  his  most  Christian  majesty,  that  such  of 
the  West  India  islands  as  might,  in  the  course  of  the  war,  be  reduced,  should  be  yielded 
to  him  in  absolute  property.' — Pitkin,  vol.  i.  p.  392. 

f  William  Lee  was  appointed  commissioner  to  the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Berlin,  Ralph 
Izard  to  the  duke  of  Tuscany,  and  Dr.  Franklin  to  Spain.  Arthur  Lee  was  afterwards 
appointed,  in  the  room  of  Dr.  Franklin,  to  the  Spanish  court.  While  Mr.  Lee  was  at 
Berlin,  his  papers  were  stolen  from  his  lodgings  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner,  and 
the  British  envoy  at  the  Prussian  court  was  implicated  in  this  transaction. 


HISTORY.  691 

The  success  of  the  arms  of  the  United  States  by  the  capture  of  the  army 
of  general  Burgoyne,  gave  a  new  aspect  to  their  affairs  in  France,  and  in- 
deed throughout  Europe.  The  American  commissioners  at  Paris  now  stood 
on  commanding  ground.  The  French  court,  aware  of  the  views  of  the 
British  ministry  in  relation  to  the  colonies,  no  longer  hesitated  about  ac- 
cepting the  propositions  of  the  American  envoys.  M.  Gerard  informed  the 
American  commissioners,  on  the  16th  of  December,  ■  that  after  a  long  and 
mature  deliberation  upon  their  propositions,  his  majesty  had  determined  to 
recognise  the  independence  of,  and  to  enter  into  a  treaty  of  commerce  and 
alliance  with,  the  United  States  of  America  ;  and  that  he  would  not  only 
acknowledge  their  independence,  but  actually  support  it  with  all  the  mean; 
in  his  power ;  that  perhaps  he  was  about  to  engage  himself  in  an  expen- 
sive war  upon  this  account,  but  that  he  did  not  expect  to  be  reimbursed  by 
them  ;  in  fine,  the  Americans  were  not  to  think  that  he  had  entered  into 
this  resolution  solely  with  a  view  of  serving  them,  since,  independently 
of  his  real  attachment  to  them  and  their  cause,  it  was  evidently  the  inte- 
rest of  France  to  diminish  the  power  of  England,  by  severing  her  colonies 
from  her.'  On  the  6th  of  February,  1778,  a  treaty  of  commerce  was 
signed  by  Franklin,  Deane,  and  Lee,  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
by  M.  Gerard  on  the  part  of  France,  together  with  a  treaty  of  defensive 
alliance,  in  case  war  should  be  the  consequence  of  this  commercial  con- 
nection. The  essential  and  direct  end  of  this  alliance  was,  '  to  maintain 
the  liberty,  sovereignty,  and  independence,  absolute  and  unlimited,  of  the 
United  States,  as  well  in  matters  of  government  as  of  commerce.' 

Before  leaving  this  subject,  it  is  necessary  to  state,  that  as,  previous  to 
the  recognition  of  independence  by  the  court  of  France,  it  was  imperative 
that  the  intercourse  with  the  American  agents  should  be  conducted  indi- 
rectly and  with  the  utmost  secrecy,  the  French  government  rendered  their 
secret  assistance  through  the  agency  of  M.  Beaumarchais,  who  appears  to 
have  been  more  desirous  of  serving  himself  than  the  Americans.  The 
mode  in  which  he  converted  the  gratuitous  aid  of  the  French  court  into 
articles  of  charge  in  his  accounts  with  the  congress,  and  especially  his  re- 
taining in  his  hands  a  million  of  livres  out  of  the  subsidy  granted  by  the 
French  king,  are  circumstances  too  extraordinary  to  be  entirely  passed 
over ;  but  our  limits  compel  us  to  refer  the  reader  for  the  details  to  that  very 
able  work,  Pitkin's  Civil  and  Political  History,  and  to  the  volumes  of  Di- 
plomatic Correspondence  already  alluded  to. 

During  the  first  stages  of  the  revolution,  the  universal  enthusiasm  of 
the  people,  directed  to  one  common  object,  in  some  measure  supplied  the 
place  of  a  general  legislative  and  executive  power.  The  congress  had 
hitherto  possessed  no  powers  but  such  as  were  conferred  by  the  instruc- 
tions given  by  the  state  legislatures  to  their  respective  delegates  ;  but  on  the 
11th  of  June,  1776,  the  day  following  that  in  which  the  resolution  in  fa- 
vor of  independence  had  been  adopted,  congress  determined  to  appoint  a 
committee  to  prepare  and  digest  the  form  of  a  confederation.  This  com- 
mittee, on  the  12th  of  July  following,  reported  a  plan  of  confederacy,  con- 
sisting of  twenty  articles,  and  on  the  22d  of  the  same  month  it  was  dis- 
cussed in  committee  of  the  whole  house,  and  was  under  consideration  un- 
til the  20lh  of  August,  when  an  amended  draft  was  reported.  The  diffi- 
culty in  agreeing  upon  the  details  of  the  system,  as  well  as  the  gloomy  as- 
pect of  American  affairs  at  this  period,  prevented  congress  from  resuming 


692  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

this  subject  until  April,  1777,  when  they  resolved  that  two  days  in  each 
week  should  be  employed  upon  it,  '  until  it  shall  be  wholly  discussed.' 
The  amended  draft  was  considered  and  debated  accordingly  until  the  26th 
of  June,  when  it  was  again  postponed  to  the  2d  of  October,  and  was  net 
finally  adopted  by  congress  until  the  15th  of  November.  The  outlines  of 
the  system  were,  that  the  thirteen  states  formed  a  confederacy,  under  the 
style  and  name  of  '  the  United  States  of  America ;'  by  which  they  enter- 
ed '  into  a  firm  league  of  friendship  with  each  other,  for  their  defence,  the 
security  of  their  liberties,  and  their  mutual  and  general  welfare,  binding 
themselves  to  assist  each  other  against  all  force  offered  to  or  attacks  made 
upon  them,  or  any  of  them,  on  account  of  religion,  sovereignty,  trade,  or 
any  other  pretence  whatever.'  This  plan  of  union  was  to  be  proposed  to 
the  legislatures  of  all  the  states,  and,  if  approved,  they  were  advised  to 
authorize  their  delegates  in  congress  to  ratify  the  same  ;  this  being  done, 
it  was  to  be  conclusive.  The  plan  was  considered  by  the  legislatures  of 
the  several  states  in  the  winter  of  1777-8,  and  by  some  was  adopted  with- 
out amendments,  by  others  various  amendments  were  proposed. 

The  effect  produced  on  the  British  cabinet,  and  on  the  nation  at  large, 
by  the  intelligence  of  the  surrender  of  general  Burgoyne  and  his  army, 
can  scarcely  be  described.  The  most  brilliant  success  had  been  anticipat- 
ed ;  the  most  ignominious  result  had  occurred.  The  pride  of  the  nation 
was  humbled,  and  those  who  had  disapproved  of  the  war  poured  upon  the 
ministry  a  torrent  of  invective  ;  while  the  embarrassments  of  the  ministry 
were  increased  by  the  intelligence  of  the  course  which  the  hereditary  ene- 
my and  rival  of  Great  Britain  had  resolved  to  pursue.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances it  was  determined  in  the  cabinet  to  grant  to  America  all  that  she 
oad  demanded  in  the  beginning  of  the  contest.  An  act  was  passed,  de- 
claring that  parliament  would  not,  in  future,  impose  any  tax  upon  the  colo- 
nies ;  and  commissioners  were  sent  over,  authorized  to  proclaim  a  repeal 
of  all  the  offensive  statutes,  and  to  treat  with  the  constituted  authorities  of 
America.  The  commissioners,  arriving  at  Philadelphia  in  the  spring,  com- 
municated to  congress  the  terms  offered  by  Great  Britain,  which  were, 
however,  unanimously  rejected.^ 

The  arms  of  congress  had  been  successful  on  the  Hudson ;  but  many 
difficulties  arose  in  the  execution  of  the  convention  of  Saratoga.  It  had 
been  stipulated  that  general  Burgoyne's  army  should  embark  at  Boston  for 

*  The  letter  communicating  the  refusal  was  signed  by  the  president ;  and  it  illustrates 
the  character  of  congress,  and  the  history  of  this  year.  '  I  have  received  the  letter  from 
your  excellencies,  dated  the  9th  instant,  with  the  inclosures,  and  laid  them  before  con- 
gress. Nothing  but  an  earnest  desire  to  spare  the  further  effusion  of  human  blood 
could  have  induced  them  to  read  a  paper  containing  expressions  so  disrespectful  to  his 
most  Christian  majesty,  the  good  and  great  ally  of  these  states,  or  to  consider  proposi- 
tions so  derogatory  to  the  honor  of  an  independent  nation.  The  acts  of  the  British  par- 
liament, the  commission  from  your  sovereign,  and  your  letter,  suppose  the  people  of 
these  states  to  be  subjects  of  the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  and  are  founded  on  the  idea 
of  dependence,  which  is  utterly  inadmissible.  I  am  further  directed  to  inform  your  ex- 
cellencies, that  congress  are  inclined  to  peace,  notwithstanding  the  unjust  claims  from 
which  this  war  originated,  and  the  savage  manner  in  which  it  hath  been  conducted. 
They  will  therefore  be  ready  to  enter  upon  the  consideration  of  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
commerce,  not  inconsistent  with  treaties  already  subsisting,  when  the  king  of  Great 
Britain  shall  demonstrate  a  sincere  disposition  for  that  purpose.  The  only  solid  proof 
of  this  disposition  will  be  an  explicit  acknowledgment  of  these  states,  or  the  withdraw- 
ing his  fleets  and  armies,' — Journals  of  Congress^  vol.  iv.  p.  353. 


History. 

Europe :  but,  at  the  time  of  signing  the  convention,  the  British  general 
seems  not  to  have  been  aware  that  it  is  difficult  for  ships  to  reach  the  port 
of  Boston  during  the  winter ;  and  that,  owing  to  this  cause,  the  embarka- 
tion of  his  troops  might  be  delayed  till  the  ensuing  spring.  On  being  ap- 
prized of  this  circumstance,  general  Burgoyne  immediately  applied  to  the 
American  commander-in-chief,  desiring  him  to  change  the  port  of  embarka- 
tion, and  to  appoint  Newport,  in  Rhode  Island,  or  some  other  place  on  the 
sound,  instead  of  Boston  ;  and,  in  case  this  request  should  not  be  complied 
with,  soliciting,  on  account  of  his  health  and  private  business,  that  the 
indulgence  might  be  granted  to  himself  and  suite.  General  Washington, 
not  thinking  himself  authorized  to  decide  on  such  an  application,  transmit- 
ted it  to  congress,  which  took  no  notice  of  the  matter  further  than  to  pass 
a  resolution,  '  That  general  Washington  be  directed  to  inform  general  Bur- 
goyne, that  congress  will  not  receive  or  consider  any  proposition  for  indul- 
gence, or  altering  the  terms  of  the  convention  of  Saratoga,  unless  immedi- 
ately addressed  to  their  own  body.'  The  application  was  accordingly  mad© 
to  congress,  who  readily  complied  with  the  request  in  so  far  as  it  respect- 
ed himself  personally,  but  refused  the  indulgence  to  his  troops,  and  ulti- 
mately forbade  their  embarkation. 

Congress  watched  with  a  jealous  eye  every  movement  of  the  conven- 
tion army,  and  soon  gave  public  indications  of  that  jealousy.  Early  in 
November,  they  ordered  general  Heath,  who  commanded  in  Boston,  '  to 
take  the  name,  rank,  former  place  of  abode,  and  description  of  every  per- 
son comprehended  in  the  convention  of  Saratoga,  in  order  that,  if  after- 
wards found  in  arms  against  the  United  States,  they  might  be  punished 
according  to  the  law  of  nations.'  General  Burgoyne  showed  some  reluc- 
tance to  the  execution  of  this  order ;  and  his  reluctance  was  imputed  to  no 
honorable  motives. 

The  British  army  in  Philadelphia  spent  the  winter  in  gayety  and  revel- 
ry, injuring  at  once  their  own  respectability  and  the  cause  which  they  were 
employed  to  support.  They  disgusted  the  sober  inhabitants  by  their  irre- 
gularities, and  provoked  them  by  their  insolence ;  so  that  many  who  had 
hailed  their  arrival  with  cordial  gratulations,  felt  a  lively  satisfaction  when 
the  hour  of  their  departure  came. 

General  Washington  quitted  White  Marsh,  crossed  the  Schuylkill  at 
Sweed's  ford,  and,  on  the  19th  of  December,  took  a  strong  position  at 
Valley  Forge,  about  twenty-six  miles  from  Philadelphia.  Had  he  retired 
during  the  winter  to  the  shelter  of  a  large  town,  he  must  have  gone  to  a 
great  distance  from  the  British  army,  and  left  an  extensive  tract  of  country 
open  to  their  foraging  parties  ;  or  had  he  cantoned  his  men  in  the  adjacent 
villages,  his  army  might  have  been  beaten  in  detail  and  gradually  destroy- 
ed. But  at  Valley  Forge  he  was  sufficiently  near  Philadelphia  to  check 
the  foraging  parties  of  the  enemy,  and  his  army  was  so  much  concentrat- 
ed as  to  secure  it  from  any  sudden  and  desultory  attack. 

At  Valley  Forge  the  American  commander-in-chief  lodged  his  army  in 
huts  formed  of  logs,  with  the  interstices  filled  with  mud,  which  constituted 
very  acceptable  habitations  to  men  long  unaccustomed  to  the  conveniences 
of  life.  But,  though  sheltered  from  the  storm  by  their  rude  dwellings,  the 
sufferings  of  the  army  from  want  of  provisions  and  clothing  were  incredi- 
ble. The  winter  was  severe,  and  many  of  the  men  were  without  stock- 
ings or  shoes,  and  almost  naked.     The  non- importation  associations  rer>* 


694 


BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


dered  cloth  scarce  at  the  commencement  of  hostilities  ;  the  war  rendered 
importation  difficult ;  and  the  consumption  exceeded  the  produce  of  the 
home  manufacture.  Hence  the  army  was  left  in  a  destitute  and  deplora- 
ble condition  ;  and  the  line  of  march,  from  White  Marsh  to  Valley  Forge, 
over  rough  and  frozen  roads,  might  have  been  traced  by  the  blood  from  the 
bare  and  mangled  feet  of  the  soldiers.  Under  the  shelter  of  the  huts  their 
sufferings  were  at  first  considerably  alleviated ;  but  in  a  short  time  the 


•>  Encampment  at  Valley  Forge. 

miseries  of  want,  amounting  almost  to  famine,  were  added  to  those  of  na- 
kedness. In  these  trying  circumstances  numbers  of  the  troops,  especially 
they  who  had  been  born  in  Europe,  eluded  the  vigilance  of  the  guards,  and 
deserted  to  the  enemy  in  Philadelphia,  carrying  their  arms  along  with  them. 
Many  loyalists  also  joined  general  Howe  ;  so  that  the  strength  of  his  army 
was  sensibly  increased. 

Many  representations  on  the  wants  and  hardships  of  the  army  had  been 
submitted  to  congress,  which  had  authorized  the  commander-in-chief  to 
seize  provisions  for  his  army  wherever  he  could  find  them,  within  seventy 
miles  of  head-quarters,  paying  for  them  with  money,  or  giving  certificates, 
for  the  redemption  of  which  the  faith  of  the  United  States  was  pledged. 
This  odious  power  general  Washington  was  extremely  backward  to  exer- 
cise ;  but  at  Valley  Forge  his  necessities  were  so  pressing  that  he  was  con- 
strained to  have  recourse  to  it ;  and,  notwithstanding  all  his  precautions, 
the  manner  in  which  his  orders  were  executed  did  not  always  soften  the 
rigor  of  this  harsh  measure.  Men  with  arms  in  their  hands,  and  support- 
ed by  authority,  are  seldom  delicate  in  supplying  their  urgent  wants. 

The  American  commander-in-chief  was  illprovided  with  money,  and 
could  make  his  payments  only  in  paper  of  very  uncertain  value  ;  but  the 
supplies  carried  into  Philadelphia  were  readily  paid  for  by  the  British 
troops  in  gold  and  silver ;  and  the  patriotism  of  the  people  was  not  suffi- 
ciently ardent  to  prevent  them  from  carrying  their  goods  to  the  best 
market.  It  was,  however,  no  easy  matter  for  the  country  people  to  carry 
provisions  into  Philadelphia  without  detection  and  punishment ;  for  the 
American  detachments  and  patrols,  though  at  a  respectful  distance,  almost 
encircled  the  city. 


HISTORY.  695 

i 

"While  the  army  lay  at  Valley  Forge,  a  plot  was  formed  to  remove  gene- 
ral Washington  from  the  chief  command ;  and  in  that  plot  several  mem- 
bers of  congress,  and  a  very  few  military  officers,  were  concerned.  Insinu- 
ations against  the  military  talents  of  general  Washington  were  industri- 
ously circulated ;  and  the  public  attention  was  directed  towards  general 
Gates,  whose  success  at  Saratoga  had  thrown  a  brilliant  lustre  round  his 
name.  General  Thomas  Conway  was  an  active  agent  in  the  plot ;  and 
many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Pennsylvania,  chagrined  by  the  loss  of  their 
capital,  and  willing  to  devolve  on  the  general  who  had  twice,  with  inferior 
forces,  fought  the  enemy  in  their  defence,  the  blame  of  those  misfortunes 
which  had  arisen  from  their  own  pusillanimity  and  carelessness  in  not 
reinforcing  the  army,  readily  joined  in  the  clamor.  The  conduct  of  gene- 
ral Gates  was  equivocal,  but  he  solemnly  disclaimed  all  connection  with 
the  faction.  The  officers  of  general  Washington's  army,  strongly  attached 
to  him,  felt  the  liveliest  indignation  against  those  intriguers  who  wished 
to  remove  their  favorite  leader  from  his  command. 

By  the  uniform  tenor  of  his  conduct,  general  Washington  had  won  the 
affection  and  esteem  of  almost  all  his  troops,  both  officers  and  privates  ; 
and,  fortunately  for  America,  there  was  enough  of  discernment  in  congress 
to  resist  the  dark  machinations  of  the  faction,  and  to  continue  their  brave' 
and  upright  commander-in-chief  at  the  head  of  the  army.  His  situation, 
however,  was  by  no  means  enviable.  His  army  was  much  attached  to 
him  ;  but,  weakened  by  disease,  and  irritated  by  nakedness  and  hunger,  it 
was  almost  on  the  point  of  dissolution.  In  the  midst  of  the  difficulties  and 
dangers  with  which  he  was  surrounded,  general  Washington  displayed  a 
singular  degree  of  steady  perseverance,  unshaken  fortitude,  and  unwearied 
activity.  Instead  of  manifesting  irritable  impatience  under  the  malignant 
attacks  made  on  his  character,  he  behaved  with  magnanimity,  and  earnest- 
ly applied  to  congress,  and  to  the  legislative  bodies  of  the  several  states, 
for  reinforcements  to  his  army,  in  order  that  he  might  be  prepared  to  act 
with  vigor  in  the  ensuing  campaign. 

But  to  recruit  and  equip  the  army  was  no  easy  task.  The  great  depre- 
ciation of  paper  money  rendered  the  pay  of  the  soldiers  inadequate  to  their 
support ;  and,  consequently,  it  was  not  likely  that  voluntary  enlistment 
would  be  successful,  especially  since  the  patriotic  ardor  of  many  had  be- 
gun to  cool  by  the  continuance  of  the  war,  and  all  knew  that  great  hard- 
ships and  dangers  were  to  be  encountered  by  joining  the  army.  The  pay 
even  of  the  officers,  in  the  depreciated  paper  currency,  was  wholly  une- 
qual to  the  maintenance  of  their  rank.  Some  of  them  who  had  small  pa- 
trimonial estates  found  them  melting  away,  while  their  lives  were  unpro- 
fitably  devoted  to  the  service  of  their  country ;  and  they  who  had  no  pri- 
vate fortune  could  not  appear  in  a  manner  becoming  their  station.  A  com- 
mission was  a  burden  ;  and  many  considered  the  acceptance  of  one  as  con- 
ferring rather  than  receiving  a  favor  :  a  state  of  things  highly  disadvanta- 
geous to  the  service  ;  for  the  duties  of  an  office  scarcely  reckoned  worth 
holding  will  seldom  be  zealously  and  actively  discharged.  There  was  rea- 
son to  apprehend  that  many  of  the  most  meritorious  officers  would  resign 
their  commissions  ;  and  that  they  only  who  were  less  qualified  for  service 
would  remain  with  the  army. 

Congress,  moved  by  the  remonstrances  of  the  commander-in-chief,  and 
by  the  complaints  with  which  they  were  assailed  from  every  quarter,  de* 


096  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

puted  a  committee  of  their  body  to  reside  in  camp  during  the  winter ;  and, 
in  concert  with  the  general,  to  examine  the  state  of  the  army,  and  report 
on  the  measures  necessary  to  be  taken  for  placing  it  in  a  more  respectable 
condition.  But  the  reforms  in  the  army  were  tardily  made.  Congress 
,were  fond  of  their  own  speculations,  although  experience  had  proved  them 
mischievous  ;  and  were  slow  in  rectifying  the  evils  which  arose  from  their 
own  errors.  The  state  legislatures  were  backward  in  adopting  coercive 
measures  for  recruiting  the  army ;  and  each  of  them  was  jealous  of  bear- 
'  ing  more  than  its  share  of  the  war.  At  length,  however,  an  efficient  com- 
missary-general was  appointed ;  the  other  departments  were  put  on  a 
more  desirable  footing ;  and  vigorous  measures  were  pursued  to  prepare 
for  the  ensuing  campaign. 

"  During  the  winter  there  was  a  good  deal  of  correspondence  between  the 
generals  respecting  prisoners  of  war.  Complaints  were  mutual ;  and  a 
partial  cartel  was  agreed  to. 

In  consequence  of  the  treaties  concluded  with  her  revolted  colonies, 
Great  Britain  declared  war  against  France ;  and  the  ministry,  presuming 
that  assistance  would  be  sent  to  the  Americans,  transmitted  orders  by  the 
commissioners,  that  Philadelphia  should  be  evacuated,  and  the  royal  troops 
concentrated  at  New  York.  The  execution  of  these  orders  devolved  upon 
Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  had  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  on  the  re- 
signation of  general  Howe.  On  the  18th  of  June  the  enemy  quitted  the 
city,  and  marched  slowly  eastward.  Washington,  leaving  his  huts  in  the 
forest,  hung  upon  the  rear  of  the  British  army,  watching  for  a  favorable 
opportunity  to  offer  battle.  On  arriving  at  Monmouth,  in  New  Jersey, 
general  Lee,  who  had  lately  been  exchanged,  was  ordered  to  take  the 
command  of  five  thousand  men,  and,  early  in  the  morning  of  the  28th,  to 
commence  an  attack,  being  assured  that  he  should  be  supported  by  the 
whole  army.  Lee  made  dispositions  to  attack  accordingly,  but  perceiving 
the  main  body  of  the  English  returning  to  meet  him,  he  began  to  retreat. 
Washington,  advancing  to  render  the  promised  support,  saw  him  retiring, 
rode  forward,  and  addressed  him  in  language  implying  disapprobation  of 
his  conduct.^  He  then  directed  him  to  form  his  men  on  ground  which  he 
pointed  out,  and  there  oppose  the  progress  of  the  enemy.  A  warm  en- 
gagement ensued,  and  Washington,  arriving  with  the  main  body  of  his 
army,  compelled  the  British  to  fall  back. 

The  day  had  been  intensely  hot,  and  the  troops  were  greatly  fatigued,! 
yet  general  Washington  resolved  to  renew  the  engagement ;  but  there 
were  so  many  impediments  to  be  overcome,  that  before  the  attack  could  be 
commenced  it  was  nearly  dark.  It  was  therefore  thought  most  advisable 
to  postpone  further  operations  until  morning,  and  the  troops  lay  on  their 
arms  in  the  field  of  battle. $     General  Washington,  who  had  been  exceed- 

*  Lee,  irritable  and  proud,  could  not  forget  the  manner  in  which  Washington  had 
addressed  him,  and  in  two  passionate  letters  demanded  reparation.  A  court-martial 
was  instituted  ;  he  was  found  guilty  of  misconduct  on  the  day  of  battle,  and  of  disre- 
spect to  the  commander-in-chief,  and  was  suspended  from  command  for  one  year.  He 
never  afterwards  joined  the  army,  but  died  in  seclusion  just  before  the  close  of  the  war. 

f  In  consequence  of  heat  and  fatigue,  fifty-nine  British  soldiers  perished  without  a 
wound ;  and  several  of  the  American  soldiers  died  through  the  same  cause. 

X  The  loss  of  the  Americans  in  this  battle  was  eight  officers  and  sixty-one  privates 
killed,  and  about  a  hundred  and  sixty  wounded.  Among  the  slain,  and  much  regret^ 
ted,  were  lieutenant-colonel  Bonner,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  major  Dickenson,  of  Vi* 


HISTORY.  697 

ingly  active  through  the  day,  and  entirely  regardless  of  personal  danger, 
reposed  himself  at  night  in  his  cloak,  under  a  tree,  in  the  midst  of  his  sol- 
diers. His  intention  of  renewing  the  battle  was,  however,  frustrated ;  the 
British  troops  marched  away  about  midnight  in  such  profound  silence,  that 
the  most  advanced  posts  knew  nothing  of  their  departure  until  morning. 
The  American  general,  declining  all  further  pursuit  of  the  royal  army,  de- 
tached some  light  troops  to  attend  its  motions,  and  drew  off  his  soldiers  to 
the  borders  of  the  North  river.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  after  remaining  a  few 
days  on  the  high  grounds  of  Middleton,  proceeded  to  Sandy  Hook,  whence 
he  passed  his  army  over  to  New  York. 

The  British  having  entered  New  York,  Washington  conducted  his  army 
to  White  Plains.  Congress  returned  to  Philadelphia  ;  and  in  July  receiv- 
ed, with  inexpressible  joy,  a  letter  from  the  count  D'Estaing,  announcing 
his  arrival  on  the  coast  of  Virginia,  with  twelve  sail  of  the  line  and  six 
frigates,  with  about  four  thousand  troops  on  board.  The  count  had  intend- 
ed to  surprise  admiral  Howe  in  the  Delaware,  but  adverse  winds  detained 
him  on  the  passage,  until  the  British  fleet  had  sailed  for  New  York.  He 
appeared  before  that  harbor,  but  on  sounding:,  found  that  his  largest  ships 
could  not  pass  the  har.  By  the  advice  of  Washington,  a  combined  attack 
upon  the  British  forces  at  Newport,  in  Rhode  Island,  was  resolved  on. 
General  Sullivan,  who  had  been  appointed  to  command  the  troops,  called 
upon  the  militia  of  New  England  to  aid  him  in  the  enterprise.  His  army 
soon  amounted  to  ten  thousand  men,  and,  as  he  was  supported  by  the  fleet, 
he  felt  confident  of  success.  On  the  9th  of  August,  he  took  a  position  on 
the  north  end  of  Rhode  island,  and  afterwards  moved  nearer  to  Newport. 
Admiral  Howe,  having  received  a  reinforcement,  now  appeared  before 
the  harbor,  and  the  count  instantly  put  to  sea  to  attack  him.  A  furious 
storm,  however,  came  on,  which  damaged  and  dispersed  both  fleets.  As 
soon  as  the  weather  permitted,  each  commander  sought  the  port  from 
which  he  had  sailed ;  but  great  was  the  disappointment  of  the  Americans 
when  D'Estaing  announced  his  intention  of  proceeding  to  Boston  to  refit ; 
they  earnestly  remonstrated,  but  the  count  was  inflexible.  Deserted  by 
the  fleet,  the  army  could  remain  no  longer  with  safety  on  the  island. 
General  Sullivan,  therefore,  immediately  retreated  to  his  first  position.  He 
was  pursued  and  attacked  by  the  enemy  ;  but  they  were  gallantly  resisted 
and  repulsed  with  loss.  The  next  day  the  two  armies  cannonaded  each 
other,  and  the  succeeding  night  the  American  general,  deceiving  the  ene- 
my by  a  show  of  resistance  to  the  last,  made  a  skilful  retreat  to  the  conti- 
nent. It  was  a  remarkable  escape.  The  delay  of  a  single  day  would  pro- 
bably have  been  fatal  to  the  Americans  ;  for  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  had 
been  impeded  by  adverse  winds,  arrived  with  a  reinforcement  of  four  thou- 
sand men  the  very  next  day,  when  a  retreat,  it  is  presumed,  would  have 
been  impracticable. 

At  this  period  of  the  war  hostilities  were  carried  on  with  more  than 
usual  acrimony.     In  several  instances  the  British  troops,  and  their  allies, 

ginia.  The  loss  of  the  British  army,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  is  stated  to  have 
been  three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  men,  including  officers.  Among  their  slain  was 
lieutenant-colonel  Monckton,  who  was  greatly  and  deservedly  lamented.  About  a  hun- 
dred were  taken  prisoners;  and  nearly  a  thousand  soldiers,  principally  foreigners, 
many  of  whom  had  married  in  Philadelphia,  deserted  the  British  standard  during  the 
pxarch. 


6$g  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  American  tories  and  native  Indians,  exhibited  a  barbarity  deeply  to  ho 
lamented,  wantonly  destroying  the  property  and  injuring  the  persons  of 
peaceful  unarmed  inhabitants.  While  asleep  in  a  barn  at  Tappan,  colo- 
nel Baylor's  troop  of  light  dragoons  were  surprised  by  general  Grey,  who 
commanded  his  soldiers  to  use  the  bayonet  only,  and  to  give  the  rebels  no 
quarter.  Incapable  of  defence,  they  sued  for  mercy ;  but  the  most  pa- 
thetic supplications  were  heard  without  awakening  compassion  ;  nearly 
one-half  of  the  troop  were  killed.  To  many,  repeated  thrusts  were  bar- 
barously given  as  long  as  signs  of  life  remained ;  while  some  who  had 
nearly  a  dozen  stabs  through  the  body,  and  were  left  for  dead,  afterwards 
recovered.  A  few  escaped,  and  forty  were  saved  by  the  humanity  of  a 
British  captain,  who  dared  to  disobey  the  orders  of  his  general.  With 
feelings  of  revenge  yet  more  barbarous,  Wyoming,  a  happy  and  flourish- 
ing settlement,  on  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Susquehannah,  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, was  attacked  by  a  band  of  tories  and  Indians.  The  conditions  of  the 
capitulation  were  entirely  disregarded  by  the  British  and  savage  forces, 
and  after  the  fort  was  delivered  up,  all  kinds  of  barbarities  were  commit- 
ted by  them.  The  village  of  Wilkesbarre,  consisting  of  twenty-three  hou- 
ses, was  burnt ;  men  and  their  wives  were  separated  from  each  other  and 
carried  into  captivity ;  their  property  was  plundered,  and  the  settlement 
laid  waste.  The  remainder  of  the  inhabitants  were  driven  from  the  valley, 
and  compelled  to  proceed  on  foot  sixty  miles  through  the  great  swamp,  al- 
most without  food  or  clothing.  A  number  perished  in  the  journey,  princi- 
pally women  and  children  ;  some  died  of  their  wounds,  others  wandered 
from  the  path  in  search  of  food  and  were  lost ;  and  those  who  survived  call- 
ed the  wilderness  through  which  they  passed  '  The  Shades  of  Death,'  an 
appellation  which  it  has  since  retained.  Many  other  instances  might  be 
adduced  ;  but  it  is  better  to  suffer  the  record  of  them  to  perish.^ 

In  the  campaign  of  1778  little  on  either  side  was  accomplished.  The 
alliance  with  France  gave  birth  to  expectations  which  events  did  not  fulfil ; 

*  We  insert  the  following  as  an  antidote  to  the  feelings  with  which  the ( glory'  of  war 
is  apt  to  inspire  the  breasts  even  of  the  generous  and  noble : — '  A  short  distance  below 
the  battle  ground  there  is  a  large  island  in  the  river,  called  Monockonock  island.  Seve- 
ral of  the  settlers,  while  the  battle  and  pursuit  continued,  succeeded  in  swimming  to 
this  island,  where  they  concealed  themselves  among  the  logs  and  brushwood  upon  it. 
Their  arms  had  been  thrown  away  in  their  flight,  previous  to  their  entering  the  river, 
so  that  they  were  in  a  manner  defenceless.  Two  of  them  in  particular  were  concealed 
near  and  in  sight  of  each  other.  While  in  this  situation,  they  observed  several  of  the 
enemy,  who  had  pursued  and  fired  at  them  while  they  were  swimming  the  river,  pre- 
paring to  follow  them  to  the  island  with  their  guns.  On  reaching  the  island  they  imme- 
diately wiped  their  guns  and  loaded  them.  One  of  them  with  his  loaded  gun  soon  pass- 
ed close  by  one  of  these  men,  who  lay  concealed  from  his  view,  and  was  immediately 
recognized  by  him  to  be  the  brother  of  his  companion  who  was  concealed  near  him,  but 
who,  being  a  tory,  had  joined  the  enemy.  Ke  passed  slowly  along,  carefully  examin- 
ing every  covert,  and  directly  perceived  his  brother  in  his  place  of  concealment.  He 
suddenly  stopped  and  said,  "  So  it  is  you,  is  it  ?"  His  brother,  finding  that  he  was  dis- 
covered, immediately  came  forward  a  few  steps,  and,  falling  on  his  knees7  begged  him 
to  spare  his  life,  promising  to  live  with  him  and  serve  him,  and  even  to  be  his  slave  as 
long  as  he  lived,  if  he  would  only  spare  his  life.     "  All  this  is  mighty  good,"  replied  the 

ravage-hearted  brother  of  the  supplicating  man  ;  "  but  you  are  a  d d  rebel  f  and, 

deliberately  presenting  his  rifle,  shot  him  dead  upon  the  spot.  The  other  settler  made 
his  escape  from  the  island,  and  having  related  this  fact,  the  tory  brother  thought  it  pru- 
dent to  accompany  the  British  troops  on  their  return  to  Canada.'— History  of  Wyoming^ 
p.  127. 


history.  699 

faut  the  presence  of  her  fleets  on  the  coast  deranged  the  plans  of  the  British  ; 
induced  them  to  relinquish  a  part  of  their  conquests;  and  prevented  their 
making  any  progress  in  the  accomplishment  of  their  designs. 

The  close  of  this  year  was  distinguished  by  a  change  of  the  theatre  of 
War  from  the  northern  to  the  southern  section  of  the  confederacy.  The 
country,  weak  by  its  scattered  population,  the  multitude  of  slaves,  and  the 
number  of  tories,  presented  a  prospect  of  easy  victory.  In  the  end  of  No- 
vember, lieutenant-colonel  Campbell,  with  two  thousand  five  hundred  men, 
sailed  from  New  York  to  the  coast  of  Georgia.  Having  landed  his  troops, 
he  marched  towards  Savannah,  the  capital ;  and  defeating  a  small  body 
of  Americans  whom  he  met  on  his  route,  he  immediately  took  possession 
of  the  city.  After  the  fall  of  the  capital,  Sunbury  surrendered  at  discre- 
tion ;  and  these  were  the  only  military  posts  in  Georgia. 

The  campaign  of  1779  was  opened  by  general  Lincoln,  who  had  been 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  American  troops  in  the  southern  depart- 
ment. In  April,  leaving  South  Carolina,  he  marched  into  the  interior  of 
Georgia  ;  upon  which  the  British  army,  entering  the  state  he  had  left,  in- 
vested Charleston,  the  capital.  Lincoln  hastened  back  to  its  defence;  and 
on  his  approach,  the  British  retired  to  Stono  ferry,  where  an  action  was 
fought,  and  a  few  days  afterwards  they  continued  their  retreat  to  Savan- 
nah. The  heat  of  the  season  suspended  farther  operations  until  Septem- 
ber ;  when  count  D'Estaing,  with  a  fleet  carrying  six  thousand  troops,  ar- 
rived on  the  coast.  The  two  armies,  in  concert,  laid  siege  to  Savannah. 
At  the  expiration  of  a  month,  the  count,  impatient  of  delay,  insisted  that 
the  siege  should  be  abandoned,  or  that  a  combined  assault  upon  the  ene- 
my's works  should  immediately  be  made.  General  Lincoln  determined 
upon  the  latter  course.  Great  gallantry  was  displayed  by  the  French  and 
American  troops,  but  the  British  repulsed  the  assailants,  killing  and  wound- 
ing nearly  a  thousand  men*  while  on  their  part  the  loss  was  small.  The 
next  day  the  siege  was  raised,  the  French  returning  home,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans to  South  Carolina. 

The  operations  of  the  British  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  America 
were  predatory  rather  than  military.  In  May,  a  naval  and  land  force, 
commanded  by  Sir  George  Collier  and  general  Matthews,  made  a  descent 
on  Virginia.  On  their  arrival,  they  took  possession  of  Portsmouth  and  of 
Norfolk  ;  destroyed  the  houses,  vessels,  naval  stores,  and  a  large  magazine 
of  provisions,  at  Suffolk  ;  made  a  similar  destruction  at  Kemp's  Landing, 
Shepherd's,  Gosport,  Tanner's  Creek,  and  other  places  in  the  vicinity  ; 
and,  after  setting  fire  to  the  houses  and  other  public  buildings  in  the  dock- 
yard at  Gosport,  embarked  with  their  booty  for  New  York.  A  similar  ex- 
pedition was  soon  after  undertaken  from  New  York  against  Connecticut, 
Dy  governor  Tryon,  with  two  thousand  six  hundred  land  forces,  supported 
by  brigadier-general  Garth,  and  accompanied  by  Sir  George  Collier  with 
armed  vessels  to  cover  the  transports.  Though  checked  in  their  march, 
they  entered  New  Haven  about  one  in  the  afternoon,  from  which  time  un- 

*  Count  Pulaski  was  mortally  wounded  in  this  assault ;  and  congress  resolved  that  a 
monument  should  be  erected  to  his  memory.  He  was  a  Polander  of  high  birth,  who 
with  a  few  men  had  carried  off  king  Stanislaus  from  the  middle  of  his  capital.  The 
king,  after  being  some  time  a  prisoner,  made  his  escape,  and  soon  after  declared  Pulas- 
ki an  outlaw.  Thus  proscribed,  he  came  to  America,  and  offered  his  service  to  coa- 
gtcss,  which  honored  him  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-ganeral. 


700  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

til  eight  in  the  evening  the  town  was  subjected  to  almost  indiscriminate 
ravage  and  plunder.  The  royal  army  also  plundered  and  burned  the  town 
of  Fairfield,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  neighboring  village  of  Green 
Farms.     A  few  days  afterward  they  laid  the  town  of  Norwalk  in  ashes. 

Early  in  the  season,  colonel  Clarke,  of  Virginia,  who  was  stationed  at 
Kaskaskia,  on  the  Mississippi,  achieved  an  enterprise  conspicuous  for  bold- 
ness of  design,  and  evincing  uncommon  hardihood  in  its  execution.  With 
only  one  hundred  and  thirty  men,  he  penetrated  through  the  wilderness  to 
St.  Vincent's,  a  British  post  on  the  Wabash,  in  the  heart  of  the  Indian 
country.  His  route  lay  across  deep  swamps  and  morrasses  ;  and  in  one 
instance  the  party  waded  through  water,  often  as  high  as  the  breast,  for 
nearly  five  miles.  After  a  march  of  sixteen  days,  they  reached  the  town, 
which,  having  no  intimation  of  their  approach,  surrendered  without  resis- 
tance ;  and  a  short  time  after,  the  fort  capitulated.  This  fortunate  achieve- 
ment arrested  an  expedition  which  the  enemy  had  projected  against  the 
frontiers  of  Virginia,  and  detached  several  tribes  of  Indians  from  the  Bri- 
tish interest. 

Congress,  though  its  measures  toward  the  Indians  were  conciliatory, 
could  not  secure  the  western  frontiers.  The  Six  Nations  had  been  advis- 
ed by  that  body,  and  had  promised,  to  observe  a  neutrality  in  the  war  ; 
but,  excepting  the  Oneidas,  and  a  few  others  who  were  friendly  to  the 
Americans,  those  Indians  took  a  decided  part  against  them.  The  presents 
and  promises  of  Sir  John  Johnson  and  other  British  agents,  with  the  de- 
sire of  plunder,  induced  them  to  invade  the  frontiers  ;  and  wherever  they 
went,  they  carried  slaughter  and  devastation.  An  expedition  was  there- 
fore ordered  against  them,  and  general  Sullivan,  to  whom  the  conduct  of  it 
was  intrusted,  marched  into  their  country.  The  Indians,  on  hearing  of  the 
projected  expedition,  collected  their  strength,  took  possession  of  proper 
ground,  and  fortified  it  with  judgment.  General  Sullivan  attacked  them 
in  their  works,  and  they  sustained  a  cannonade  of  more  than  two  hours ; 
but  they  then  gave  way,  and,  after  their  trenches  were  forced,  they  fled 
with  precipitation.  The  victorious  army,  penetrating  into  the  heart  of 
their  country,  laid  it  desolate.  Their  villages,  their  detached  habitations, 
their  corn-fields,  their  fruit-trees  and  gardens,  were  indiscriminately  de- 
stroyed. 

The  campaign  of  this  year,  though  barren  in  important  events,  was  dis- 
tinguished by  one  gallant  enterprise,  which  reflected  much  honor  on  the 
American  arms.  Stony  Point,  a  fortress  on  the  North  river,  had  been 
taken  from  the  Americans,  and  strongly  fortified  by  the  British.  It  was 
at  this  time  garrisoned  by  about  six  hundred  men,  under  the  command  of 
lieutenant-colonel  Johnson.  General  Washington,  having  obtained  precise 
information  of  the  condition  of  the  works,  the  nature  of  the  ground  in  their 
vicinity,  the  strength  and  arrangements  of  the  garrison,  and  the  disposition 
of  the  guards,  and  having  in  person  reconnoitred  the  post,  resolved  to  attempt 
the  surprise  of  it.  The  execution  of  the  plan  was  intrusted  to  general 
Wayne,  and  the  troops  employed  on  this  service  were  chiefly  from  New 
England.  At  half-past  eleven  on  the  night  of  the  15th  of  July,  the 
columns  moved  on  to  the  charge  at  opposite  points  of  the  works,  the  van 
of  each  with  unloaded  muskets  and  fixed  bayonets  ;  and  at  twenty  minutes 
after  twelve  both  columns  rushed  forward  under  a  tremendous  fire  of  mus- 
ketry and  grape-shot,  entered  the  works  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and,  ar- 


HISTORY. 


701 


riving  in  the  centre  of  them  at  nearly  the  same  instant,  compelled  the  gar- 
rison to  surrender  at  discretion.  A  more  gallant  exploit  has  seldom  been 
performed,  and  the  humanity  of  the  victors  was  equal  to  their  valor.     Not- 


Capture  of  Stony  Point, 

withstanding  the  devastations  in  Connecticut,  and  the  butchery  of  Baylor's 
troop,  the  scene  of  which  was  near,  not  an  individual  suffered  after  resis- 
tance had  ceased. 

On  the  approach  of  the  inclement  season,  the  American  army  built  them- 
selves huts  for  winter  quarters.  Positions  were  chosen  most  favorable  for 
the  defence  of  the  most  important  posts,  and  for  covering  the  country. 
The  army  was  formed  into  two  divisions  ;  one  of  these  erected  huts  near 
West  Point,  and  the  other  at  Morristown,  in  New  Jersey.  The  head-quar- 
ters of  the  commander-in-chief  were  with  the  last  division.  Great  distress 
was  felt  this  winter  on  account  of  the  deranged  state  of  the  American 
finances.  General  Green  and  colonel  Wadsworth,  gentlemen  in  every  re- 
spect qualified  for  the  duties  of  their  respective  stations,  were  yet  at  the 
head  of  the  quarter-master  and  commissary  departments,  but  the  credit  of 
the  country  was  fallen,  they  had  not  the  means  to  make  prompt  payment 
for  articles  of  supply  ;  and  they  found  it  impossible  to  lay  up  large  maga- 
zines of  provisions,  and  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  supplies  to  satisfy  the 
temporary  wants  of  the  army.  Large  sums  had  been  annually  raised  and 
expended,  and  the  ability  of  the  people  to  pay  taxes  had  progressively  de- 
creased. To  supply  deficiencies,  paper  money,  to  the  amount  of  about  a 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars,  had  been  issued  ;  but  this  was  de- 
preciated, and  at  the  close  of  1779  thirty  dollars  in  paper  were  of  no  more 
value  than  one  in  specie.  To  purchase  provisions  with  this  money  was 
therefore  first  difficult  and  then  impossible,  and  congress  now  found  their 
funds  and  their  credit  exhausted.  Before  the  month  of  January  expired, 
the  soldiers  were  put  upon  allowance,  and  before  its  close  the  whole  stock 
of  provision  in  store  was  exhausted,  and  there  was  neither  meat  nor  flour 
to  be  distributed  to  the  troops.  To  prevent  the  dissolution  of  the  army, 
the  commander-in-chief  was  reluctantly  driven  to  very  vigorous  mea- 
sures :  he  apportioned  to  each  county  in  the  state  of  New  Jersey  a  quanti- 

59* 


702  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ty  of  meat  and  flour,  according  to  the  ability  of  each,  to  be  brought  mto 
camp  in  the  course  of  six  days.  At  the  same  time  he  wrote  to  the  magis- 
trates, stating  the  absolute  necessity  of  the  measure,  and  informing  them, 
that  unless  the  inhabitants  voluntarily  complied  with  the  requisition,  the 
exigency  of  the  case  would  force  him  to  obtain  it  by  military  exaction. 
To  the  honor  of  the  inhabitants  of  New  Jersey,  harassed  as  their  countrj 
had  been,  the  full  quantity  of  provisions  required  was  cheerfully  and  sea- 
sonably afforded. 


FROM  THE  CAMPAIGN  OF   1780  TO  THE    TERMINATION  OF  THE  WAR  OF  THE  REVO- 
LUTION. 

During  the  year  1780,  the  contest  between  Great  Britain  and  her  an- 
cient colonies  was  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  southern  states.  As  soon  as 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  ascertained  that  count  D'Estaing  had  left  the  American 
coast,  he  hastened  to  despatch  an  expedition  against  South  Carolina,  leav- 
ing the  garrison  at  New  York  under  the  command  of  general  Knyphau- 
sen.  Early  in  February  the  troops  landed  within  thirty  miles  of  the  capi- 
tal. Governor  Rutledge,  to  whom  the  assembly  of  South  Carolina  had 
recently  given  extraordinary  powers,  ordered  the  militia  to  rendezvous  ;  but 
'he  repulse  at  Savannah,  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  campaign,  had  pro- 
diced  such  a  dispiriting  effect,  that  but  few  complied.  The  defences  of 
•Charleston  consisted  of  a  chain  of  redoubts,  lines,  and  batteries,  extending 
from  Ashley  to  Cooper  river,  on  which  were  mounted  upwards  of  eighty 
pieces  of  artillery  ;  and  on  all  sides  of  the  town  where  a  landing  was 
practicable,  batteries  were  erected  and  covered  with  artillery.  General 
Lincoln,  trusting  to  these  defences  and  expecting  large  reinforcements,  re- 
mained in  Charleston  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  inhabitants,  and,  with 
the  force  under  his  command,  resolved  to  defend  the  place. 

On  the  21st  of  March  the  British  fleet  crossed  the  bar,  and  anchored  in 
Five  Fathom  Hole.  Commodore  Whipple,  who  commanded  the  American 
vessels,  finding  it  impracticable  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  passing  over  the 
bar,  fell  back  to  fort  Moultrie,  and  afterwards  to  Charleston.  In  a  few 
days  the  town  was  invested  by  sea  and  land,  and  the  British  commanders 
summoned  general  Lincoln  to  surrender  ;  the  demand  was,  however,  met 
wifh  a  firm  refusal.  The  batteries  of  the  first  parallel  were  now  opened 
upon  the  town,  and  soon  made  a  visible  impression  ;  and  to  prevent  the 
reception  of  the  reinforcements  which  general  Lincoln  expected,  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  detached  lieutenant-colonel  Webster  with  fourteen  hundred  men, 
by  the  advanced  guard  of  which  detachment  the  American  cavalry,  with 
the  militia  attached  to  them,  were  surprised  in  the  night  of  the  14th  of 
April,  and  completely  routed  and  dispersed.  The  British  now  extended 
themselves  to  the  eastward  of  Cooper  river  ;  and  about  this  time  Sir  Hen- 
ry Clinton  received  a  reinforcement  of  three  thousand  men  from  New 
York.  The  garrison  having  no  reasonable  hope  of  effecting  a  retreat,  an 
offer  was  made  of  surrendering  the  town  ;  but  the  proposed  conditions 
were  rejected  by  the  British  commanders. 

The  besiegers  in  the  mean  time  were  daily  advancing  their  works,  and 
had  now  completed  their  third  parallel ;  the  garrison  of  fort  Moultrie  sur- 
rendered ;  and  the  broken  remains  of  the  American  cavalry  under  colonel 


HISTORY.  703 

White  were  again  surprised  by  colonel  Tarleton,  and  the  whole  either  kill- 
ed, taken,  or  dispersed.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  thus  successful  in  every  ope- 
ration, renewed  his  former  offers  to  the  garrison  in  case  of  their  surrender ; 
but  the  terms,  so  far  as  they  respected  the  citizens,  not  being  satisfactory, 
hostilities  recommenced.  The  batteries  of  the  third  parallel  now  opened 
on  the  town,  and  did  great  execution ;  several  houses  were  burned ;  num- 
bers of  the  besieged  were  killed  at  their  guns  ;  and  the  British  prepared 
*  to  make  a  general  assault  by  land  and  water.  At  length  a  great  number 
of  citizens  of  Charleston  addressed  general  Lincoln  in  a  petition,  request- 
ing his  acceptance  of  the  terms  which  had  been  previously  offered.  A 
capitulation  was  consequently  signed  on  the  12th  of  May,  and  the  next 
day  major-general  Leslie  took  possession  of  the  town.^ 

The  capital  having  surrendered,  measures  were  adopted  to  overawe  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  induce  them  to  return  to  their  allegiance 
to  the  king.  Garrisons  were  placed  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  and  two 
thousand  men  were  despatched  towards  North  Carolina,  to  repel  several 
parties  of  militia,  who  were  hastening  to  the  relief  of  Charleston.  Colo- 
nel Tarleton,  making  a  rapid  march  of  a  hundred  and  five  miles  in  fifty- 
four  hours,  met,  at  the  Waxhaws,  and  attacked  one  of  these  parties,  com- 
manded by  colonel  Buford.  The  Americans,  being  defeated  by  his  superi- 
or forces,  implored  quarter  ;  but  nearly  the  whole  of  them  were  either  kill- 
ed or  too  badly  wounded  to  be  removed  from  the  field.  This  sanguinary 
conduct  spread  dismay  throughout  the  country,  and  imparted  a  similar 
character  to  future  conflicts. 

Indignant  at  the  treatment  they  received,  great  numbers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants seized  their  arms,  and  resolved  on  a  vindictive  war  with  their  inva- 
ders. A  party  who  had  taken  refuge  in  North  Carolina,  chose  colonel 
Sumpter  their  leader.  At  the  head  of  these  he  returned  to  his  own  state, 
attacked  and  defeated  several  scattered  detachments  from  the  British  army  ; 
and  by  a  succession  of  gallant  enterprises  he  kept  alive  a  spirit  of  deter- 
mined hostility  to  Great  Britain  in  every  part  of  the  state.  His  exertions 
were  rendered  the  more  effective  by  the  approach  of  four  thousand  men, 
principally  continentals,  under  the  command  of  general  Gates.  Lord 
Cornwallis,  whom  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  on  his  return  to  New  York,  had  left 
chief  in  command,  hastened  to  oppose  the  conqueror  of  Burgoyne.  On 
the  night  of  the  15th  of  August  he  marched,  with  his  whole  force,  to  at- 
tack the  Americans  in  their  camp  at  Clermont.  They  at  the  same  hour 
began  to  move  towards  Camden,  where  lord  Cornwallis  had  his  head- 
quarters. As  the  two  armies  were  marching  on  the  same  road,  in  oppo- 
site directions,  their  advanced  guards  met  and  fired  on  each  other  about 
half-past  two  in  the  morning.  From  some  prisoners  made  on  both  sides, 
the  commanders  learned  each  other's  movements. 

Both  armies  halted,  and  were  formed,   and  the  firing  soon  ceased,  as  if 

*  By  the  articles  of  capitulation,  the  garrison  were  to  march  out  of  the  town  and  to 
deposit  their  arms  in  front  of  the  works  ;  but  the  drums  were  not  to  beat  a  British 
march,  nor  the  colors  to  be  uncased.  The  continental  troops  and  seamen  were  to  keep 
their  baggage,  and  remain  prisoners  of  war  until  exchanged.  The  militia  were  to  be 
permitted  to  return  home  as  prisoners  on  parole  ;  and,  while  they  should  adhere  to  their 
parole,  were  not  to  be  molested  by  the  British  troops  in  person  or  property.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  all  conditions  were  to  be  considered  as  prisoners  on  parole,  and  to  hold  their 
property  on  the  same  terms  with  the  militia 


704     ,  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

hy  mutual  consent.  The  ground  on  which  the  two  armies  thus  acci* 
dentally  met,  was  exceedingly  favorable  to  lord  Cornwallis.  A  swamp  on 
each  side  secured  his  flanks,  and  narrowed  the  ground  in  front,  so  as  to 
Vender  the  superiority  of  the  Americans  in  numbers  of  less  consequence. 
In  the  morning  a  severe  and  general  action  was  fought.  The  charge  of 
the  British  was  made  writh  such  vigor,  that  the  Virginia  militia  threw  down 
their  arms,  and  fled  with  the  utmost  precipitation ;  and  the  greatest  part 
of  the  North  Carolina  militia  soon  followed  their  example.  The  Ameri- 
can reserve  was  now  brought  into  action,  and  general  Gates,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  general  Caswell,  endeavored  to  rally  the  militia  at  advantageous 
passes  in  the  rear  of  the  field  of  action,  but  in  vain.  On  the  left  and  in 
the  centre  the  contest  was  more  obstinately  maintained  by  the  Americans, 
xvhose  artillery  did  considerable  execution  ;  but  by  the  flight  of  the  militia 
their  left  flank  was  exposed,  and  the  continentals,  after  a  brave  resistance 
of  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  were  thrown  into  confusion,  and 
forced  to  give  way.  The  Americans  lost  the  whole  of  their  artillery,  the 
greatest  part  of  their  baggage,  several  hundred  men,  and  some  very  valu- 
able officers  ;  the  loss  of  the  British  was  also  severe. 

Sumpter,  who  had  lately  been  victorious  in  a  skirmish,  retreated  precipi- 
tately on  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  Gates ;  but  supposing  he  was  beyond 
danger,  he  halted  at  the  Catawba  ford  to  refresh  his  troops.  Here  his  sen- 
tinels unhappily  slept  at  their  posts,  and  Tarleton's  legion  rode  into  his 
camp  before  preparations  could  be  made  for  defence.  Between  three  and 
four  hundred  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  remainder  were  dispersed  in 
the  woods,  three  hundred  British  prisoners  were  released,  and  all  the  bag- 
gage and  stores  fell  into  the  power  of  the  victors. 

Apprehending  the  state  to  be  subdued,  Cornwallis  adopted  measures  of 
extreme  severity  to  suppress  every  latent  inclination  to  revolt.  He  direct- 
ed that  all  who,  having  once  submitted,  had  lately  given  aid  to  the  armies 
of  congress,  should  be  deprived  of  their  property  and  imprisoned ;  and 
that  all  wTho  had  once  borne  arms  with  the  British,  and  afterwards  joined 
tile  Americans,  should  suffer  death.  In  consequence  of  these  orders  seve- 
ral were  executed,  and  many  were  reduced  to  poverty  and  wretchedness. 
In  these  times  of  confusion  and  distress,  the  mischievous  effects  of  slavery 
in  facilitating  the  conquest  of  the  country  became  apparent.  As  the  slaves 
had  no  interest  at  stake,  the  subjugation  of  the  state  was  a  matter  of  no 
consequence  to  them.  Instead  of  aiding  in  its  defence,  they,  by  a  variety 
of  means,  threw  the  weight  of  their  influence  into  the  opposite  scale. 

Although  his  corps  had  been  dispersed,  general  Sumpter  speedily  re- 
collected a  band  of  volunteers,  and  kept  the  field  in  South  Carolina  for 
three  months,  when  there  was  no  continental  army  in  the  state.  Varying 
his  position  along  the  Evoree,  Broad,  and  Tyger  rivers,  he  had  frequent 
skirmishes  with  the  enemy,  whom  he  incessantly  harassed.  In  Novem- 
ber, he  was  attacked  at  Broad  river  by  major  Wemys,  commanding  a  corps 
of  infantry  and  dragoons,  but  the  British  were  defeated,  and  their  com- 
manding officer  taken  prisoner  ;  and  in  a  few  days  afterward  he  was  at- 
tacked near  Tyger  river  by  colonel  Tarleton,  who,  finding  himself  unable 
to  dislodge  the  Americans,  retreated  with  considerable  less,  and  left 
Sumpter  in  possession  of  the  field.  The  zeal,  activity,  and  bravery  of  this 
officer,  at  that  trying  period,  procured  him  the  thanks  of  congress  and  the 
applause  of  his  country. 


HISTORY.  705 

While  the  affairs  of  the  south  were  in  a  state  by  no  means  encouraging 
to  the  cause  of  independence,  the  general  army  under  the  command  of 
Washington  was  in  a  state  of  insufferable  destitution,  and  of  consequent 
mutiny.  Two  hundred  millions  of  dollars  in  paper  currency  were  at  this 
time  in  circulation  upon  the  credit  of  the  United  States.  Congress  had 
the  preceding  year  solemnly  pledged  the  faith  of  government  not  to  issue 
more  than  this  sum,  and  the  national  treasury  was  now  empty.  Congress, 
the  head  of  the  nation,  had,  therefore,  no  further  command  of  the  resources 
of  the  country.  The  power  of  taxation,  and  of  every  coercive  measure  of 
government,  was  vested  in  the  state  sovereignties,  and  a  system  which  in 
its  execution  required  the  conjoint  agency  of  thirteen  sovereignties,  was  too 
complex  for  the  prompt  operations  of  a  military  body.  In  the  course  of 
the  winter,  forage  had  failed,  and  many  of  the  horses  attached  to  the  army 
had  died,  or  were  rendered  unfit  for  use.  General  Washington  therefore 
struggled  with  almost  insuperable  difficulties  in  supplying  the  army.  The 
pay  of  the  officers  also  had  now  scarcely  more  than  a  nominal  value ;  and 
the  officers  of  whole  lines  belonging  to  some  of  the  states,  in  a  body,  gave 
notice,  that  on  a  certain  day  they  should  resign  their  commissions,  unless 
provision  was  made  for  their  honorable  support. 

Congress  possessed  not  the  means  to  apply  adequate  remedies  to  these 
threatening  evils.  They  passed  a  resolution,  indeed,  "  That  congress  will 
make  good  to  the  line  of  the  army,  and  to  the  independent  corps  thereof, 
the  deficiencies  of  their  original  pay,  which  had  been  occasioned  by  the  de- 
preciation of  the  continental  currency  ;"  but  the  promise  of  future  compen- 
sation from  a  country  whose  neglect  was  conceived  to  be  the  source  of  all 
their  sufferings,  they  deemed  a  feeble  basis  of  dependence,  at  the  moment 
they  were  severely  pressed  by  privations  of  every  kind.  Murmurs  at 
length  broke  out  into  actual  mutiny.  Two  of  the  Connecticut  regiments 
paraded  under  arms,  announcing  their  intention  to  return  home,  or  by  their 
arms  to  obtain  subsistence  ;  but  by  the  spirited  and  prudent  exertions  of  the 
officers,  the  ringleaders  were  secured,  and  the  regiments  brought  back  to 
their  duty. 

This  disaffection  was  reported  to  New  York,  with  the  customary  exag- 
gerations of  rumor.  General  Knyphausen,  the  commanding  officer  at  that 
post,  supposing  the  American  citizens  and  soldiers  ripe  for  revolt,  passed 
over  into  New  Jersey  with  five  thousand  men,  to  avail  himself  of  favorable 
events ;  but  the  behavior  of  the  Americans  soon  convinced  him  he  had 
been  deceived  in  the  report  of  their  disaffected  disposition.  The  troops 
detached  from  the  army  to  oppose  his  progress  fought  with  obstinate  brave- 
ry ;  and  the  inhabitants,  seizing  their  arms  with  alacrity,  emulated  the 
spirit  and  persevering  courage  of  the  regular  soldier.  The  general,  finding 
he  must  encounter  serious  opposition,  retreated  to  Elizabeth  Point,  opposite 
to  Staten  island.  In  the  mean  time,  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  returning  with 
his  victorious  troops  from  Charleston,  ordered  a  reinforcement  to  Knyphau- 
sen, who,  with  the  whole  body,  advanced  a  second  time  towards  Spring- 
field. The  British  were  now  opposed  by  general  Green  with  a  considera- 
ble body  of  continental  troops,  and  a  severe  action  was  fought,  but  the 
Americans  were  forced,  by  superior  numbers,  to  retire.  General  Green 
took  post  with  his  troops  on  a  range  of  hills,  in  the  hope  of  being  attacked  ; 
but  the  British,  having  burned  the  town,  retreated,  and  the  next  day  set 
out  on  their  return  to  New  York. 


706  BOOK  OF   THE  UMfED  STATES. 

Late  in  the  spring  the  marquis  la  Fayette  returned  from  France  with 
the  pleasing  intelligence  that  his  government  had  resolved  to  assist  the 
United  States,  by  employing  this  year  a  respectable  land  and  naval  force 
in  America.  This  grateful  information  reanimated  the  public  mind,  and 
gave  a  new  stimulus  to  the  activity  of  congress,  and  of  the  governments  of 
the  several  states,  that  preparation  might  be  made  to  co-operate  with  the 
French  armament  on  its  arrival.  Vigorous  measures  were  in  consequence 
adopted  by  congress  and  by  the  states  to  recruit  the  army,  to  lay  up  maga- 
zines, and  to  enable  the  general  to  comply  with  the  reasonable  expecta- 
tions of  their  allies;  but  the  agency  of  different  bodies  was  necessary  to 
carry  these  public. measures  into  effect,  and  their  operation  was  dilatory. 

Early  in  July  the  first  division  of  French  troops  reached  the  American 
shore,  consisting  of  between  five  and  six  thousand  men,  with  a  large  train 
of  battering  and  field  artillery.  These  forces  were  commanded  by  count 
de  Rochambeau,  whose  government  had  placed  him  under  the  command 
of  general  Washington.  The  count  brought  information  that  a  second 
division  would  follow  him  as  soon  as  transports  could  be  fitted  out  to  bring 
them.  The  principal  French  and  American  officers  assiduously  cultivated 
a  mutual  affection  between  the  two  armies ;  and  the  commander-in-chief 
recommended  to  the  officers  of  the  United  States  to  ingraft  on  the  Ameri- 
can cockade  a  white  relief,  as  an  emblem  of  the  alliance  of  the  two  powers* 
On  the  arrival  of  the  French,  the  Americans  were  unprepared  to  act  with 
them,  nor  did  the  American  general  know  what  force  would  ultimately  be 
brought  into  the  field ;  and  before  any  thing  could  be  effected,  information 
was  brought  that  the  second  armament  destined  for  America  was  blocked 
up  in  the  harbor  of  Brest,  and  would  not  this  season  reach  the  American 
continent.  The  flattering  prospect  of  terminating  the  war  by  the  conquest 
of  the  British  posts  in  a  moment  vanished,  and  elevated  views  of  brilliant 
success  were  succeeded  by  grievous  disappointment. 

In  this  season  of  difficulty,  of  embarrassment,  and  of  gloom,  a  circum- 
etance  occurred  which  excited  the  deepest  interest  throughout  both  armies, 
and  indeed  in  the  breast  of  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  states.  The  American 
army  was  stationed  in  the  strong-holds  of  the  high  lands  on  both  sides  of 
the  North  river  ;  and  for  the  defence  of  this  position,  and  to  keep  command 
of  the  river,  a  fortress  had  been  built  at  West  Point,  which  was  deemed 
impregnable,  and  had  acquired  the  appellation  of  the  Gibraltar  of  America. 
Of  this  post  general  Arnold  solicited  the  command,  and  general  Washing- 
ton, far  from  suspecting  any  sinister  views  in  an  officer  who  had  been  so 
zealous  and  active  in  the  cause  of  his  country,  complied  with  the  solicita- 
tion. Arnold  had,  however,  no  sooner  become  invested  with  the  command, 
than  he  carried  on  a  negotiation  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  by  which  it  was 
agreed,  that  he  should  make  such  a  disposition  of  his  forces,  as  would  ena- 
ble the  British  general  effectually  to  surprise  West  Point.  The  agent  em- 
ployed in  this  negotiation  was  major  Andre,  adjutant-general  of  the  Bri- 
tish army ;  and  to  favor  the  communications,  the  Vulture,  a  British  sloop 
of  war,  had  been  previously  stationed  in  North  river,  as  near  Arnold's 
posts  as  could  be  without  exciting  suspicion.  On  the  night  of  the  21st  of 
September  a  boat  was  sent  from  the  shore  to  fetch  major  Andre,  and 
Arnold  met  him  at  the  beach,  without  the  posts  of  both  armies.  Their 
business  not  being  finished  until  it  was  too  near  morning  for  Andre  to  re- 
turn to  the  Vulture,  Arnold,  telling  him  he  must  be  concealed  until  the 


HISTORY. 


707 


next  night,  conducted  him  within  one  of  the  American  posts,  where  h<5 
continued  with  him  the  following  day.  The  Vulture  having  in  the  mean 
time  been  compelled  to  alter  her  position,  Andre  could  return  to  New  York 
in  no  other  way  than  by  land ;  changing  his  uniform,  therefore,  which  he 
had  worn  under  a  surtout,  for  a  plain  dress,  he  set  out  on  horseback,  under 
the  name  of  John  Anderson,  with  a  passport,  signed  by  Arnold,  '  to  go  to 
the  lines  of  White  Plains,  or  lower  if  he  thought  proper,  he  being  on  public 
business.'  When  advanced  a  great  part  of  the  way,  he  was  stopped  by 
three  of  the  New  York  militia,  and  several  papers,  containing  exact  returns 
of  the  state  of  the  forces,  ordnance,  and  defences  at  West  Point,  were  found 
in  his  boots.     The  captors,  disdaining  a  proffered  bribe  of  a  purse  of  gold 


Capture  of  Major  Andre. 

and  permanent  provision  and  promotion,  on  condition  of  their  conveying 
and  accompanying  him  to  New  York,  delivered  him  a  prisoner  to  lieute- 
nant-colonel Jameson,  who  commanded  the  outposts.  Andre,  with  the  in- 
cautious permission  of  Jameson,  procured  a  letter  to  be  sent  to  Arnold, 
informing  him  of  his  detention,  which  gave  the  traitor  opportunity  to 
escape  on  board  the  Vulture,^  in  which  he  reached  New  York  in  safety. 

*  General  Arnold  early  and  warmly  embraced  the  American  cause.  His  enterpris- 
ing spirit,  his  invincible  fortitude,  his  heroic  and  persevering  ardor  in  battle,  had  exalted 
his  military  character  in  his  own  country  and  in  Europe.  Being  incapacitated  for  the 
duties  of  the  field  by  the  wounds  he  received  before  Quebec  and  at  Saratoga,  he  was 
appointed  commandant  in  Philadelphia  when  the  British  evacuated  that  city.  In  this 
flattering  command,  he  adopted  a  style  of  living  above  his  means,  and  soon  found  him- 
self loaded  with  debt.  To  relieve  himself  he  entered  into  various  schemes  of  speculation, 
and  was  unsuccessful  in  all.  Hollow  at  heart,  he  had  recourse  to  fraud  and  peculation. 
These  practices  rendered  him  odious  to  the  citizens,  and  gave  offence  to  government. 
At  length  formal  complaints  were  lodged  against  him,  and  congress  ordered  his  trial  by 
a  court-martial.  By  this  court  he  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  be  reprimanded  by 
the  commander-in-chief.  The  sentence  was  approved  by  congress,  and  carried  into  exe- 
cution by  general  Washington.  In  the  gold  that  was  to  reward  his  treason,  Arnold  ex- 
pected relief  from  his  pecuniary  embarrassments  ;  and  his  implacable  spirit  sought  its 
revenge  of  his  country  by  betraying  into  the  hand  of  her  enemy  the  Gibraltar  of  Ame- 
rica. Upon  his  establishment  in  the  army  of  Great  Britain,  he  found  it  necessary  to 
make  some  exertions  to  secure  the  attachment  of  his  new  friends.    With  the  hope  of 


708  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITE!)  STATES. 

At  this  very  hour  Washington  arrived  on  his  return  from  a  conference 
with  the  French  general  at  Hartford.  He  repaired,  without  delay,  to  the 
fort  of  West  Point,  where,  however,  he  could  learn  nothing  of  a  decisive 
import.  But  some  orders,  issued  by  Arnold  the  day  before,  redoubled  his 
suspicions ;  he  returned  to  the  quarters  of  the  general,  and  at  this  instant 
Jameson's  messenger  presented  himself,  and  delivered  the  packet  with 
which  he  was  charged.  Washington  seemed  for  the  moment  overwhelmed 
by  the  discovery  of  a  crime  which  ruined  the  fame  of  an  American  general, 
and  wounded  the  honor  of  the  American  army.  Those  who  were  near 
him  anxiously  interrogated  his  looks  in  silence,  which  he  broke  by  saying, 
*  I  thought  that  an  officer  of  courage  and  ability,  who  had  often  shed  his 
blood  for  his  country,  was  entitled  to  confidence,  and  I  gave  him  mine.  I 
am  convinced  now,  and  for  the  rest  of  my  life,  that  we  should  never  trust 
those  who  are  wanting  in  probity,  whatever  abilities  they  may  possess. 
Arnold  has  betrayed  us.'  Meanwhile,  the  precautions  required  by  the  occa- 
sion were  everywhere  taken.  General  Heath,  a  faithful  and  vigilant  officer, 
was  substituted  for  Arnold  at  West  Point ;  the  commanders  of  the  other 
posts  were  admonished  to  be  on  their  guard  ;  Green,  who  had  been  invest- 
ed with  the  command  of  the  army  during  the  absence  of  Washington,  re- 
called within  the  forts  the  garrisons  which  the  traitor  had  dispersed,  and 
marched  a  strong  division  near  to  the  lines.  General  Washington  referred 
the  case  of  Andre  to  the  examination  and  decision  of  a  board,  consisting  of 
fourteen  officers,  who  founded  their  report  on  his  own  statements  ;  they 
reported  it  as  their  unanimous  opinion,  '  that  major  Andre  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  spy,  and  that,  agreeably  to  the  laws  and  usages  of  nations,  he 
should  suffer  death;'  and  he  was,  in  accordance  with  their  sentence,  hung 
as  a  spy.*= 

alluring  many  of  the  discontented  to  his  standard,  he  published  an  address  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  America,  in  which  he  endeavored  to  justify  his  conduct.  This  was  followed 
by  a  proclamation  addressed  '  to  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  continental  army,  who 
have  the  real  interest  of  their  country  at  heart,  and  wbo  are  determined  to  be  no  longer 
the  tools  and  dupes  of  congress  and  of  France.'  These  proclamations  did  not  produce 
the  effect  designed.  And  in  all  the  hardships,  sufferings,  and  irritations  of  the  war, 
Arnold  remains  the  solitary  instance  of  an  American  officer  who  abandoned  the  side 
first  embraced  in  the  contest,  and  turned  his  sword  upon  his  former  companions  in  arms. 
He  survived  the  war  but  to  drag  on,  in  perpetual  banishment  from  his  native  country, 
a  dishonorable  life.  He  transmitted  to  his  children  a  name  of  hateful  celebrity.  He 
obtained  only  a  part  of  the  debasing  stipend  of  an  abortive  treason,  and  his  complaints 
soon  caused  it  to  be  known,  that  all  the  promises  by  which  he  had  been  inveigled  were 
not  fulfilled.  He  enjoyed,  however,  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  but  the  officers  of 
the  British  army  manifested  a  strong  repugnance  to  serve  with  him.  He  possessed  their 
esteem  while  he  fought  against  them ;  they  loaded  him  with  contempt  when  treason 
brought  him  over  to  their  side.  He  resided  principally  in  England  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  war,  and  died  on  the  14th  of  June,  1801. 

*  The  general  officers  who  reported  his  case  lamented  the  necessity  they  were  under 
to  advise  that  as  a  spy  he  should  be  hung,  and  the  heart  of  general  Washington  was 
wrung  with  anguish  when  he  signed  his  death  warrant.  But  the  fatal  wound  that 
would  have  been  inflicted  on  the  country  had  Arnold's  treason  succeeded,  made  the  sa- 
crifice necessary  for  the  public  safety.  The  American  officers  universally  discovered  a 
sympathy  for  the  unfortunate  sufferer,  and  the  sensibility  of  the  public  was  greatly  ex- 
cited on  the  occasion.  His  character  is  thus  beautifully  painted  by  the  late  general 
Hamilton,  who  without  envy  might  have  contemplated  his  eminent  qualities,  for  they 
were  not  equal  to  his  own.  '  There  was  something  singularly  interesting  in  the  charac- 
ter of  Andre.     To  an  excellent  understanding,  well  improved  by  education  and  travel. 


HISTORY. 


709 


When  the  winter  of  1780  commenced,  the  troops  of  the  northern  army 
retired  to  the  quarters  which  they  had  last  occupied.  Again  they  endured 
distress  at  which  patriotism  feels  indignant  and  humanity  weeps.  The 
harvest  had  been  abundant ;  plenty  reigned  in  the  land,  while  want  was 
still  felt  in  the  camp  of  its  defenders.  Lassitude  had  succeeded  enthusiasm 
in  the  breasts  of  the  people,  and  congress  exerted  its  powers  with  too  little 
vigor  to  draw  forth  the  resources  of  the  country.  The  soldiers  of  the 
Pennsylvania  line  stationed  at  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  complained  that, 
in  addition  to  sustaining  sufferings  common  to  all,  they  were  retained  in 
service  contrary  to  the  terms  of  their  enlistments.  In  the  night  of  the  1st 
of  January,  thirteen  hundred,  on  a  concerted  signal,  paraded  under  arms, 
and  declared  their  intention  of  marching  to  Philadelphia,  and  demanding 
of  congress  a  redress  of  their  grievances.  The  officers  strove  to  compel 
them  to  relinquish  their  purpose.  In  the  attempt,  one  was  killed  and 
several  were  wounded.  General  Wayne  presented  his  pistols,  as  if  intend- 
ing to  fire.     They  held  their  bayonets  to  his  breast ;  '  We  love  and  respect 


Muiiny. 

you,'  said  they  ;  '  but  if  you  fire  you  are  a  dead  man.  We  are  not  going 
to  the  enemy.  On  the  contrary,  if  they  were  now  to  come  out,  you  should 
see  us  fight  under  your  orders  with  as  much  alacrity  as  ever.  But  we 
will  be  amused  no  longer ;  we  are  determined  to  obtain  what  is  our  just 

he  united  a  peculiar  elegance  of  mind  and  manners,  and  the  advantages  of  a  pleasing 
person.  It  is  said  that  he  possessed  a  pretty  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  and  had  himself 
attained  some  proficiency  in  poetry,  music,  and  painting.  His  knowledge  appeared  with- 
out ostentation,  and  embellished  by  a  diffidence  that  rarely  accompanies  so  many  talents 
and  accomplishments,  which  left  you  to  suppose  more  than  appeared.  His  sentiments 
were  elevated,  and  inspired  esteem;  they  had  a  softness  that  conciliated  affection.  His 
elocution  was  handsome,  his  address  easy,  polite,  and  insinuating.  By  his  merit  he  had 
acquired  the  unlimited  confidence  of  his  general,  and  was  making  rapid  progress  in  mili- 
tary rank  and  reputation.  But  in  the  height  of  his  career,  flushed  with  new  hopes  from 
the  execution  of  a  project  the  most  beneficial  to  his  party  that  could  be  devised,  he  is  at 
once  precipitated  from  the  summit  of  prosperity,  sees  all  the  expectations  of  his  ambition 
blasted,  and  himself  ruined.'  A  handsome  monument  is  erected  to  his  memory  in 
Westminster  abbey. 

60 


7)0  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

due.'  They  elected  temporary  officers,  and  moved  off  in  a  body  towards 
Princeton.  General  Wayne,  to  prevent  them  from  plundering  the  inhabit 
tants,  forwarded  provisions  for  their  use.  The  next  day  he  followed,  and 
requested  them  to  appoint  a  man  from  each  regiment,  to  state  to  him  their 
complaints  ;  a  conference  was  accordingly  held,  but  he  refused  to  comply 
with  their  demands.  They  then  proceeded  in  good  order  to  Princeton, 
where  three  emissaries  from  Sir  Henry  Clinton  met  them,  and  made  libe- 
ral offers  to  entice  them  from  the  service  of  congress.  The  offers  wero 
indignantly  rejected,  and  the  emissaries  seized  and  executed  as  spies. 
Here  they  were  also  met  by  a  committee  of  congress,  and  a  deputation  from 
the  state  of  Pennsylvania ;  and  the  latter,  granting  a  part  of  their  demands, 
succeeded  in  persuading  them  to  return  to  their  duty.  This  mutiny,  and 
another  in  the  Jersey  line,  which  was  instantly  suppressed,  aroused  the 
attention  of  the  states  to  the  miserable  condition  of  their  troops.  The 
amount  of  three  months'  pay  was  raised  and  forwarded  to  them  in  specie ; 
it  was  received  with  joy,  as  affording  an  evidence  that  their  country  waa 
not  unmindful  of  their  sufferings. 

The  year  on  which  we  now  enter  decided  the  important  contest  which 
engaged  the  attention  of  Europe,  and  of  all  the  civilized  world,  in  favor  of 
liberty,  and,  we  must  add,  of  justice.  The  boon  of  independence  was  not, 
however,  gained  without  adding  to  the  long  list  of  widows  and  orphans, 
nor  without  augmenting  the  catalogue  of  cruelties  more  horrid  than  those 
of  the  Indian  tribes,  because  perpetrated  by  those  who  had  no  accumulated 
antipathy  of  ages  to  palliate  their  hostility,  but  who  only  yesterday  were 
friends  and  brothers.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Carolinas  endured  calamity 
and  distress  from  which  humanity  revolts.  About  equally  divided  in  po- 
litical sentiments,  village  was  opposed  to  village,  and  neighbor  to  neighbor, 
and  their  hostility  became  embittered  by  attack  and  reprisal,  until  pillage, 
burning,  and  murder,  became  familiar  to  all.^     Each  party  aimed  at  the 

*  The  following  instance  will  illustrate  the  horrible  spirit  of  these  times: — 'In  the 
hour  of  festivity,  one  Brown  had  indulged  himself  in  indiscreet  censure  of  the  revolution- 
ary party.  He  had  done  worse, — he  had  committed  a  fault  less  easily  forgiven, — he  had 
ridiculed  them.  Being  apprized  that  their  resentment  was  excited,  he  attempted  to 
escape  ;  but  he  was  closely  pursued,  brought  back  to  Augusta,  tried  before  a  committee 
of  surveillance,  and  sentenced  to  be  tarred  and  feathered  and  carted,  unless  he  recanted 
and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  prescribed  by  the  administration  of  Georgia.  Brown 
was  a  firm  man,  and  resisted  with  a  pertinacity  that  should  have  commanded  the  respect 
of  his  persecutors.  But  the  motions  of  a  mob  are  too  precipitate  to  admit  of  the  intru- 
sion of  generous  feeling.  After  undergoing  the  painful  and  mortifying  penance  pre- 
scribed by  the  committee  without  yielding,  it  is  too  true  that  he  was  doomed  to  have  his 
naked  feet  exposed  to  a  large  fire,  to  subdue  his  stubborn  spirit ;  but  in  vain  ;  and  he  was 
at  length  turned  loose  by  a  group  of  men,  who  never  once  dreamed  that  the  simple  Indian 
trader  would  soon  reappear  an  armed  and  implacable  enemy.  He  first  visited  the  loy- 
alists of  Ninety  Six,  concerted  his  measures  with  them,  then  made  his  way  to  St.  Augus- 
tine, received  a  colonel's  commission,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  desperate 
refugees,  and  accompanied  Provost  in  his  irruption  into  Georgia.  His  thirst  for  revenge 
appeared  afterward  insatiable,  and  besides  wantonly  hanging  many  of  his  prisoners,  he 
subjected  the  families  of  the  whigs  who  were  out  in  service  to  accumulated  sufferings 
and  distress.  It  was  not  long  after  he  was  left  in  command  at  Augusta  by  the  British 
general,  that  colonel  Clarke,  with  a  determined  party  of  the  militia,  whose  families  he 
had  persecuted,  aimed  a  well-directed  blow  at  his  post.  But  Brown  proved  himself  a 
man  of  bravery  and  conduct,  and  he  well  knew  that  at  all  times  he  was  fighting  for  his 
Jife.  After  a  severe  and  partially  successful  contest,  the  approach  of  a  party  of  Indiana 
obliged  Clarke  to  retreat,  and  leave  his  wounded  behind  him,  with  a  letter  addressed  t# 


feisrfoRf.  711 

^extirpation  of  the  other,  and  the  whole  country  presented  a  scene  of 
slaughter  and  of  blood.  The  American  generals  seized  every  occasion  to 
discountenance  such  vindictive  and  barbarous  conduct,  while,  with  few 
exceptions,  the  British  permitted  and  even  accelerated  their  perpetration. 

The  reduction  of  Savannah  and  Charleston  encouraged  the  British  to  a 
vigorous  invasion  of  North  Carolina.  The  whole  army  of  general  Green, 
which  had  at  the  close  of  last  year  advanced  from  Hillsborough  to  Char- 
lottetown,  consisted  of  about  two  thousand  men,  more  than  half  of  whom 
were  militia.  With  this  inconsiderable  body  of  troops,  miserably  provided, 
general  Green  took  the  field  against  a  superior  regular  force,  which  had 
already  marched  in  triumph  two  hundred  miles  from  the  point  of  its  debarka- 
tion. Soon  after  Green  took  the  command,  he  divided  his  force,  and  sent 
general  Morgan  with  a  respectable  detachment  to  the  western  extremity 
of  South  Carolina,  where  the  tories  were  destroying  the  whigs  without 
mercy  and  without  restraint,  and  marched  with  the  main  body  to  Hick's 
CTeek,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Pedee.  On  the  entrance  of  general  Morgan 
into  the  district  of  Ninety-six,  lord  Cornwallis,  who  was  preparing  for  the 
invasion  of  North  Carolina,  that  he  might  not  leave  an  enemy  in  his  rear, 
ordered  colonel  Tarleton  to  proceed  with  about  eleven  hundred  men,  and 
drive  him  from  his  position.  Tarleton  had  two  field-pieces,  and  a  superi- 
ority both  of  infantry  and  cavalry.  With  these  advantages,  he  engaged 
Morgan  at  the  Cowpens,  near  Pacolet  river,  on  the  17th  of  January.  The 
British,  led  to  the  attack  by  Tarleton  himself,  advanced  with  a  shout,  and 
poured  in  an  incessant  fire  of  musketry.  The  American  militia,  though 
they  received  the  charge  with  firmness,  were  soon  compelled  to  fall  back 
in  the  rear  of  their  second  line  ;  and  this  line,  in  its  turn,  after  an  obstinate 
conflict,  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  the  cavalry.  At  this  juncture  lieute- 
nant-colonel Washington  made  a  successful  charge  on  captain  Ogilvie,  who, 
with  about  forty  dragoons,  was  cutting  down  the  retreating  militia  ;  lieu- 
tenant-colonel Howard  almost  at  the  same  moment  rallied  the  continental 
troops,  and  charged  with  fixed  bayonets,  and  the  militia  instantly  followed 
the  example.  By  these  sudden  and  unexpected  charges,  the  British,  who 
had  considered  the  fate  of  the  day  decided,  were  thrown  into  confusion, 
and  driven  from  the  ground  with  great  slaughter.  Howard  and  Washing- 
ton pressed  the  advantage  which  they  had  respectively  gained,  until  the 
artillery  and  a  great  part  of  the  infantry  had  surrendered.*1  Seldom  has  a 
victory,  achieved  by  so  small  a  number,  been  so  important  in  its  conse- 
quences. It  deprived  Cornwallis  of  one-fifth  of  his  force,  and  disconcerted 
his  plans  for  the  reduction  of  North  Carolina.  He  sought,  however,  to 
repair,  by  active  exertions,  the  loss  which  he  had  suffered,  and  determined, 

Brown,  requesting  that  he  would  parole  them  to  their  plantations.  But  Brown's  thirst 
fbr  revenge  knew  no  bounds.  It  had  been  irritated  in  this  instance  by  a  wound  which 
confined  him  to  his  bed.  The  unhappy  prisoners,  twenty-eight  in  number,  were  all 
bung ;  thirteen  of  them  were  suspended  to  the  railing  of  the  staircase,  that  he  might 
feast  his  eyes  with  their  dying  agonies.' — Johnso7i,s  Life  of  General  Green. 

*  Upwards  of  three  hundred  of  the  British  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  above  five  hun- 
dred taken  prisoners  ;  eight  hundred  muskets,  two  field-pieces,  two  standards,  thirty-five 
baggage  wagons,  and  one  hundred  dragoon  horses,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors. 
Of  the  Americans,  twelve  men  only  were  killed,  and  sixty  wounded.  Congress,  in  honor 
of  the  good  conduct  of  general  Morgan,  presented  him  a  gold  medal ;  to  lieutenant- 
colonels  Washington  and  Howard,  medals  of  silver ;  and  to  colonel  Pickens,  a  sword. 


712  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

if  possible,  to  intercept  Morgan,  and  compel  him  to  restore  the  trophies  of 
his  victory.  This  resolution  led  to  a  military  race,  which  maybe, without 
exaggeration,  termed  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  history.  Each  army 
strove  to  precede  the  other  at  the  fords  of  the  Catawba,  from  which  both 
were  equally  distant.  The  American  troops  endured  almost  incredible 
hardships,  being  sometimes  without  meat,  often  without  flour,  and  entirely 
destitute  of  spirituous  liquors.  A  large  portion  of  the  troops  were  without 
shoes,  and,  marching  over  frozen  ground,  marked  with  blood  every  step  of 
their  progress.  On  the  twelfth  day  after  the  engagement,  Morgan  reached 
the  fords  and  crossed  the  Catawba ;  and  two  hours  afterwards  Cornwallis 
arrived,  and,  it  being  then  dark,  encamped  on  the  bank.  During  the  night, 
a  heavy  fall  of  rain  made  the  river  impassable,  which  gave  Morgan  an  op- 
portunity to  remove  the  prisoners  beyond  the  reach  of  his  pursuer. 

The  movements  of  the  royal  army  induced  general  Green  immediately 
to  retreat  from  Hick's  creek;  and,  leaving  the  main  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  general  Huger,  he  rode  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  through  the 
country  to  join  the  detachment  under  general  Morgan,  that  he  might  be  in 
front  of  lord  Cornwallis,  and  so  direct  both  divisions  of  his  army  as  to  form 
a  speedy  junction  between  them.  Lord  Cornwallis,  after  three  days'  delay, 
effected  the  passage  of  the  Catawba,  and  recommenced  the  pursuit.  The 
Americans,  continuing  their  expeditious  movements,  crossed  the  Yadkin 
on  the  3d  of  February,  and  secured  their  boats  on  the  north  side ;  but  the 
British,  though  close  in  their  rear,  were  incapable  of  crossing  it  through  the 
rapid  rising  of  the  river  from  preceding  rains,  and  the  want  of  boats.  This 
second  remarkable  escape  confirmed  the  impression  on  the  minds  of  the 
Americans,  that  their  cause  was  favored  by  Divine  Providence.  After  a 
junction  of  the  two  divisions  of  the  American  army  at  Guildford  court- 
house, it  was  concluded,  in  a  council  of  officers  called  by  general  Green, 
that  he  ought  to  retire  over  the  Dan,  and  to  avoid  an  engagement  until  ho 
should  be  reinforced. 

Lord  Cornwallis  kept  the  upper  countries,  where  only  the  rivers  are 
fordable,  and  attempted  to  get  between  general  Green  and  Virginia,  to  cut 
off  his  retreat,  and  oblige  him  to  fight  under  many  disadvantages ;  but  the 
American  general  completely  eluded  him.  So  urgent  was  the  pursuit  of 
the  British,  that,  on  the  14th  of  February,  the  American  light  troops  were 
compelled  to  retire  above  forty  miles ;  and  on  that  day  general  Green,  by 
indefatigable  exertions,  transported  his  army  over  the  Dan  into  Virginia, 
Here  again  the  pursuit  was  so  close,  that  the  van  of  the  British  just  arrived 
as  the  rear  of  the  Americans  had  crossed.  The  continental  army  being 
now  driven  out  of  North  Carolina,  earl  Cornwallis  left  the  Dan,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Hillsborough,  where  he  set  up  the  royal  standard.  Green,  per- 
ceiving the  necessity  of  some  spirited  measure  to  counteract  his  lordship's 
influence  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  concluded,  at  every  hazard,  to 
recross  the  Dan.  After  manoeuvring  in  a  very  masterly  manner  to  avoid 
an  action  with  Cornwallis  three  weeks,  his  army  was  joined  by  two  bri- 
gades of  militia  from  North  Carolina,  and  one  from  Virginia,  and  also  by 
four  hundred  regulars. 

This  reinforcement  giving  him  a  superiority  of  numbers,  he  determined 
no  longer  to  avoid  an  engagement,  and,  on  the  15th  of  March,  he  accepted 
battle ;  but  at  the  first  fire  the  North  Carolina  militia,  who  were  in  tha 
front  line,  fled ;  the  second  line  was  also  routed.     The  continentals,  who 


HISTORY. 


713 


Composed  the  third,  fought  with  their  usual  bravery,  and  for  an  hour  and 
half  maintained  the  conflict  with  great  firmness.  They  at  length  gave 
way,  but  retreated  in  good  order,  the  slaughter  they  had  made  in  the  ene- 
my's ranks  preventing  pursuit.  The  victory,  won  by  a  far  inferior  force, 
was  more  glorious  than  advantageous  to  the  British  army.  Soon  after  the 
action,  lord  Cornwallis  began  a  march  toward  Wilmington.  General 
Green,  on  receiving  intelligence  of  this  movement,  put  his  army  in  motion 
to  follow  him,  and  continued  the  pursuit  to  Ramsay's  mill,  on  Deep  river. 
Cornwallis,  having  halted  and  refreshed  his  men  about  three  weeks  at 
Wilmington,  marched  across  the  country  to  Petersburg,  in  Virginia. 

Before  general  Green  was  aware  that  lord  Cornwallis  intended  to  enter 
Virginia,  he  had  formed  the  bold  resolution  of  returning  into  South  Caro- 
lina. Marching  towards  Camden,  where  nine  hundred  men,  under  the 
command  of  lord  Rawdon,  were  posted,  he  took  a  position  on  Hobkirk's  hill, 
about  a  mile  from  the  British  intrenchments.  Here  the  Americans  were 
attacked  on  the  25th  of  April.  In  the  beginning  of  the  action  their  bravery 
gained  advantages,  which,  in  its  progress,  were  lost  by  the  premature  retreat 
of  two  companies,  occasioned  by  the  death  of  their  officers.  At  this  reverse 
of  fortune,  Green  retired  a  few  miles  from  the  field,  both  armies  having 
sustained  nearly  an  equal  loss. 

Several  British  posts  in  South  Carolina  speedily  fell  into  the  power  of 
the  brave  and  active  partisans,  who,  with  small  bodies  of  troops,  were  ever 
riresent  where  oppression  was  to  be  resisted  or  glory  won.  Lee  joined 
Marion;  and,  on  the  15th  of  April,  they  unexpectedly  presented  themselves 
before  fort  Watson,  a  British  post  on  the  Santee.  It  was  an  Indian  mound, 
rising  thirty  or  forty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain.     Neither  the  garrison 


Attack  on  Fort  Watson. 

nor  the  assailants  had  artillery ;  but  in  a  few  days  the  Americans  construct- 
ed a  work  on  an  unusual  plan,  which  overlooked  the  fort,  and  from  the 
top  of  which  the  riflemen  fired  with  such  unerring  aim  that  not  a  man  of 
the  garrison  could  show  himself  without  certain  destruction.  On  the  23d, 
the  garrison,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  fourteen  men,  capitulated. 
Orangeburg  and  fort  Motte  surrendered  to  Sumpter.  Lee  captured 
90  60* 


714  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

fort  Granby,  and  Marion  drove  from  Georgetown  the  troops  stationed  to 
defend  it.  Immediately  after  the  surrender  of  fort  Granby,  lieutenant- 
colonel  Lee  marched  to  Augusta,  and  joined  brigadier-general  Pickens, 
who,  with  a  body  of  militia,  had  some  time  before  taken  post  in  the  vicinity; 
and  these  two  able  officers  jointly  carried  on  their  approaches  against  fort 
Cornwallis.  Two  batteries  were  erected  within  thirty  yards  of  the  parapet 
which  overlooked  the  fort ;  and  from  them  the  American  riflemen  shot  into 
the  inside  of  the  works  with  effect.  The  garrison,  almost  entirely  burying 
themselves  underground,  obstinately  refused  to  capitulate  until  resistance 
became  useless,  and  then  the  fort,  with  about  three  hundred  men,  surrender- 
ed on  honorable  terms  of  capitulation.  The  Americans,  during  the*  siege, 
had  about  forty  men  killed  and  wounded.  On  the  22d  of  May,  general 
Green  laid  siege  to  Ninety-six,  which  was  defended  by  lieutenant-colonel 
Cruger,  with  upwards  of  five  hundred  men.  The  works  of  the  besiegers 
were  carried  forward  with  indefatigable  industry  and  success  until  the  18th 
of  June,  when,  on  intelligence  of  the  approach  of  lord  Rawdon  for  the 
relief  of  the  place,  it  was  concluded  to  attempt  its  reduction  by  assault. 
The  assailants  displayed  great  resolution ;  but,  failing  of  success,  general 
Green  raised  the  siege,  and  retreated  over  the  Saluda. 

Lord  Rawdon  having  returned  to  England,  the  command  of  the  British 
troops  in  South  Carolina  devolved  upon  lieutenant-colonel  Stewart ;  who, 
m  the  beginning  of  September,  took  post  at  Eutaw  Springs.  General 
Green  marched  against  him  from  the  hills  of  Santee.  The  rival  forces 
were  equal,  amounting  on  each  side  to  two  thousand  men.  On  the  8th  an 
ittack  was  made  by  the  Americans  ;  a  part  of  the  British  line,  consisting 
of  new  troops,  broke  and  fled ;  but  the  veteran  corps  received  the  charge 
>f  the  assailants  on  the  points  of  their  bayonets.  The  hostile  ranks  were 
for  a  time  intermingled,  and  the  officers  fought  hand  to  hand ;  but  lieu- 
tenant-colonel Lee,  who  had  turned  the  British  left  flank,  charging  them  at 
this  instant  in  the  rear,  their  line  was  soon  completely  broken,  and  driven 
off  the  field.  They  were  vigorously  pursued  by  the  Americans,  who  took 
upwards  of  five  hundred  of  them  prisoners.  The  British,  on  their  retreat, 
took  post  in  a  large  three-story  brick  house,  and  in  a  picketed  garden  ;  and 
from  these  advantageous  positions  renewed  the  action.  Four  six-pounders 
were  ordered  up  before  the  house ;  but  the  Americans  were  compelled  to 
leave  these  pieces  and  retire.  They  formed  again  at  a  small  distance  in 
the  woods  ;  but  general  Green,  thinking  it  inexpedient  to  renew  the  despe- 
rate attempt,  left  a  strong  picket  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  retired  with  his 
prisoners  to  the  ground  from  which  he  had  marched  in  the  morning.  In 
the  evening  of  the  next  day,  lieutenant-colonel  Stewart,  leaving  seventy  of 
his  wounded  men  arid  one  thousand  stand  of  arms,  moved  from  Eutaw 
towards  Charleston.  The  loss  of  the  British,  inclusive  of  prisoners,  was 
supposed  to  be  not  less  than  eleven  hundred  men.  The  loss  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  was  about  half  that  number.  This 
battle  was  attended  by  consequences  very  advantageous  to  the  Americans, 
and  maybe  considered  as  closing  the  revolutionary  war  in  South  Carolina. 

Brilliant  as  were  the  successes  of  general  Green  in  the  Carolinas,  it  was 
in  Virginia  that  the  last  great  stroke  in  favor  of  American  independence 
was  to  be  effected.  The  army  under  the  commander-in-chief  had  passed 
another  distressing  winter,  and  symptoms  of  mutiny  had  again  manifested 
themselves,  but  were  happily  suppressed.     Deplorably  deficient  of  provi- 


history.  715 

eions  and  supplies,  and  promised  reinforcements  being  grievously  delayed, 
Washington  still  remained  undiscouraged,  and  determined,  in  conjunction 
with  the  French  fleet,  to  resume  vigorous  operations.  New  York  was  tho 
destined  point  of  the  combined  attack ;  but  the  large  reinforcements  which 
had  recently  arrived  there,  and  other  unfavorable  circumstances,  induced 
the  commander-in-chief,  so  late  as  August,  entirely  to  change  the  plan  of 
.the  campaign,  and  to  resolve  to  attempt  the  capture  of  the  army  of  lord 
Cornwallis,  which  had  now  taken  up  a  position  at  Yorktown,  in  Virginia. 
The  defence  of  West  Point,  and  of  the  other  posts  on  the  Hudson,  was 
committed  to  general  Heath,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  troops  raised  in  tho 
northern  states  was  for  this  service  left  under  his  command. 

General  Washington  resolved  in  person  to  conduct  the  Virginia  expedi- 
tion. The-  troops  under  count  Rochambeau,  and  strong  detachments  from 
the  American  army,  amounting  to  more  than  two  thousand  men,  and  con- 
sisting of  the  light  infantry,  Lamb's  artillery,  and  several  other  corps,  were 
destined  for  it.  By  the  2oth  of  August  the  whole  body,  American  and 
French,  had  crossed  the  North  river.  An  intercepted  letter  of  general 
Washington's,  in  which  he  communicated,  as  the  result  of  a  consultation 
with  the  French  commanders,  the  design  to  attack  New  York,  had  excited 
the  apprehensions  of  the  British  general  for  the  safety  of  that  city.  This 
apprehension  was  kept  alive,  and  the  real  object  of  the  Americans  conceal- 
ed, by  preparations  for  an  encampment  in  New  Jersey,  opposite  to  Staten 
island,  by  the  route  of  the  American  army,  and  other  appearances,  indicat- 
ing an  intention  to  besiege  New  York  ;  and  the  troops  had  passed  the 
Delaware,  out  of  reach  of  annoyance,  before  Sir  Henry  suspected  their 
destination.  General  Washington  pressed  forward  with  the  utmost  expe- 
dition, and  at  Chester  he  received  the  important  intelligence  that  count  de 
Grasse  had  arrived  with  his  fleet  in  the  Chesapeake,  and  that  the  marquis 
St.  Simon  had,  with  a  body  of  three  thousand  land  forces,  joined  the  mar- 
quis de  la  Fayette.  Having  directed  the  route  of  his  army  from  the  head  of 
the  Elk,  he,  accompanied  by  Rochambeau,  Chatelleux,  Du  Portail,  and 
Knox,  proceeded  to  Virginia.  They  reached  Williamsburg  on  the  14th  of 
September,  and  immediately  repaired  on  board  the  Ville  de  Paris,  to  settle 
with  count  de  Grasse  the  plan  of  operations.  The  whole  body  of  American 
and  French  troops  reached  Williamsburg  by  the  25th  of  September.  At 
this  place  the  allied  forces  were  joined  by  a  detachment  of  the  militia  of 
Virginia,  under  the,command  of  governor  Nelson,  and  preparations  were 
soon  made  to  attack  the  intrenchments  of  lord  Cornwallis, 

Yorktown,  the  head-quarters  of  lord  Cornwallis,  is  a  village  on  the  south 
side  of  York  river,  the  southern  banks  of  which  are  high,  and  where  ship3 
of  the  line  may  ride  in  safety.  Gloucester  point  is  a  piece  of  land  on  the 
opposite  shore,  projecting  considerably  into  the  river.  Both  these  posts 
were  occupied  by  the  British ;  and  a  communication  between  them  was 
commanded  by  their  batteries,  and  by  several  ships  of  war.  The  main 
body  of  lord  Cornwallis'  army  was  encamped  on  the  open  grounds  about 
Yorktown,  within  a  range  of  outer  redoubts  and  field-works  ;  and  lieute- 
nant-colonel Tarleton,  with  a  detachment  of  six  or  seven  hundred  men, 
held  the  post  at  Gloucester  point. 

The  legion  of  the  duke  de  Lauzun,  and  a  brigade  of  militia  under  gene* 
ral  Weedon,  the  whole  commanded  by  the  French  general  De  Choise,  were 
directed  to  watch  and  restrain  the  enemy  on  the  side  of  Gloucester ;  and 


716  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  gTand  combined  army,  on  the  30th  of  September,  moved  down  to  the 
investiture  of  Yorktown.  On  the  night  of  the  6th  of  October,  advancing 
to  within  six  hundred  yards  of  the  English  lines,  they  began  their  first 
parallel,  and  labored  with  such  silence  and  diligence,  that  they  were  not 
discovered  until  morning,  when  the  works  they  had  raised  were  sufficient 
to  protect  them.  On  the  9th,  several  batteries  being  completed,  a  heavy 
cannonade  was  begun.  Many  of  the  British  guns  were  dismounted,  and 
portions  of  their  fortifications  laid  level  with  the  ground.  On  the  night  of 
the  11th,  the  besiegers  commenced  their  second  parallel,  three  hundred 
yards  in  advance  of  the  first.  This  approach  was  made  so  much  sooner 
than  was  expected,  that  the  men  were  not  discovered  at  their  labor  until 
they  had  rendered  themselves  secure  from  all  molestation  in  front.  The 
fire  from  the  new  batteries  was  still  more  furious  and  destructive.  From 
two  British  redoubts,  in  advance  of  their  main  works,  and  flanking  those 
cf  the  besiegers,  the  men  in  the  trenches  were  so  severely  annoyed,  that 
Washington  resolved  to  storm  them. 

The  enterprise  against  one  was  committed  to  an  American  force  under 
the  marquis  de  la  Fayette,  that  against  the  other  to  a  French  detachment. 
Colonel  Hamilton,  who  led  the  van  of  the  former,  made  such  an  impetuous 
attack  that  possession  was  soon  obtained,  with  little  slaughter.  The  French 
detachment  was  equally  brave  and  successful,  but  sustained  greater  loss. 
On  the  16th,  a  sortie  was  made  from  the  garrison  by  a  party  of  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty,  commanded  by  lieutenant-colonel  Abercrombie,  who  forced 
two  batteries,  and  spiked  eleven  pieces  of  cannon ;  but  the  guards  from 
the  trenches  immediately  advancing  on  them,  they  retreated,  and  the  pieces 
which  they  had  hastily  spiked  were  soon  rendered  fit  for  service.  In  the 
afternoon  of  the  same  day  the  besiegers  opened  several  batteries  in  their 
second  parallel ;  and  in  the  whole  line  of  batteries  nearly  one  hundred 
pieces  of  heavy  ordnance  were  now  mounted.  The  works  of  the  besieged 
were  so  universally  in  ruins  as  to  be  in  no  condition  to  sustain  the  fire 
which  might  be  expected  the  next  day.  In  this  extremity,  lord  Cornwallis 
boldly  resolved  to  attempt  an  escape  by  land  with  the  greater  part  of  his 
army.  His  plan  was  to  cross  over,  in  the  night,  to  Gloucester  point,  and 
forcing  his  way  through  the  troops  under  De  Choise,  to  pass  through  Mary- 
land, Pennsylvania,  and  Jersey,  and  form  a  junction  with  the  royal  army 
at  New  York.  In  prosecution  of  this  desperate  design,  one  embarkation 
of  his  troops  crossed  over  to  the  opposite  point ',  but  a  violent  storm  of 
wind  and  rain  dispersed  the  boats,  and  frustrated  the  scheme. 

On  the  morning  of  the  17th  the  fire  of  the  American  batteries  rendered 
the  British  post  untenable.  Lord  Cornwallis,  perceiving  further  resistance 
to  be  unavailing,  about  ten  o'clock  beat  a  parley,  and  proposed  a  cessation 
of  hostilities  for  twenty-four  hours,  that  commissioners  might  meet  to  settle 
the  terms  on  which  the  posts  of  York  and  Gloucester  should  be  surrender- 
ed. General  Washington,  in  his  answer,  declared  his  '  ardent  desire  to 
spare  the  effusion  of  blood,  and  his  readiness  to  listen  to  such  terms  as 
were  admissible  ;'  but  to  prevent  loss  of  time,  he  desired  '  that,  previous  to 
the  meeting  of  the  commissioners,  the  proposals  of  his  lordship  might  be 
transmitted  in  writing,  for  which  purpose  a  suspension  of  hostilities  for 
■two  hours  should  be  granted.'  The  terms  proposed  by  his  lordship  were 
such  as  led  the  general  to  suppose  that  articles  of  capitulation  might  easily 
be  adjusted,  and  he  continued  the  cessation  of  hostilities  until  the  next  day. 


HISTORY.  717 

To  expedite  the  business,  he  summarily  stated  the  terms  he  was  willing  to 
grant,  and  informed  earl  Cornwallis,  that  if  he  admitted  these  as  the  basis 
of  a  treaty,  commissioners  might  meet  to  put  them  into  form.  Accordingly, 
viscount  de  Noailles  and  lieutenant-colonel  Laurens,  on  the  part  of  the 
allies,  and  colonel  Dundas  and  major  Ross,  on  the  part  of  the  English, 
met  the  next  day,  and  adjusted  articles  of  capitulation,  which  were  to  bo 
submitted  to  the  consideration  of  the  British  general. 

Resolving  not  to  expose  himself  to  any  accident  that  might  be  the  con- 
sequence of  unnecessary  delay,  general  Washington  ordered  the  rough 
draft  of  the  commissioners  to  be  fairly  transcribed,  and  sent  to  lord  Corn- 
wallis early  next  morning,  with  a  letter  expressing  his  expectation  that  the 
garrison  would  march  out  by  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Hopeless  of 
more  favorable  terms,  his  lordship  signed  the  capitulation,  and  surrendered 
the  posts  of  York  and  Gloucester,  with  their  garrisons,  to  general  Wash- 
ington ;  and  the  shipping  in  the  harbor,  with  the  seamen,  to  count  de 
Grasse.  The  prisoners,  exclusive  of  seamen,  amounted  to  more  than  seven 
thousand,  of  which  between  four  and  five  thousand  only  were  fit  for  duty. 
The  garrison  lost,  during  the  siege,  six  officers  and  five  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  privates,  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  privates,  with  a  competent  num- 
ber of  officers,  were  to  remain  in  Virginia,  Maryland,  or  Pennsylvania. 
The  officers  not  required  for  this  service  were  permitted  on  parole  to  re- 
turn to  Europe,  or  to  any  of  the  maritime  posts  of  the  English  on  the  Ame* 
rican  continent.  The  terms  granted  to  earl  Cornwallis  were,  in  general, 
the  terms  which  had  been  granted  to  the  Americans  at  the  surrender  of 
Charleston;  and  general  Lincoln,  who  on  that  occasion  resigned  his  sword 
to  lord  Cornwallis,  was  appointed  to  receive  the  submission  of  the  royal 
army.  The  allied  army,  to  which  lord  Cornwallis  surrendered,  amounted 
to  sixteen  thousand ; — seven  thousand  French,  five  thousand  five  hundred 
continental  troops,  and  three  thousand  five  hundred  militia.  In  the  course 
of  the  siege  they  lost,  in  killed  and  wounded,  about  three  hundred.  The 
siege  was  prosecuted  with  so  much  military  judgment  and  ardor,  that  the 
treaty  was  opened  on  the  eleventh,  and  the  capitulation  signed  on  the  thir- 
teenth day  after  ground  was  broken  before  the  British  lines. 

The  capture  of  so  large  a  British  army  excited  universal  joy,  and  on  no 
occasion  during  the  war  did  the  Americans  manifest  greater  exultation. 
From  the  nature  and  duration  of  the  contest,  the  affections  of  many  had 
been  so  concentrated  upon  their  country,  and  so  intense  was  their  interest 
in  its  fate,  that  the  news  of  this  brilliant  success  produced  the  most  raptur- 
ous emotions,  under  the  operations  of  which,  it  is  said,  some  were  even 
deprived  of  their  reason,  and  one  aged  patriot  in   Philadelphia  expired. 

The  day  after  the  capitulation  general  Washington  ordered,  '  that  those 
who  were  under  arrest  should  be  pardoned  and  set  at  liberty ;'  and  an- 
nounced, that  '  divine  service  shall  be  performed  to-morrow  in  the  different 
brigades  and  divisions.  The  commander-in-chief  recommends,  that  all  the 
troops  that  are  not  upon  duty  do  assist  at  it  with  a  serious  deportment,  and 
that  sensibility  of  heart  which  the  recollection  of  the  surprising  and  par- 
ticular interposition  of  Providence  in  our  favor  claims.'  Congress,  as  soon 
as  they  received  general  Washington's  official  letter  giving  information  of 
the  event,  resolved  to  go  in  procession  to  the  Dutch  Lutheran  church,  and 
return  thanks  to  Almighty  God  for  the  signal  success  of  the  American 
arms  ;  and  they  issued  a  proclamation,  recommending  to  the  citizens  of  the 


718  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

United  States  to  observe  the  13th  of  December  as  a  day  of  public  thanks* 
giving  and  prayer. 

While  these  successful  operations  had  been  carrying  on  in  Virginia,  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  endeavored,  if  possible,  to  recall  Washington,  or  at  least  to 
divert  his  attention,  by  some  daring  enterprise  in  the  north.  Giving  to  the 
traitor  Arnold,  who  had  just  returned  from  his  destructive  expedition  to 
Virginia,  the  command  of  a  strong  detachment,  he  sent  him  against  New 
London,  a  flourishing  city  situated  upon  the  river  Thames,  in  his  native 
state.  Nearly  opposite,  on  a  hill  in  Groton,  stood  fort  Griswold,  which 
was  then  garrisoned  by  militia,  hastily  summoned  from  their  labors  in  the 
field.  Against  this  fort  Arnold  despatched  a  part  of  his  troops.  It  was 
assaulted  on  three  sides  at  the  same  moment.  The  garrison,  fighting  in 
view  of  their  property  and  their  homes,  made  a  brave  and  obstinate  resis- 
tance. By  their  steady  and  well-directed  fire  many  of  the  assailants  were 
killed.  Pressing  forward  with  persevering  ardor,  the  British  entered  tho 
fort  through  the  embrasures.  Immediately  all  resistance  ceased.  Irritated 
by  gallantry  which  should  have  caused  admiration,  a  British  officer  inquir- 
ed who  commanded  the  fort.  'I  did,'  said  colonel  Ledyard,  'but  you  do 
now;'  and  presented  him  his  sword.  He  seized  it,  and,  with  savage  cru- 
elty, plunged'it  into  his  bosom.  This  was  the  signal  for  an  indiscriminate 
massacre.  Of  a  hundred  and  sixty  men,  composing  the  garrison,  all  but 
forty  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  most  of  them  after  resistance  had  ceased. 
Seldom  has  the  glory  of  victory  been  tarnished  by  such  detestable  barbarity. 
The  British  then  entered  New  London,  which  was  set  on  fire  and  consum- 
ed. The  property  destroyed  was  of  immense  value.  Perceiving  no  other 
object  within  the  reach  of  his  force,  Arnold  led  back  his  troops  to  New  York. 

A  circumstance  wThich  evidently  exercised  a  very  favorable  influence  on 
American  affairs  during  this  period  should  not  be  omitted — the  institution 
of  a  national  bank.  The  plan  of  it  was  projected  by  Robert  Morris,  one 
of  the  delegates  of  Pennsylvania,  a  man  of  high  reputation,  and  well  versed 
in  affairs  of  commerce  and  finance,  whom  congress  had  appointed  treasurer. 
He  assigned  to  this  bank  a  capital  of  four  hundred  thousand  dollars,  divid- 
ed in  shares  of  four  hundred  dollars  each,  in  money  of  gold  or  silver,  to  be 
procured  by  subscriptions.  Twelve  directors  were  to  manage  the  bank, 
which  was  denominated  by  congress,  '  The  President,  Directors,  and 
Company  of  the  Bank  of  North  America.'  To  the  financial  skill  and  in- 
defatigable efforts  of  Mr.  Morris  in  the  treasury  department,  it  has  been 
thought  our  country  was  scarcely  less  indebted,  than  to  the  valor  of  her 
soldiers  and  the  wisdom  of  her  statesmen.  Under  his  auspices,  publio 
credit  revived  ;  the  army  was  pacified ;  and  a  new  impulse  given  to  every 
operation  in  the  field  and  the  cabinet. 

During  this  fortunate  year  also  the  compact  of  the  confederation  was 
rendered  complete.  Much  difficulty  had  been  experienced  in  obtaining  its 
ratification.  Various  and  sometimes  conflicting  amendments  had  been  pro- 
posed by  the  states  respectively ;  but  they  had  successively  yielded  to  the 
opinion  that  a  federal  compact  would  be  of  vast  importance  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war.  One  of  the  greatest  impediments  had  hitherto  been,  that 
within  the  chartered  limits  of  several  states  there  were  immense  tracts  of 
vacant  territory,  which,  it  was  supposed,  would  constitute  a  large  fund  of 
future  wealth  ;  and  the  states  not  possessed  of  this  advantage  insisted  on 
considering  this  territory  as  a  joint  acquisition,  to  be  applied  to  the  common 


HISTORY.  719 

benefit.  The  cession  made  by  Virginia,  the  preceding  year,  of  its  north* 
west  territory,  was  now  accepted  by  congress,  and,  to  the  great  joy  of  Ame- 
rica, the  confederation  was  completed.* 

The  result  of  the  last  campaign  convinced  the  British  nation  that  Ame- 
rica could  not  be  subdued  by  force ;  and  led  to  a  change  of  administration 
and  pacific  overtures.  Parliament  met  on  the  27th  of  November,  1781 ; 
and  though  the  speech  from  the  throne  still  breathed  a  spirit  of  hostility, 
and  answers  from  both  houses  were  procured  in  accordance  with  it,  yet 
not  long  after  the.  recess,  the  ministers  found  themselves  in  a  minority  in 
the  house  of  commons.  On  the  22d  of  February,  1782,  general  Conway 
moved  an  address  to  the  king,  praying,  '  that  the  war  on  the  continent  of 
North  America  might  no  longer  be  pursued  for  the  impracticable  purpose 
of  reducing  that  country  to  obedience  by  force  ;  and  expressing  their  hope, 
that  the  earnest  desire  and  diligent  exertion  to  restore  the  public  tranquil- 
lity, of  which  they  had  received  his  majesty's  most  gracious  assurances, 
might,  by  a  happy  reconciliation  with  the  revolted  colonies,  be  forwarded 
and  made  effectual ;  to  which  great  end  his  majesty's  faithful  commons 
would  be  ready  to  give  their  utmost  assistance.'  This  motion  being  lost 
by  a  single  vote  only,  was,  five  days  after,  renewed,  by  the  same  gentle- 
man, in  a  form  somewhat  different,  and  was  carried  ;  and  an  address  in 
pursuance  of  it  presented  to  the  king.  Not  yet  satisfied  with  the  triumph 
obtained  over  the  ministry,  and  considering  the  answer  of  the  king  not 
sufficiently  explicit,  the  house  of  commons,  on  the  4th  of  March,  on  the 
motion  of  general  Conway,  declared,  that  all  those  who  should  advise,  or 
by  any  means  attempt,  the  farther  prosecution  of  offensive  war  in  America, 
should  be  considered  as  enemies  to  their  king  and  country.  In  this  state 
of  things  it  was  impossible  for  the  ministry  longer  to  continue  in  power, 
and  on  the  19th  they  relinquished  their  places.  A  new  administration 
was  soon  after  formed — the  marquis  of  Rockingham  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  treasury,  and  the  earl  of  Shelburne  and  Mr.  Fox  held  the  im- 
portant places  of  secretaries  of  state. 

Soon  after  their  appointment,  the  new  ministers  sent  a  Mr.  Oswald  to 
France,  to  sound  the  French  court,  as  well  as  Dr.  Franklin,  on  the  subject 
of  peace.  In  a  conference  with  the  count  de-Vergennes,  Mr.  Oswald  was 
informed  that  the  French  court  were  disposed  to  treat  for  peace,  but  could 
do  nothing  without  the  consent  of  their  allies ;  and  the  count  expressed  a 
wish  that  Paris  might  be  the  place  of  meeting  for  entering  upon  this  im- 
portant business.  About  the  18th  of  April  the  British  agent  went  back  to 
London,  and  on  the  4th  of  May  returned  to  France  with  the  assent  of  the 
British  cabinet  to  treat  of  a  general  peace,  and  for  that  purpose  to  meet  at 
Paris. 

One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  new  administration  was  to  appoint  Sir 
Guy  Carleton  commander-in-chief  in  America,  in  the  room  of  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  and  to  authorize  admiral  Digby  and  himself  to  treat  for  peace. 
One  object  of  conferring  this  power  was  to  induce  congress  to  agree  to  a 
separate  treaty.  Sir  Guy  Carleton  arrived  in  America  on  the  5th  of  May, 
and  two  days  afterwards  informed  general  Washington  that  he  and  admiral 
Digby  were  authorized  to  treat  for  peace,  and  requested  a  passport  for  their 
Secretary  as  the  bearer  of  despatches  to  congress  on  the  subject.     A  copy 

♦  Marshall's  Life  of  Washington,  b.  ir.  chap.  a. 


720  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  this  letter  was  forwarded  by  the  general  to  that  body ;  but  the  member* 
being  determined  not  to  negotiate  without  their  allies,  refused  the  pass- 
port. The  same  commissioners,  on  the  2d  of  August  following,  sent  a 
second  letter  to  the  American  commander,  informing  him  that  negotiations 
for  a  general  peace  had  commenced  at  Paris,  and  that  Mr.  Grenville  had 
full  powers  to  treat  with  all  the  parties  at  war,  and  that,  by  his  instructions, 
*  the  independency  of  the  thirteen  provinces  was  to  be  proposed  by  him,  in 
the  first  instance,  instead  of  being  made  a  condition  of  a  general  treaty.' 

A  majority  of  the  new  British  cabinet  very  early  determined  to  offer 
America  unlimited  unconditional  independence,  as  the  basis  of  a  negotia- 
tion for  peace,  and  so  instructed  their  minister,  Mr.  Grenville.  This  was 
a  favorite  measure  with  the  marquis  of  Rockingham ;  on  this  point,  how- 
ever, the  cabinet  was  divided.  The  earl  of  Shelburne,  though  he  acqui- 
esced, was  still  opposed,  and  it  was  one  of  the  last  measures  to  which  the 
king  would  assent.  The  illness  of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  and  his 
death,  which  happened  on  the  1st  of  July,  produced  no  little  delay  and 
difficulty  in  the  negotiations.  The  appointment  of  lord  Shelburne  as  first 
lord  of  the  treasury  produced  an  open  rupture  in  the  cabinet.  Lord  John 
Cavendish,  Mr.  Fox,  and  some  others,  resigned  their  places.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  William  Pitt  was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and 
Thomas  Townshend  and  lord  Grantham  secretaries  of  state.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  king,  as  well  as  lord  Shelburne,  still  entertained  a 
distant  hope  that  some  arrangement  might  be  made  with  the  Americans 
short  of  an  open  and  express  acknowledgment  of  their  independence  ;  and 
the  views  of  the  latter  on  this  point,  probably,  had  no  little  influence  in 
placing  him  at  the  head  of  the  administration.^  Parliament  adjourned  on 
the  11th  of  July,  having  passed  an  act  at  the  close  of  the  session,  authoriz- 
ing the  king  to  conclude  a  peace  or  truce  with  the  Americans. 

The  instructions  of  congress  to  the  American  commissioners  not  to  con- 
clude peace  without  the  consent  of  France,  rendered  their  situation  com- 
plicated and  embarrassing.  There  were  several  questions  which  the  Ame- 
ricans deemed  of  the  first  importance,  in  which  the  French  court  either 
felt  no  interest,  or  were  opposed  to  the  American  claims.  The  principal 
of  these  points  referred  to  the  right  of  fishery  on  the  Grand  bank,  and  the 
western  boundary  of  the  United  States.  On  the  latter  point,  Spain,  who 
was  also  a  party  to  the  negotiations,  was  extremely  desirous  of  limiting  as 
much  as  possible  the  extent  of  the  American  territory.  These  circumstan- 
ces occasioned  much  difficulty  and  considerable  delay.  At  length  the- 
American  commissioners  determined  to  agree  to  a  provisional  treaty  with- 
out the  concurrence  of  the  French  court.  Mr.  Oswald,  who  had  succeeded 
Mr.  Grenville,  on  the  part  of  the  British  government,  strongly  urged  the 
propriety  of  the  American  loyalists  being  compensated  for  the  losses  they 
had  incurred  during  the  struggle  for  independence ;  but  this  proposition 

*  Among  the  papers  of  Dr.  Franklin  was  found  the  following  memorandum  :  '  In> 
mediately  after  the  death  of  lord  Rockingham,  the  king  said  to  lord  Shelburne,  "I  wilt 
be  plain  with  you  ;  the  point  next  my  heart,  and  which  I  am  determined,  be  the  conse- 
quence what  it  may,  never  to  relinquish  but  with  my  crown  and  life,  is,  to  prevent  a 
total  unequivocal  recognition  of  the  independence  of  America.  Promise  to  support  me 
on  this  ground,  and  I  will  leave  you  unmolested  on  every  other  ground,  and  with  full 
power  as  the  prime  minister  of  this  kingdom."  The  bargain  was  struck.' — Franklin'f 
Works,  vol.  v.  p.  326. 


HISTORY.  721 

Was  met  by  a  counter  one  from  Dr.  Franklin,  that  a  similar  arrangement 
Should  be  made  by  Great  Britain  in  favor  of  the  Americans  who  had  suf- 
fered in  their  property  from  the  destruction  carried  on  by  the  British 
troops.  This  point  was  therefore  ultimately  waved,  and  other  difficulties 
being  overcome,  a  provisional  treaty  was  agreed  to  on  the  30th  of  Novem- 
ber ;  and  after  great  delay,  occasioned  by  the  strenuous  endeavors  of  the 
court  of  Madrid  to  procure  the  cession  of  Gibraltar  by  Great  Britain,  pre- 
liminary treaties  of  peace  were  signed  on  the  20th  of  January,  1783, 
between  France,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain. 

On  the  24th  of  March,  intelligence  of  a  general  peace  reached  America 
by  a  letter  from  the  marquis  de  la  Fayette ;  and  orders  were  immediately 
issued,  recalling  all  armed  vessels  cruising  under -the  authority  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.  Congress  soon  after  received  official  information  of  the  agree- 
ment between  the  ministers  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  and 
of  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  the  preliminary  articles  between  Great 
Britain  and  France  ;  and,  on  the  11th  of  April,  they  issued  a  proclamation 
declaring  the  cessation  of  arms,  as  well  by  sea  as  by  land,  agreed  upon 
between  the  United  States  and  his  Britannic  majesty,  and  enjoining  its 
strict  observance.  On  the  19th  of  April,  peace  was  proclaimed  in  the  Ame- 
rican army  by  the  commander-in-chief,  precisely  eight  years  from  the  day 
of  the  first  effusion  of  blood  at  Lexington. 

The  independence  of  the  United  States  was  acknowledged  by  Sweden 
on  the  5th  of  February  ;  by  Denmark,  on  the  25th  of  February  ;  by  Spain, 
on  the  24th  of  March  ;  and  by  Russia,  in  July  ;  treaties  of  amity  and  com- 
merce were  also  concluded  with  each  of  those  powers.  On  the  8th  of 
Jhme,  general  Washington  addressed  a  letter  to  each  of  the  governors  of 
the  several  states  in  the  Union,  on  the  present  situation,  and  what  appeared 
to  him  the  wisest  policy,  of  the  United  States.  In  this  paternal  and  affec- 
tionate letter  he  stated  four  things  which  he  conceived  to  be  essential  to 
their  well-being,  and  even  to  their  existence,  as  an  independent  power : 
'An  indissoluble  union  of  the  states  under  one  general  head;  a  sacred  re- 
gard to  public  justice  ;  the  adoption  of  a  proper  peace  establishment ;  and 
the  prevalence  of  that  pacific  and  friendly  disposition,  among  the  people  of 
the  United  States,  which  will  induce  them  to  forget  their  local  prejudices 
and  politics,  to  make  those  mutual  concessions  which  are  requisite  to  the 
general  prosperity,  and,  in  some  instances,  to  sacrifice  their  individual  ad- 
Vantages  to  the  interest  of  the  community.' 

The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  of  America  was  signed  at  Paris  on  the  3d  of  September,  by  David 
Hartley,  Esq.,  on  the  part  of  his  Britannic  majesty,  and  by  John  Adams, 
Benjamin  Franklin,  and  John  Jay,  on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
provisions  of  the  treaty  attest  the  zeal  and  ability  of  the  American  negotia- 
tors, as  well  as  the  liberal  feelings  which  actuated  the  British  ministry. 
The  independence  of  the  United  States  was  fully  acknowledged'  The 
right  of  fishing  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  certain  facilities  in  the 
enjoyment  of  that  right,  were  secured  to  them  forever;  and  territory  was 
ceded  to  them  more  extensive  than  the  most  sanguine  had  dared  to  antici- 
pate or  to  hope. 

In  December,  1782,  the  officers  of  the  American  army,  still  retained  in 
service  but  unemployed,  forwarded  to  congress  a  petition,  praying  that  all 
shears  which  were  due  to  them  might  be  discharged,  and  that,  instead  of 
91  61 


722  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

half-pay  for  life,  a  sum  equal  to  five  years'  full  pay  should  be  paid  or  se- 
cured to  them  when  disbanded.  The  delay  of  congress  to  comply  with 
this  request  produced  an  alarming  agitation  in  that  portion  of  the  army 
stationed  at  Newburgh.  An  address  to  the  officers  was  privately  circulat- 
ed, written  with  great  ability,  and  admirably  well  fitted  to  work  upon  those 
passions  which  recent  sufferings  and  gloomy  forebodings  had  excited  in 
every  bosom.  The  writer  boldly  recommended  that,  as  all  the  applications 
to  the  sympathy  and  justice  of  congress  had  failed  of  success,  an  appeal 
should  be  made  to  their  fears.  Fortunately,  the  commander-in-chief  was 
in  the  camp.  Though  conscious  that  the  officers  had  just  cause  of  com- 
plaint, he  was  aware  that  duty  to  his  country,  and  even  friendship  for 
them,  required  that  he  should  prevent  the  adoption  of  rash  and  disorderly 
expedients  to  obtain  redress.  Calling  them  together,  he,  by  a  calm  and 
sensible  address,  persuaded  them  to  rely  still  longer  upon  the  disposition 
of  congress  to  perform  for  them  whatever  the  limited  means  of  the  nation 
would  permit.  In  a  letter  to  that  body,  giving  an  account  of  these  occur- 
rences, he  maintained  and  enforced  the  claims  of  the  officers  with  such 
pathos  and  strength  of  reasoning,  that  their  request  was  granted. 

On  the  18th  of  October,  congress  issued  a  proclamation  for  disbanding 
the  army.  Yew  York  was  evacuated  by  the  British  on  the  25th  of  No- 
vember, and  the  Americans  took  possession  of  the  city  the  same  day ;  and 
a  short  time  after  the  army  was  disbanded,  and  again  mingled  with  their 
fellow-citizens.^ 

General  Washington,  taking  an  affectionate  leave  of  his  officers,  repaired 
to  Annapolis,  where  congress  was  sitting,  and  there,  at  a  public  audience, 
with  dignity  and  sensibility,  resigned  his  commission  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  American  armies.  Then,  with  a  character  illustrious  through- 
out the  world,  he  returned  to  his  residence  at  Mount  Vernon,  possessing 
the  sincere  love  and  profound  veneration  of  his  countrymen. 


WASHINGTON'S   ADMINISTRATION. 

The  exhausting  effect  of  their  exertions  was  felt  by  the  people  of  the 
United  States  for  a  considerable  period  after  peace,  as  well  as  indepen- 
dence, had  been  secured.  The  enthusiasm  of  a  popular  contest  terminating 
in  victory  began  to  subside,  and  the  sacrifices  of  the  revolution  soon  became 
known  and  felt.     The  claims  of  those  who  toiled,  and  fought,  and  suffered 

*  The  following  eulogium  from  the  lips  of  an  eloquent  living  statesman,  when  plead- 
ing for  the  relief  of  the  illustrious  survivors,  conveys  a  just  idea  of  the  honorable  conduct 
of  this  band  of  patriots  :— '  The  army  was  to  be  disbanded ;  but  it  was  unpaid.  It  was 
to  lay  down  its  own  power ;  but  there  was  no  government  with  adequate  power  to  per- 
form what  had  been  promised  to  it.  In  this  critical  moment  what  is  its  conduct  ?  Does 
it  disgrace  its  high  character?  Is  temptation  able  to  seduce  it  ?  Does  it  speak  of  right- 
ing itself?  Does  it  undertake  to  redress  its  own  wrongs  by  its  own  sword?  Does  it 
lose  its  patriotism  in  its  deep  sense  of  injury  and  injustice?  Does  military  ambition 
cause  its  integrity  to  swerve?  Far,  far  otherwise.  It  had  faithfully  served  and  saved 
the  country,  and  to  that  country  it  now  referred,  with  unhesitating  confidence,  its  claim 
and  its  complaints.  It  laid  down  its  arms  with  alacrity ;  it  mingled  itself  with  the  mass 
of  the  community  ;  and  it  waited  till,  in  better  times,  and  under  a  new  government,  its 
Services  might  be  rewarded,  and  the  promises  made  to  it  fulfilled.  We  can  hardly  re- 
cur to  this  example  too  often,  or  dwell  on  it  too  much,  for  the  honor  of  our  country,  and. 
of  its  defenders.' — The  Speeches  and  Forensic  Arguments  of  Daniel  Webster,  p.  356,  357 


HISTORY.  723 

tn  the  arduous  struggle,  were  strongly  urged,  arid  the  government  had 
neither  resources  nor  power  to  satisfy  or  to  silence  them.  The  federal 
head  had  no  separate  or  exclusive  fund.  The  members  of  congress  depend- 
ed on  the  states  which  they  respectively  represented,  even  for  their  own 
maintenance,  and  money  for  national  purposes  could  only  be  obtained  by 
requisitions  on  the  different  members  of  the  confederacy.  On  them  it  be- 
came necessary  immediately  to  call  for  funds  to  discharge  the  arrears  of 
pay  due  to  the  soldiers  of  the  revolution,  and  the  interest  on  the  debt  which 
the  government  had  been  compelled  to  contract.  The  legislatures  of  the 
different  states  received  these  requisitions  with  respect,  listened  to  the 
monitory  warnings  of  congress  with  deference,  and  with  silent  and  inactive 
acquiescence.  Their  own  situation,  indeed,  was  full  of  embarrassment. 
The  wealth  of  the  country  had  been  totally  exhausted  during  the  revolution. 
Taxes  could  not  be  collected,  because  there  was  no  money  to  represent  the 
value  of  the  little  personal  property  which  had  not  been,  and  the  land 
which  could  not  be,  destroyed ;  and  commerce,  though  preparing  to  burst 
from  its  thraldom,  had  not  yet  had  time  to  restore  to  the  annual  produce 
of  the  country  its  exchangeable  value.  The  states  owed  each  a  heavy 
debt  for  local  services  rendered  during  the  revolution,  for  which  it  was 
bound  to  provide,  and  each  had  its  own  domestic  government  to  support. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  each  state  was  anxious 
to  retain  for  its  own  benefit  the  small  but  rising  revenue  derived  from 
foreign  commerce  ;  and  that  the  custom-houses  in  each  commercial  city 
were  considered  as  the  most  valuable  sources  of  income  which  the  states 
possessed.  Each  state,  therefore,  made  its  own  regulations,  its  tariff,  and 
tonnage  duties,  and,  as  a  natural  consequence,  the  different  states  clashed 
with  each  other ;  one  nation  became  more  favored  than  another  under  the 
same  circumstances ;  and  one  state  pursued  a  system  injurious  to  the  in- 
terests of  another.  Hence  the  confidence  of  foreign  countries  was  destroy- 
ed ;  and  they  would  not  enter  into  treaties  of  commerce  with  the  confede- 
rated government,  while  they  were  not  likely  to  be  carried  into  effect.  A 
general  decay  of  trade,  the  rise  of  imported  merchandise,  the  fall  of  pro- 
duce, and  an  uncommon  decrease  of  the  value  of  lands,  ensued. 

The  distress  of  the  inhabitants  was  continually  on  the  increase  ;  and  in 
Massachusetts,  where  it  was  most  felt,  an  insurrection  of  a  serious  character 
was  the  consequence.  Near  the  close  of  the  year  1786,  the  populace 
assembled  to  the  number  of  two  thousand,  in  the  north-western  part  of  the 
state,  and,  choosing  Daniel  Shays  their  leader,  demanded  that  the  collection 
of  debts  should  be  suspended,  and  that  the  legislature  should  authorize  the 
emission  of  paper  money  for  general  circulation.  Two  bodies  of  militia, 
drawn  from  those  parts  of  the  state  where  disaffection  did  not  prevail, 
were  immediately  despatched  against  them,  one  under  the  command  of 
general  Lincoln,  the  other  of  general  Shepard.  The  disaffected  were  dis- 
persed with  less  difficulty  than  had  been  apprehended,  and,  abandoning 
their  seditious  purposes,  accepted  the  proffered  indemnity  of  the  government. 

The  time  at  length  came  when  the  public  mind  gave  tokens  of  being 
prepared  for  a  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  general  government — an 
occurrence  the  necessity  of  which  had  long  been  foreseen  by  Washington 
and  most  of  the  distinguished  patriots  of  that  period.  Evil  had  accumu- 
lated upon  evil,  till  the  mass  became  too  oppressive  to  be  endured,  and  the 
voice  of  the  nation  cried  out  for  relief.     The  first  decisive  measures  pro- 


724  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ceeded  from  the  merchants,  who  came  forward  almost  simultaneously  in  fill 
parts  of  the  country,  with  representations  of  the  utter  prostration  of  the 
mercantile  interests,  and  petitions  for  a  speedy  and  efficient  remedy.  It 
was  shown,  that  the  advantages  of  this  most  important  source  of  national 
prosperity  were  flowing  into  the  hands  of  foreigners,  and  that  the  native 
merchants  were  suffering  for  the  want  of  a  just  protection  and  a  uniform 
system  of  trade.  The  wise  and  reflecting  were  convinced  that  some  decid- 
ed efforts  were  necessary  to  strengthen  the  general  government,  or  that  a 
dissolution  of  the  Union,  and  perhaps  a  devastating  anarchy,  would  be  inevi- 
table. The  first  step  towards  a  general  reformation  was  rather  accidental 
than  premeditated.  Certain  citizens  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  had  formed 
a  scheme  for  promoting  the  navigation  of  the  Potomac  and  Chesapeake 
bay,  and  commissioners  were  appointed  by  those  two  states  to  meet  at 
Alexandria,  and  devise  some  plan  of  operation.  These  persons  made  a 
visit  to  Mount  Vernon,  and,  while  there,  it  was  proposed  among  themselves 
that  more  important  objects  should  be  connected  with  the  purpose  at  first 
in  view,  and  that  the  state  governments  should  be  solicited  to  appoint 
other  commissioners,  with  enlarged  powers,  instructed  to  form  a  plan  for 
maintaining  a  naval  force  in  the  Chesapeake,  and  also  to  fix  upon  some 
system  of  duties  on  exports  and  imports  in  which  both  states  should  agree, 
and  that  in  the  end  congress  should  be  petitioned  to  allow  these  privileges.. 
This  project  was  approved  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  and  commission- 
ers were  accordingly  appointed.  The  same  legislature  passed  a  resolution 
recommending  the  design  to  other  states,  and  inviting  them  to  unite,  by 
their  commissioners,  in  an  attempt  to  establish  such  a  system  of  commercial 
relations  as  would  promote  general  harmony  and  prosperity.  Five  state* 
only,  in  addition  to  Virginia,  acceded  to  this  proposition,  namely,  Mary* 
land,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York.  From  thesa 
states  commissioners  assembled  at  Annapolis,  but  they  had  hardly  entered 
into  a  discussion  of  the  topics  which  naturally  forced  themselves  into  view* 
before  they  discovered  the  powers  with  which  they  were  intrusted  to  be  so 
limited,  as  to  tie  up  their  hands  from  effecting  any  purpose  that  could  be 
of  essential  utility.  On  this  account,  as  well  as  from  the  circumstance 
that  so  few  states  were  represented,  they  wisely  declined  deciding  on  any 
important  measures  in  reference  to  the  particular  subjects  for  which  they 
had  come  together. 

This  convention  is  memorable,  however,  as  having  been  the  prelude  to 
the  one  which  followed.  Before  the  commissioners  adjourned,  a  report 
was  agreed  upon,  in  which  the  necessity  of  a  revision  and  reform  of  the 
articles  of  the  old  federal  compact  was  strongly  urged,  and  which  contained 
a  recommendation  to  all  the  state  legislatures  for  the  appointment  of  depu- 
ties, to  meet  at  Philadelphia,  with  more  ample  powers  and  instructions. 
This  proposal  was  eventually  carried  into  effect,  and,  in  conformity  with 
it,  a  convention  of  delegates  from  the  several  states  met  at  Philadelphia  in 
May,  1787.  Of  this  body  of  eminent  statesmen,  George  Washington  was 
unanimously  elected  president.  They  deliberated  with  closed  doors  during 
a  period  of  four  months.  One  party  in  the  convention  was  anxious  to 
enlarge,  another  to  abridge  the  authority  delegated  to  the  general  govern- 
ment. This  was  the  first  germ  of  parties  in  the  United  States ;  not  that 
materials  were  wanting,  for  the  dissensions  of  the  revolution  had  left  behind 
some  bitterness  of  spirit,  and  feelings  that  only  awaited  an  opportunity  fojr 


HISTORY.  725 

their  disclosure.  The  divisions  in  the  convention  proved  the  foundation 
of  many  a  subsequent  struggle.  At  length  a  constitution  was  agreed  on, 
which,  after  being  reported  to  congress,  was  submitted  for  ratification  to 
conventions  held  in  the  respective  states.  This  constitution  differs,  in 
many  important  particulars,  from  the  articles  of  confederation  ;  and,  by  its 
regulations,  connects  the  states  more  closely  together,  under  a  general  and 
supreme  government,  composed  of  three  departments,  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial;  and  invested  with  powers  essential  to  its  being  respected, 
both  by  foreign  nations  and  the  states  whose  interest  it  was  designed  to 
secure.  The  provisions  and  characteristics  of  this  interesting  and  impor- 
tant political  code,  will  receive  the  consideration  to  which  they  are  so  justly 
entitled  in  another  department  of  our  work. 

As  that  party  which  was  desirous  to  extend  the  powers  of  the  constitu- 
tion had  been  the  most  anxious  for  the  formation  of  this  system,  and  the 
most  zealous  advocates  for  its  adoption,  it  almost  naturally  followed  that 
the  ad  ministration  of  it  was  committed  to  their  hands.  This  party,  which 
might,  from  their  opinions,  have  been  denominated  nationalists,  or,  in  more 
modern  phraseology,  centralists,  acquired  the  name  of  federalists,  while 
the  appellation  of  anti-federalists  was  given  to  their  antagonists.  The  lat- 
ter, ardently  attached  to  freedom,  imagined  that  rulers,  possessing  such 
extensive  sway,  such  abundant  patronage,  and  such  independent  tenure  of 
office,  would  become  fond  of  the  exercise  of  power,  and  in  the  end  arrogant 
and  tyrannical.  The  former,  equally  devoted  to  the  cause  of  national 
liberty,  contended  that  to  preserve  it  an  energetic  government  was  neces- 
sary. They  described,  with  powerful  effect,  the  evils  actually  endured 
from  the  inefficiency  of  the  confederation,  and  demanded  that  a  trial  at 
least  should  be  made  of  the  remedy  proposed. 

In  eleven  states,  a  majority,  though  in  some  instances  a  small  one,  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  ratification  of  the  constitution.  Provision  was  then 
made  for  the  election  of  the  officers  to  compose  the  executive  and  legisla- 
tive departments.  In  the  highest  station,  the  electors,  by  a  unanimous 
vote,  placed  the  illustrious  Washington  ;  and  to  the  office  of  vice-president, 
by  a  vote  nearly  unanimous,  they  elevated  John  Adams,  who,  in  stations 
less  conspicuous,  had,  with  equal  patriotism,  rendered  important  services 
to  his  country.  On  the  23d  of  April  the  president  elect  arrived  at  New 
York,  where  he  was  received  by  the  governor  of  the  state,  and  conducted 
with  military  honors,  through  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  to  the 
apartments  provided  for  him.  Here  he  received  the  salutations  of  foreign 
ministers,  public  bodies,  political  characters,  and  private  citizens  of  distinc- 
tion, who  pressed  around  him  to  offer  their  congratulations,  and  to  express 
their  joy  at  seeing  the  man  who  had  the  confidence  of  all,  at  the  head  of 
the  American  republic.  On  the  30th  of  April  the  president  was  inaugu- 
rated. Having  taken  the  oath  of  office  in  an  open  gallery  adjoining  the 
senate  chamber,  in  the  view  of  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  who 
attested  their  joy  by  loud  and  repeated  acclamations,  he  returned  to  the 
senate  chamber,  where  he  delivered  an  appropriate  address. 

The  same  disinterested  spirit  which  had  appeared  in  the  general,  was 
shown  in  the  president.  Having,  at  his  entrance  on  the  military  service, 
renounced  every  pecuniary  compensation,  he  now  '  declined  any  share  in 
the  personal  emoluments  which  may  be  indispensably  included  in  a  perma- 
nent provision  for  the  executive  department;'  and  requested  that  the  ^ecu- 

61* 


726  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

niary  estimates  for  the  station  in  which  he  was  placed,  might,  during-  his 
continuance  in  it,  « be  limited  to  such  actual  expenditures  as  the  publi* 
good  may  be  thought  to  require.' 

The  government  being  now  completely  organized,  and  a  system  of 
revenue  established,  the  president  proceeded  to  make  appointments  of 
suitable  persons  to  fill  the  offices  which  had  been  created.*  After  a  labo- 
rious and  important  session,  in  which  perfect  harmony  subsisted  between. 
the  executive  and  the  legislature,  congress  adjourned  on  the  29th  of  Sep- 
tember to  the  first  Monday  in  the  succeeding  January. 

At  the  next  session  of  congress,  which  commenced  in  January,  1790, 
Mr.  Hamilton,  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  made  his  celebrated  report 
upon  the  public  debts  contracted  during  the  revolutionary  war.  Taking  an 
able  and  enlarged  view  of  the  advantages  of  public  credit,  he  recommend- 
ed that  not  only  the  debts  of  the  continental  congress,  but  those  of  the 
states  arising  from  their  exertions  in  the  common  cause,  should  be  funded 
or  assumed  by  the  general  government ;  and  that  provision  should  be  made 
for  paying  the  interest,  by  imposing  taxes  on  certain  articles  of  luxury,  and 
on  spirits  distilled  within  the  country.  The  report  of  the  secretary  was 
largely  discussed,  and  with  great  force  of  argument  and  eloquence.  In 
conclusion,  congress  passed  an  act  for  the  assumption  of  the  state  debts, 
and  for  funding  the  national  debt.  By  the  provisions  of  this  act,  twenty- 
one  millions  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  the  state  debts  were  assumed 
in  specific  proportions ;  and  it  was  particularly  enacted,  that  no  certificate* 
should  be  received  from  a  state  creditor  which  could  be  '  ascertained  to 
feave  been  issued  for  any  purpose  other  than  compensations  and  expendi- 
tures for  services  or  supplies  towards  the  prosecution  of  the  late  war,  and 
the  defence  of  the  United  States,  or  of  some  part  thereof,  during  the  same.* 

Thus  was  the  national  debt  funded  upon  principles  which  considerably 
lessened  the  weight  of  the  public  burdens,  and  gave  much  satisfaction  to 
the  public  creditors.  The  produce  of  the  sales  of  the  lands  lying  in  the 
western  territory,  and  the .  surplus  product  of  the  revenue,  after  satisfying 
the  appropriations  which  were  charged  upon  it,  with  the  addition  of  two 
millions  which  the  president  was  authorized  to  borrow  at  five  per  cent., 
constituted  a  sinking  fund  to  be  applied  to  the  reduction  of  the  debt.  The 
effect  of  these  measures  was  great  and  rapid.  The  permanent  value  thus 
given  to  the  debt  produced  a  result  equal  to  the  most  favorable  anticipations. 
The  sudden  increase  of  monied  capital  derived  from  it  invigorated  commerce* 
and  consequently  gave  a  new  stimulus  to  agriculture. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that  when  the  new  government  was  first 
organized,  but  eleven  states  had  ratified  the  constitution.  Afterwards 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island,  the  two  dissenting  states,  adopted  it; 
the  former  in  November,  1789,  the  latter  in  May,  1790.  In  1791,  Ver- 
mont adopted  it,  and  applied  to  congress  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union. 
An  act  was  also  passed,  declaring  that  the  district  of  Kentucky,  then  part 
of  Virginia,  should  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  the  1st  day  of  June  in 
the  succeeding  year. 

*  At  the  head  of  the  department  of  state  he  placed  Mr.  Jefferson ;  at  the  head  of  the 
treasury,  colonel  Hamilton  ;  at  the  head  of  the  war  department,  general  Knox  ;  in  the 
office  of  attorney-general,  Edmund  Randolph ;  at  the  head  of  the  judicial  department^ 
Mr.  Jay.  The  associate  justices  were  John  Rutledge,  of  South  Carolina,  James  Wilson, 
of  Pennsylvania,  William  Cushing,  of  Massachusetts,  Robert  Harrison,  of  Maryland, 
and  John  Blair,  of  Virginia. 


HISTORY.  727 

During  the  year  1790,  a  termination  was  put  to  the  war  which,  for  seve- 
ral years,  had  raged  between  the  Creek  Indians  and  the  state  of  Georgia. 
Pacific  overtures  were  also  made  to  the  hostile  tribes  inhabiting  the  banks 
of  the  Scioto  and  the  Wabash.  These  being  rejected,  an  army  of  fourteen 
hundred  men,  commanded  by  general  Harmer,  was  despatched  against 
them.  Two  battles  were  fought  near  Chillicothe,  in  Ohio,  between  suc- 
cessive detachments  from  this  army  and  the  Indians,  in  which  the  latter 
1  were  victorious.  Emboldened  by  these  successes,  they  continued  to  make 
more  vigorous  attacks  upon  the  frontier  settlements,  which  suffered  all  the 
distressing  calamities  of  an  Indian  war. 

In  the  course  of  this  year  was  completed  the  first  census  or  enumeration 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States.  They  amounted  to  three  millions 
nine  hundred  twenty-one  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty-six,  of  which 
number  six  hundred  ninety-five  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty-five  were 
slaves.  The  revenue,  according  to  the  report  of  the  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
amounted  to  four  millions  seven  hundred  and  seventy-one  thousand  dollars ; 
the  exports  to  about  nineteen,  and  the  imports  to  about  twenty  millions.  A 
great  improvement  in  the  circumstances  of  the  people  began  at  this  period 
to  be  visible.  The  establishment  of  a  firm  and  regular  government,  and 
confidence  in  the  men  whom  they  had  chosen  to  administer  it,  gave  an 
impulse  to  their  exertions  which  bore  them  rapidly  forward  in  the  career 
of  prosperity. 

Pursuant  to  the  authority  contained  in  the  several  acts  on  the  subject  of 
a  permanent  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  a  district  of  ten 
miles  square  for  this  purpose  was  fixed  on,  comprehending  lands  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  Potomac,  and  the  towns  of  Alexandria  and  Georgetown. 
A  city  was  laid  out,  and  the  sales  which  took  place  produced  funds  for 
carrying  on  the  necessary  public  buildings. 

The  war  in  Europe  had  embraced  those  powers  with  whom  the  United 
States  had  the  most  extensive  relations.  The  French  people  regarded  the 
Americans  as  their  brethren,  bound  to  them  by  the  ties  of  gratitude  ;  and 
when  the  kings  of  Europe,  dreading  the  establishment  of  republicanism  in 
her  borders,  assembled  in  arms  to  restore  monarchy  to  France,  they  looked 
across  the  Atlantic  for  sympathy  and  assistance.  The  new  government, 
recalling  the  minister  whom  the  king  had  appointed,  despatched  the  citizen 
Genet,  of  ardent  temper  and  a  zealous  republican,  to  supply  his  place.  In 
April,  1793,  he  arrived  at  Charleston,  in  South  Carolina,  where  he  was 
received  by  the  governor  and  the  citizens,  in  a  manner  expressive  of  their 
warm  attachment  to  his  country,  and  their  cordial  approbation  of  the  change 
of  her  institutions.  Flattered  by  his  reception,  and  presuming  that  the  na- 
tion and  the  government  were  actuated  by  similar  feelings,  he  undertook 
to  authorize  the  fitting  and  arming  of  vessels  in  that  port,  enlisting  men, 
and  giving  commissions  to  cruise  and  commit  hostilities  on  nations  with 
whom  the  United  States  were  at  peace ;  captured  vessels  were  brought 
into  port,  and  the  consuls  of  France  assumed,  under  the  authority  of  M. 
Genet,  to  hold  courts  of  admiralty  on  them,  to  try,  condemn,  and  authorize 
their  sale.  The  declaration  of  war  made  by  France  against  Great  Britain 
and  Holland  reached  the  United  States  early  in  the  same  month.  The 
president,  regarding  the  situation  of  these  states,  issued  his  proclamation  of 
neutrality  on  the  9th  of  May.  In  July,  he  requested  the  recall  of  M.  Ge- 
net, who  was  soon  afterwards  recalled,  and  succeeded  by  M.  Fauchet. 


728  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

After  the  defeat  of  St.  Clair  by  the  Indians,  in  1791,  general  Wayne  was 
appointed  to  command  the  American  forces.  Taking  post  near  the  country 
of  the  enemy,  he  made  assiduous  endeavors  to  negotiate  a  peace.  Failing 
in  these,  he  marched  against  them  at  the  head  of  three  thousand  men.  On 
the  20th  of  August,  1794,  an  action  took  place  in  the  vicinity  of  one  of  the 
British  garrisons,  on  the  banks  of  the  Miami.  A  vigorous  charge  roused 
the  savages  from  their  coverts,  and  they  were  driven  more  than  two  miles 
at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  Broken  and  dismayed,  they  fled  without 
renewing  the  combat.  In  this  decisive  battle,  the  loss  of  the  Americans  in 
killed  and  wounded,  including  officers,  was  one  hundred  and  seven.  After 
remaining  on  the  banks  of  the  Miami  three  days,  general  Wayne  returned 
with  the  army  to  Au  Glaize,  having  destroyed  all  the  villages  and  com 
within  fifty  miles  of  the  river.  The  Indians  still  continuing  hostilities, 
their  whole  country  was  laid  waste,  and  forts-were  erected  in  the  heart  of 
their  settlements.  The  effect  of  the  battle  of  the  20th  of  August  was  in- 
stantly and  extensively  felt.  To  the  victory  gained  by  the  Americans  is 
ascribed  the  rescue  of  the  United  States  from  a  general  war  with  the 
Indians  north-west  of  the  Ohio. 

The  year  1794  is  distinguished  by  an  insurrection  in  Pennsylvania.  In 
1791,  congress  had  enacted  laws  laying  duties  upon  spirits  distilled  within 
the  United  States,  and  upon  stills.  From  the  commencement  of  the  ope- 
ration of  these  laws,  combinations  were  formed  in  the  four  western  counties 
of  Pennsylvania  to  defeat  them,  and  violence  was  repeatedly  committed. 
In  July  of  the  present  year,  about  one  hundred  persons,  armed  with  guns 
and  other  weapons,  attacked  the  house  of  an  inspector  of  the  revenue,  and 
wounded  some  persons  within  it.  They  seized  the  marshal  of  the  district 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  compelled  him  to  enter  into  stipulations  to  forbear 
the  execution  of  his  office.  Both  the  inspector  and  the  marshal  were 
obliged  to  fly.  These  and  many  other  outrages  induced  president  Wash- 
ington, on  the  7th  of  August,  to  issue  a  proclamation,  commanding  the 
insurgents  to  disperse,  and  warning  all  persons  against  aiding,  abetting,  or 
comforting  the  perpetrators  of  these  treasonable  acts.  On  the  25th  of 
September  the  president  issued  a  second  proclamation,  admonishing  the 
insurgents,  and  declaring  his  fixed  determination,  in  obedience  to  the  duty 
assigned  to  him  by  the  constitution,  '  to  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully 
executed.'  Fifteen  thousand  men,  placed  under  the  command  of  governor 
Lee,  of  Virginia,  were  marched  into  the  disaffected  counties.  A  few  of 
the  most  active  leaders  were  seized  and  detained  for  legal  prosecution. 
The  great  body  of  the  insurgents,  on  submission,  were  pardoned,  as  were 
also  the  leaders,  after  trial  and  conviction  of  treason. 

Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  had  each  been  incessantly  complain- 
ing that  the  other  had  violated  the  stipulations  contained  in  the  treaty  of 
peace.  For  the  purpose  of  adjusting  these  mutual  complaints,  and  also 
for  concluding  a  commercial  treaty,  Mr.  Adams  had  been  appointed,  in 
1785,  minister  to  the  court  of  St.  James' ;  the  British  ministry  then  de- 
clined negotiating  on  the  subject ;  but  after  the  constitution  of  1789  was 
ratified,  ministers  were  interchanged,  and  the  discussion  was  prosecuted 
with  no  little  zeal.  In  1794,  Mr.  Jay  being  then  minister  from  the  United 
States,  a  treaty  was  concluded,  which,  in  the  spring  of  the  next  year,  was 
laid  before  the  senate.  That  body  advised  the  president  to  ratify  it,  on 
condition  that  an  alteration  should  be  made  in  one  of  the  articles.     The 


iHISTORtf.  729 

democratic  party,  however,  exclaimed  in  intemperate  language  against  most 
of  the  stipulations  it  contained ;  and  the  partisans  of  France  swelled  tho 
cry  of  condemnation. 

Public  meetings  were  held  in  various  parts  of  the  Union,  at  which  reso- 
lutions were  passed,  expressing  warm  disapprobation  of  the  treaty,  and  an 
earnest  wish  that  the  president  would  withhold  his  ratification.  General 
Washington,  believing  that  an  adjustment  of  differences  would  conduce  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  republic,  and  that  the  treaty  before  him  was  the  best 
that  could,  at  that  time,  be  obtained,  gave  it  his  assent,  in  defiance  of  popu- 
lar clamor,  and  issued  his  proclamation  stating  its  ratification,  and  declaring 
it  to  be  the  law  of  the  land. 

A  resolution  moved  in  the  house  to  make  the  necessary  appropriations 
to  carry  the  British  treaty  into  effect,  excited  among  the  members  the 
strongest  emotions,  and  gave  rise  to  speeches  highly  argumentative,  elo- 
quent, and  animated.  The  debate  was  protracted  until  the  people  took  up 
the  subject.  In  their  respective  corporations  meetings  were  held,  the 
strength  of  parties  was  fully  tried,  and  it  clearly  appeared  that  the  great 
majority  were  disposed  to  rally  around  the  executive.  Innumerable  peti- 
tions were  presented  to  congress,  praying  them  to  make  the  requisite  ap- 
propriations. Unwilling  to  take  upon  themselves  the  consequences  of 
xesisting  the  public  will,  they  yielded  to  this  call. 

During  the  year  1795,  a  satisfactory  treaty  was  concluded  with  Spain 
And  with  the  regency  of  Algiers. 

The  last  two  or  three  years  had  witnessed  several  changes  in  the  impor- 
tant offices  of  the  nation.  .On  the  first  day  of  the  year  1794,  Mr.  Jefferson 
resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Randolph. 
On  the  last  day  of  January,  1795,  Mr.  Hamilton  retired  from  the  office 
of  secretary  of  the  treasury.  He  was  succeeded  by  Oliver  Wolcott.  At 
the  close  of  the  year  1794,  general  Knox  resigned  the  office  of  secretary 
of  war,  and  colonel  Pickering,  of  Massachusetts,  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
In  August,  Mr.  Randolph  having  lost  the  confidence  of  the  president,  and 
having  in  consequence  retired  from  the  administration,  Mr.  Pickering  was 
appointed  his  successor  in  the  department  of  state,  and  James  M'Henry,  of 
Maryland,  was  made  secretary  of  war.  No  one  of  the  republican  party 
being  now  at  the  head  of  any  of  the  departments,  many  of  the  leaders  of 
that  party  withdrew  their  support  from  the  administration;  but  the  confi- 
dence of  the  people  in  the  integrity  and  patriotism  of  the  president  experi- 
enced not  the  slightest  abatement. 

The  conduct  adopted  by  France  towards  the  American  republic  continued 
to  be  a  source  of  vexation.  M.  Fauchet  charged  the  administration  with 
sentiments  of  hostility  to  the  allies  of  the  United  States,  with  partiality  for 
their  former  foes,  and  urged  the  adoption  of  a  course  more  favorable  to  the 
cause  of  liberty.  Mr.  Morris,  the  minister  to  Paris,  having  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  those  in  power,  was  recalled  at  their  request,  and  his  place 
supplied  by  Mr.  Monroe.  Being  an  ardent  republican,  he  was  received  in 
the  most  respectful  manner  by  the  convention,  who  decreed  that  the  flags 
of  the  two  republics,  entwined  together,  should  be  suspended  in  the  legis- 
lative hall,  as  a  mark  of  their  elernal  union  and  friendship.  M.  Adet  was 
appointed  soon  after  to  succeed  M.  Fauchet.  He  brought  with  him  the 
colors  of  France,  which  he  was  instructed  by  the  convention  to  present  to 
the  congress  of  the  United  States.  But  France  required  more  than  pro- 
92 


730  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

fessions  and  hopes,  and  more  than  by  treaty  she  was  entitled  to  claim. 
She  wished  to  make  the  states  a  party  in  the  war  she  was  waging  with 
the  despots  of  Europe.  Failing  in  this,  she  adopted  regulations  highly 
injurious  to  American  commerce,  directing  her  cruisers  to  capture  in  certain 
cases  the  vessels  of  the  United  States.  In  consequence  of  these  regulations, 
several  hundred  vessels,  loaded  with  valuable  cargoes,  were  taken  while 
prosecuting  a  lawful  trade,  and  the  whole  confiscated.  Believing  that  the 
rights  of  the  nation  were  not  asserted  and  vindicated  with  sufficient  spirit 
by  Mr.  Monroe,  the  president  recalled  him,  and  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  of 
South  Carolina,  was  appointed  in  his  stead.  In  the  summer  of  1796,  ha 
left  the  United  States,  instructed  to  use  every  effort  compatible  with  na- 
tional honor,  to  restore  the  amicable  relations  which  had  once  subsisted 
between  the  sister  republics. 

As  the  period  for  a  new  election  of  a  president  of  the  United  States  ap- 
proached, after  plain  indications  that  the  public  voice  would  be  in  his  favor, 
and  when  he  probably  would  have  been  chosen  for  the  third  time  unani- 
mously, Washington  determined  irrevocably  to  withdraw  to  the  seclusion 
of  private  life.  He  published,  in  September,  1796,  a  farewell  address  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States,  which  ought  to  be  engraven  upon  the  hearts 
of  all  his  countrymen. 

On  the  7th  of  December,  1796,  the  president  for  the  last  time  met  the 
national  legislature.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1797,  he  attended  the  inaugu- 
ration of  his  successor  in  office.  Having  paid  his  affectionate  compliments 
to  Mr.  Adams,  as  president  of  the  United  States,  he  bade  adieu  to  the  seat 
of  government,  and  hastened  to  the  delights  of  domestic  life.  He  intended 
that  his  journey  should  have  been  private,  but  the  attempt  was  vain ;  the 
same  affectionate  and  respectful  attentions  were  on  this  occasion  paid  him 
which  he  had  received  during  his  presidency. 


THE    ADMINISTRATIONS    OF   JOHN   ADAMS    AND   JEFFERSON. 

When  the  determination  of  Washington  not  again  to  accept  of  the  presi- 
dentship left  open  the  high  office  to  the  competition  of  the  leaders  of  the 
great  political  parties,  no  exertion  was  spared  throughout  the  Union  to  give 
success  to  their  respective  claims.  The  federalists,  desiring  that  the  system 
■of  measures  adopted  by  Washington  should  be  pursued,  and  dreading  the 
influence  of  French  sentiments  and  principles,  made  the  most  active  efforts 
to  elect  John  Adams.  The  republicans,  believing  their  opponents  less 
friendly  than  themselves  to  the  maxims  of  liberty,  and  too  much  devoted 
to  the  British  nation  and  to  British  institutions,  made  equal  exertions  to 
elect  Thomas  Jefferson.  The  result  was  the  choice  of  Mr.  Adams  to  be 
president,  and  Mr.  Jefferson  to  be  vice-president. 

Mr.  Pinckney  had  been  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  French 
republic  in  1796.  The  object  of  his  mission  was  stated,  in  his  letter  of 
credence,  to  be,  '  to  maintain  that  good  understanding  which,  from  the 
commencement  of  the  alliance,  had  subsisted  between  the  two  nations ;  and 
to  efface  unfavorable  impressions,  banish  suspicions,  and  restore  that  cor- 
diality which  was  at  once  the  evidence  and  pledge  of  a  friendly  union.' 
On  inspecting  his  letter  of  credence,  the  directory  announced  to  him  their 
determination.  '  not  to  receive  another  minister  plenipotentiary  from  the 


HisrroRT.  731 

United  States  until  after  the  redress  of  grievances  demanded  of  the  Ame- 
rican government,  which  the  French  republic  had  a  right  to  expect  from  it.' 
The  American  minister  was  afterwards  obliged,  by  a  written  mandate,  to 
quit  the  territories  of  the  French  republic.  Besides  other  hostile  indica- 
tions, American  vessels  were  captured  wherever  found ;  and,  under  the 
pretext  of  their  wanting  a  document,  with  which  the  treaty  of  commerce 
had  been  uniformly  understood  to  dispense,  they  were  condemned  as  prizes. 

In  consequence  of  this  serious  state  of  the  relations  with  France,  the* 
president,  by  proclamation,  summoned  congress  to  meet  on  the  15th  of 
June  ;  when,  in  a  firm  and  dignified  speech,  he  stated  the  great  and  unpro- 
voked outrages  of  the  French  government.  Having  mentioned  a  disposi- 
tion indicated  in  the  executive  directory  to  separate  the  people  of  America 
from  their  government,  ■  such  attempts,'  he  added,  '  ought  to  be  repelled 
with  a  decision  which  shall  convince  France  and  all  the  world  that  we  are 
not  a  degraded  people,  humiliated  under  a  colonial  spirit  of  fear  and  sense 
of  inferiority,  fitted  to  be  the  miserable  instruments  of  foreign  influence, 
and  regardless  of  national  honor,  character,  and  interest.'  He  expressed, 
however,  his  wish  for  an  accommodation,  and  his  purpose  of  attempting  it. 
In  the  mean  time,  he  earnestly  recommended  it  to  congress  to  provide 
effectual  measures  of  defence. 

To  make  a  last  effort  to  obtain  reparation  and  security,  three  envoys  ex- 
traordinary were  appointed,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  general  Pinckney. 
These  ambassadors  also  the  directory  refused  to  receive.  They  were, 
however,  addressed  by  persons  verbally  instructed  by  Talleyrand,  the  mi- 
nister of  foreign  relations,  to  make  proposals.  In  explicit  terms,  these  un- 
official agents  demanded  a  large  sum  of  money  before  any  negotiation  could 
be  opened.     To  this  insulting  demand  a  decided  negative  was  given. 

When  these  events  were  known  in  the  United  States  they  excited  gene- 
al  indignation.  The  spirit  of  party  appeared  to  be  extinct.  The  treaty  of 
alliance  with  France  was  declared  by  congress  to  be  no  longer  in  force ; 
and  authority  was  given  for  capturing  armed  French  vessels.  Provision 
was  made  for  raising  immediately  a  small  regular  army,  and,  in  case  events 
should  render  it  expedient,  for  augmenting  it.  A  direct  tax  and  additional 
internal  duties  were  laid.  To  command  the  armies  of  the  United  States, 
president  Adams,  with  the  unanimous  advice  of  the  senate,  appointed 
George  Washington.  He  consented,  but  with  great  reluctance,  to  accept 
the  office,  declaring,  however,  that  he  cordially  approved  the  measures  of 
the  government. 

The  first  act  of  hostility  between  the  two  nations  appears  to  have  been 
committed  by  the  Insurgente,  which  was  in  a  short  period  after  so  signally 
beaten  by  an  American  frigate.  The  schooner  Retaliation,  lieutenant- 
commandant  Bainbridge,  being  deluded  into  the  power  of  this  vessel,  was 
captured  and  carried  into  Guadaloupe.  Several  other  United  States  armed 
vessels  were  in  company  with  the  Retaliation,  and  pursued  by  the  French 
squadron,  but  were  probably  saved  from  capture  by  the  address  of  lieute- 
nant Bainbridge,  who,  being  asked  by  the  French  commodore  what  was 
the  force  of  the  vessels  chased,  exaggerated  it  with  so  much  adroitness  as 
to  induce  him  to  recall  his  ships.  The  Constellation  went  to  sea  under  the 
command  of  captain  Truxton.  In  February,  1799,  he  encountered  the  In- 
surgente, and,  after  a  close  action  of  about  an  hour  and  a  half,  compelled 
her  to  strike.     The  rate  of  the  Constellation  was  thirty-two  guns,  that  of 


732  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  Insurgente  forty.  The  former  had  three  men  wounded,  one  of  whom 
shortly  after  died,  and  none  killed ;  the  latter  had  forty-one  wounded,  and 
twenty-nine  killed.  This  victory,  which  was  so  brilliant  and  decisive,  with 
such  a  wonderful  disparity  of  loss,  gave  great  eclat  to  the  victor  and  to  the 
navy.  Commodore  Truxton  again  put  to  sea  in  the  Constellation,  being 
destined  to  renew  his  triumphs,  and  the  humiliation  of  the  foe.  In  February, 
1800,  he  fell  in  with  the  Vengeance,  a  French  ship  of  fifty-four  guns,  with 
which  he  began  an  engagement  that  lasted,  with  great  obstinacy  and  spirit 
on  both  sides,  from  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  till  one  in  the  morning, 
when  the  Vengeance  was  completely  silenced,  and  sheered  off.  The  Con- 
stellation, having  lost  her  main-mast,  was  too  much  injured  to  pursue  her. 
The  captain  of  the  Vengeance  is  said  to  have  twice  surrendered  during  the 
contest,  but  his  signals  were  not  understood  amidst  the  darkness  of  night 
and  the  confusion  of  battle. 

The  United  States,  thus  victorious  in  arms  at  home  and  on  the  ocean, 
commanded  the  respect  of  their  enemy  ;  and  the  directory  made  overtures 
of  peace.  The  president  immediately  appointed  ministers,  who,  on  their 
arrival  at  Paris,  found  the  executive  authority  in  the  possession  of  Buona- 
parte as  first  consul.  They  were  promptly  received,  and  in  September, 
1800,  a  treaty  was  concluded  satisfactory  to  both  countries. 

The  services  of  Washington  had  not  been  required  in  his  capacity  of 
commander-in-chief;  but  he  did  not  live  to  witness  the  restoration  of  peace. 
On  Friday,  December  13,  while  attending  some  improvements  upon  his 
estate,  he  was  exposed  to  a  light  rain,  which  wetted  his  neck  and  hair. 
Unapprehensive  of  danger,  he  passed  the  afternoon  in  his  usual  manner ; 
but  at  night  was  seized  with  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the  windpipe, 
attended  by  fever,  and  a  quick  and  laborious  respiration.  Respiration  be- 
came more  and  more  contracted  and  imperfect  until  half-past  eleven  on 
Saturday  night,  when,  retaining  the  full  possession  of  his  intellect,  he  ex- 
pired without  a  struggle.  Thus,  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  died 
the  father  of  his  country.  Intelligence  of  this  event,  as  it  rapidly  spread, 
produced  spontaneous,  deep,  and  unaffected  grief,  suspending  every  other 
thought,  and  absorbing  every  different  feeling.  Congress,  then  in  session 
at  Philadelphia,  immediately  adjourned.  The  senate  of  the  United  States, 
in  an  address  to  the  president  on  this  melancholy  occasion,  indulged  their 
patriotic  pride,  while  they  did  not  transgress  the  bounds  of  truth,  in  speak- 
ing of  their  Washington. 

According  to  the  unanimous  resolution  of  congress,  a  funeral  procession 
moved  from  the  legislative  hall  to  the  German  Lutheran  church,  where  an 
oration  was  delivered  by  general  Lee,  a  representative  from  Virginia. 
The  procession  was  grand  and  solemn ;  the  oration  impressive  and  eloquent. 
Throughout  the  Union  similar  marks  of  affliction  were  exhibited ;  a  whole 
people  appeared  in  mourning.  In  every  part  of  the  republic  funeral  ora- 
tions were  delivered,  and  the  best  talents  of  the  nation  were  devoted  to  an 
expression  of  the  nation's  grief. 

In  the  year  1800  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States  was  re- 
moved to  Washington,  in  the  district  of  Columbia.  After  congratulating 
the  people  of  the  United  States  on  the  assembling  of  congress  at  the  per-, 
manent  seat  of  their  government,  and  congress  on  the  prospect  of  a  resi- 
dence not  to  be  changed,  the  president  said :  '  It  would  be  unbecoming  the 
representatives  of  this  nation  to  assemble  for  the  first  time  in  this  solemn 


HISTORY.  733 

temple,  without  looking  up  to  the  supreme  Ruler  of  the  universe,  and  im- 
ploring his  blessing.  May  this  territory  be  the  residence  of  virtue  and 
aappiness  !  In  this  city  may  that  piety  and  virtue,  that  wisdom  and  magna- 
nimity, that  constancy  and  self-government,  which  adorned  the  great  cha- 
racter whose  name  it  bears,  be  forever  held  in  veneration  !  Here,  and 
throughout  our  country,  may  simple  manners,  pure  morals,  and  true  religion, 
flourish  forever!' 

At  this  period  a  presidential  election  again  occurred.  From  the  time  of 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  the  republican  party  had  been  gradually 
increasing  in  numbers.  The  two  parties  being  now  nearly  equal,  the  con- 
test inspired  both  with  uncommon  ardor.  The  federalists  supported  Mi- 
Adams  and  general  Pinckney ;  the  republicans,  Mr.  Jefferson  and  colonel 
Burr.  The  two  latter  received  a  small  majority  of  the  electoral  votes  ;  and 
as  they  received  also  an  equal  number,  the  selection  of  one  of  them  to  be 
president  devolved  upon  the  house  of  representatives.  After  thirty-five 
trials,  during  which  the  nation  felt  intense  solicitude,  Mr.  Jefferson  was 
chosen.  Colonel  Burr  received  the  votes  of  the  federalists,  and  lost,  in 
consequence,  the  confidence  of  his  former  friends.  By  the  provisions  of 
the  constitution  he  became,  of  course,  vice-president. 

A  second  census  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  was  completed 
in  1801.  They  amounted  to  five  millions  three  hundred  and  nineteen 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty-two,  having  in  ten  years  increased  nearly 
one  million  four  hundred  thousand.  In  the  same  number  of  years  the  ex- 
ports increased  from  nineteen  to  ninety-four  millions,  and  the  revenue  from 
four  millions  seven  hundred  seventy-one  thousand,  to  twelve  millions  nine 
hundred  and  forty-five  thousand  dollars.  This  rapid  advance  in  the  career 
of  prosperity  has  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  nations,  and  is  to  be  attributed 
principally  to  the  institutions  of  the  country,  which,  securing  equal  privile- 
ges to  all,  gave  to  the  enterprise  and  industry  of  all  free  scope  and  full 
encouragement. 

In  1802,  the  state  of  Ohio  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  It  was  for- 
merly a  portion  of  the  north-western  territory,  for  the  government  of  which, 
in  1787,  an  ordinance  was  passed  by  the  continental  congress.  In  thirty 
years  from  its  first  settlement,  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  exceeded  half 
a  million.  The  state  of  Tennessee,  which  was  previously  a  part  of  North 
Carolina,  and  which  lies  between  that  state  and  the  river  Mississippi,  had 
been  admitted  in  1796. 

The  right  of  deposit  at  New  Orleans,  conceded  to  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States  by  Spain,  and  necessary  to  the  people  of  the  western  country, 
had,  until  this  period,  been  freely  enjoyed.  In  October,  the  chief  officer 
of  that  city  prohibited  the  exercise  of  it  in  future.  This  violation  of  a 
solemn  engagement  produced,  throughout  the  states  of  Ohio  and  Kentucky, 
indignant  clamor  and  violent  commotion.  In  congress  a  proposition  was 
made  to  take  possession  by  force  of  the  whole  province  of  Louisiana ;  but 
a  more  pacific  course  was  adopted.  Knowing  that  the  province  had  been 
ceded,  although  not  transferred,  to  France,  the  president  instituted  a  nego- 
tiation to  acquire  it  by  purchase.  In  April,  1803,  a  treaty  was  concluded, 
conveying  it  to  the  United  States  for  fifteen  millions  of  dollars.  Its  acqui- 
sition was  considered  by  the  United  States  of  the  greatest  importance,  as 
it  gave  them  the  entire  control  of  a  river  which  is  one  of  the  noblest  in  the 
world. 

62 


734  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

At  this  period,  also,  there  was  another  important  acquisition  of  territory. 
The  friendly  tribe  of  Kaskaskia  Indians,  reduced  by  wars  and  other  causes 
to  a  few  individuals,  who  were  unable  to  defend  themselves  against  the 
neighboring  tribes,  transferred  its  country  to  the  United  States;  reserving 
only  a  sufficiency  to  maintain  its  members  in  an  agricultural  way.  The 
stipulations  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  were,  to  extend  to  them  pa- 
tronage and  protection,  and  to  give  them  certain  annual  aids,  in  money, 
implements  of  agriculture,  and  other  articles  of  their  choice.  This  ceded 
country  extends  along  the  Mississippi  from  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  to  and 
up  the  Ohio ;  and  is  esteemed  as  among  the  most  fertile  within  the  limits 
of  the  Union. 

The  United  States  had  for  some  time  enjoyed  the  undisputed  repose  of 
peace,  with  only  one  exception.  Tripoli,  the  least  considerable  of  the  Bar- 
bary  states,  had  made  demands  founded  neither  in  right  nor  in  compact, 
and  had  denounced  war  on  the  failure  of  the  American  government  to 
comply  with  them  before  a  given  day.  The  president,  on  this  occasion, 
sent  a  small  squadron  of  frigates  into  the  Mediterranean,  with  assurances 
to  that  power  of  the  sincere  desire  of  the  American  government  to  remain 
in  peace ;  but  with  orders  to  protect  our  commerce  against  the  threatened 
attack.  It  was  a  seasonable  and  salutary  measure  ;  for  the  bey  had  already 
declared  war ;  and  the  American  commerce  in  the  Mediterranean  was 
blockaded,  while  that  of  the  Atlantic  was  in  peril.  The  arrival  of  the 
squadron  dispelled  the  danger.  The  Insurgente,  which  had  been  so  honora- 
bly added  to  the  American  navy,  and  the  Pickering,  of  fourteen  guns,  the 
former  commanded  by  captain  Fletcher,  the  latter  by  captain  Hillar,  were 
lost  in  the  equinoctial  gale,  in  September,  1800. 

In  1801,  the  Enterprise,  of  fourteen  guns,  captain  Sterrett,  fell  in  with 
a  Tripolitan  ship  of  war  of  equal  force.  The  action  continued  three  hours 
and  a  half,  the  corsair  fighting  with  great  obstinacy,  and  even  desperation, 
until  she  struck,  having  lost  fifty  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Enterprise 
had  not  a  man  injured.  In  1803,  commodore  Preble  assumed  the  command, 
of  the  Mediterranean  squadron,  and  after  humbling  the  emperor  of  Morocco, 
who  had  begun  a  covert  war  upon  American  commerce,  concentrated  most 
of  his  force  before  Tripoli.  On  arriving  off  that  port,  captain  Bainbridge, 
in  the  frigate  Philadelphia,  of  forty-four  guns,  was  sent  into  the  harbor  to 
reconnoitre.  While  in  eager  pursuit  of  a  small  vessel,  he  unfortunately 
advanced  so  far  that  the  frigate  grounded,  £nd  all  attempts  to  remove  her 
were  in  vain.  The  sea  around  her  was  immediately  covered  with  Tripolitan 
gun-boats,  and  captain  Bainbridge  was  compelled  to  surrender.  This  mis- 
fortune, which  threw  a  number  of  accomplished  officers  and  a  valiant  crew 
into  oppressive  bondage,  and  which  shed  a  gloom  over  the  whole  nation, 
as  it  seemed  at  once  to  increase  the  difficulties  of  a  peace  an  hundred  fold,' 
was  soon  relieved  by  one  of  the  most  daring  and  chivalrous  exploits  that  is 
found  in  naval  annals.  Lieutenant  Stephen  Decatur,  then  one  of  commo- 
dore Preble's  subalterns,  proposed  a  plan  for  re-capturing  or  destroying  the 
Philadelphia.  The  American  squadron  was  at  that  time  lying  at  Syra- 
cuse. Agreeably  to  the  plan  proposed,  lieutenant  Decatur,  in  the  ketch 
Intrepid,  four  guns  and  seventy-five  men,  proceeded,  under  the  escort  of 
the  Syren,  captain  Stewart,  to  the  harbor  of  Tripoli.  The  Philadelphia 
lay  within  half  gun-shot  of  the  bashaw's  castle,  and  several  cruisers  and 
gun-boats  surrounded  her  with  jealous  vigilance, 


msroftY.  735 

The  Intrepid  entered  the  harbor  alone,  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
and  succeeded  in  getting  near  the  Philadelphia,  between  ten  and  eleven 
o'clock,  without  having  awakened  suspicion  of  her  hostile  designs.  This 
vessel  had  been  captured  from  the  Tripolitans,  and,  assuming  on  this  occa- 
sion her  former  national  appearance,  was  permitted  to  warp  alongside, 
under  the  alleged  pretence  that  she  had  lost  all  her  anchors.  The  moment 
the  vessel  came  in  contact,  Decatur  and  his  followers  leaped  on  board, 
and  soon  overwhelmed  a  crew  which  was  paralyzed  with  consternation. 
Twenty  of  the  Tripolitans  were  killed.  All  the  surrounding  batteries 
being  opened  upon  the  Philadelphia,  she  was  immediately  set  on  fire,  and 
not  abandoned  until  thoroughly  wrapped  in  flames ;  when,  a  favoring  breeze 
springing  up,  the  Intrepid  extricated  herself  from  her  prey,  and  sailed 
triumphantly  out  of  the  harbor  amid  the  light  of  the  conflagration.  Not 
the  slightest  loss  occurred  on  the  side  of  the  Americans  to  shade  the  splen- 
dor of  the  enterprise. 

In  July,  1804,  commodore  Preble  brought  together  all  his  forces  before 
Tripoli,  determined  to  try  the  effect  of  a  bombardment.  The  enemy  having 
sent  some  of  his  gun-boats  and  galleys  without  the  reef  at  the  mouth  of 
the  harbor,  two  divisions  of  American  gun-boats  were  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  attacking  them,  while  the  large  vessels  assailed  the  batteries  and 
town.  On  the  3d  of  August  this  plan  was  put  in  execution.  The  squad- 
ron approached  within  gun-shot  of  the  town,  and  opened  a  tremendous 
fire  of  shot  and  shells,  which  was  as  promptly  returned  by  the  Tripolitan 
batteries  and  shipping.  At  the  same  time  the  two  divisions  of  gun-boats, 
the  first  under  the  command  of  captain  Somers,  the  second  under  captain 
Stephen  Decatur,  who  had  been  promoted  as  a  reward  for  his  late  achieve- 
ment, advanced  against  those  of  the  enemy.  The  squadron  was  about 
two  hours  under  the  enemy's  batteries,  generally  within  pistol-shot,  rang- 
ing by  them  in  deliberate  succession,  alternately  silencing  their  fires,  and 
launching  its  thunders  into  the  very  palace  of  the  bashaw ;  while  a  more 
animated  battle  was  raging  in  another  quarter.  Simultaneously  with  the 
bombardment  the  American  gun-boats  had  closed  in  desperate  conflict 
with  the  enemy.  Captain  Decatur,  bearing  down  upon  one  of  superior 
force,  soon  carried  her  by  boarding,  when,  taking  his  prize  in  tow,  he 
grappled  with  another,  and  in  like  manner  transferred  the  fight  to  the  ene- 
my's deck. 

In  the  fierce  encounter  which  followed  this  second  attack,  captain  Deca- 
tur, having  broken  his  sword,  closed  with  the  Turkish  commander,  and, 
both  falling  in  the  struggle,  gave  him  a  mortal  wound  with  a  pistol-shot, 
just  as  the  Turk  was  raising  his  dirk  to  plunge  it  into  his  breast.  Lieu- 
tenant Trippe,  of  captain  Decatur's  squadron,  had  boarded  a  third  large 
gun-boat,  with  only  one  midshipman  and  nine  men,  when  his  boat  fell  off, 
and  left  him  to  wage  the  unequal  fight  of  eleven  against  thirty-six,  which 
was  the  number  of  the  enemy.  Courage  and  resolution,  however,  con- 
verted this  devoted  little  band  into  a  formidable  host,  which,  after  a  san- 
guinary contest,  obliged  the  numerous  foe  to  yield,  with  the  loss  of  fourteen 
killed  und  seven  wounded.  Lieutenant  Trippe  received  eleven  sabre 
wounds,  and  had  three  of  his  party  wounded,  but  none  killed.  Several 
bombardments  and  attacks  succeeded  each  other  at  intervals  throughout  the 
month.  Day  after  day  death  and  devastation  were  poured  into  Tripoli 
with  unsparing  perseverance,  each  attack  exhibiting  instances  of  valor  and 


736  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

devotedness  which  will  give  lustre  to  history.  The  eyes  of  Europe  wer« 
drawn  to  the  spot  where  a  young  nation,  scarcely  emerged  into  notice,  wan 
signally  chastising  the  despotic  and  lawless  infidel,  to  whom  some  of  her 
most  powerful  governments  were  then  paying  tribute. 

On  the  4th  of  September,  commodore  Preble,  in  order  to  try  new  expe- 
riments of  annoyance,  determined  to  send  a  fireship  into  the  enemy's  har- 
bor. The  Intrepid  was  fitted  out  for  this  service,  being  filled  with  powder, 
shells,  and  other  combustible  materials.  Captain  Somers,  who  had  oftea' 
been  the  emulous  rival  of  Decatur  in  the  career  of  glory,  was  appointed  to 
conduct  her  in,  having  for  his  associates  in  the  hazardous  enterprise  lieute- 
nants Wadsworth  and  Israel,  all  volunteers.  The  Argus,  Vixen,  and 
Nautilus,  were  to  convey  the  Intrepid  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  harbor. 
Captain  Somers  and  lieutenant  Wadsworth  made  choice  of  two  of  th© 
fleetest  boats  in  the  squadron,  manned  with  picked  crews,  to  bring  them 
out.  At  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  she  stood  into  the  harbor  with  a 
moderate  breeze.  Several  shot  were  fired  at  her  from  the  batteries.  She 
had  nearly  gained  her  place  of  destination  when  she  exploded,  without 
having  made  any  of  the  signals  previously  concerted  to  show  that  the  crew 
was  safe.  Night  hung  over  the  dreadful  catastrophe,  and  left  the  whole 
squadron  a  prey  to  the  most  painful  anxiety.  The  convoy  hovered  about 
the  harbor  until  sunrise,  when  no  remains  could  be  discovered  either  of 
the  Intrepid  or  her  boats.  Doubt  was  turned  into  certainty,  that  she  had 
prematurely  blown  up,  as  one  of  the  enemy's  gun-boats  was  observed  tobs 
missing,  and  several  others  much  shattered  and  damaged. 

Commodore  Preble,  in  his  account,  says,  that  he  was  led  to  believe  *  that 
those  boats  were  detached  from  the  enemy's  flotilla  to  intercept  the  ketch* 
and  without  suspecting  her  to  be  a  fireship,  the  missing  boats  had  suddenly 
boarded  her,  when  the  gallant  Somers  and  the  heroes  of  his  party  observ- 
ing the  other  three  boats  surrounding  them,  and  no  prospect  of  escape, 
determined  at  once  to  prefer  death,  and  the  destruction  of  the  enemy,  to 
captivity  and  torturing  slavery,  put  a  match  to  the  train  leading  directly  to 
the  magazine,  which  at  once  blew  the  whole  into  the  air,  and  terminated 
their  existence ;'  and  he  adds,  that  his  '  conjectures  respecting  this  affair 
are  founded  on  a  resolution  which  captain  Somers  and  lieutenants  Wads* 
worth  and  Israel  had  formed,  neither  to  be  taken  by  the  enemy,  nor  suffer 
him  to  get  possession  of  the  powder  on  board  the  Intrepid.'^  Soon  aftef 
these  events,  commodore  Preble  gave  up  the  command  in  the  Mediterranean 
to  commodore  Barron,  and  returned  to  the  United  States.  His  eminent 
services  were  enthusiastically  acknowledged  by  his  admiring  fellow-citizens> 
as  well  as  those  of  his  associates  in  arms,  '  whose  names,'  in  the  expressive 
language  of  congress  on  the  occasion,  '  ought  to  live  in  the  recollection  and? 
affection  of  a  grateful  country,  and  whose  conduct  ought  to  be  regarded  as 
an  example  to  future  generations.' 

While  the  squadron  remained  before  Tripoli  other  deeds  of  heroism- 
were  performed.  William  Eaton,  who  had  been  a  captain  in  the  American, 
army,  was,  at  the  commencement  of  this  war,  consul  at  Tunis.  He  there 
became  acquainted  with  Hamet  Caramauly,  whom  a  younger  brother  had 
excluded  from  the  throne  of  Tripoli.  With  him  he  concerted  an  expedition 
Against  the  reigning  sovereign,  and  repaired  to  the  United  States  to  obtain 

•  Goldsborough's  Naval  Chronicle. 


BISTORT.  <&Il?QTx^  t& 


permission  and  the  means  to  undertake  it.  Permission  was  granted,  the 
co-operation  of  the  squadron  recommended,  and  such  pecuniary  assistance 
as  could  be  spared  was  afforded.  To  raise  an  army  in  Egypt,  and  lead  it 
to  attack  the  usurper  in  his  dominions,  was  the  project  which  had  been 
concerted.  In  the  beginning  of  1805,  Eaton  met  Hamet  at  Alexandria,  and 
was  appointed  general  of  his  forces.  On  the  6th  of  March,  at  the  head  of 
a  respectable  body  of  mounted  Arabs,  and  about  seventy  Christians,  he  set 
out  for  Tripoli.  His  route  lay  across  a  desert  one  thousand  miles  in. 
extent.  On  his  march,  he  encountered  peril,  fatigue,  and  suffering,  the 
description  of  which  would  resemble  the  exaggerations  of  romance.  On 
the  25th  of  April,  having  been  fifty  days  on  the  march,  he  arrived  before 
Derne,  a  Tripolitan  city  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  found  in  the  harbor  a 
part  of  the  American  squadron  destined  to  assist  him.  He  learnt  also  that 
the  usurper,  having  received  notice  of  his  approach,  had  raised  a  considera- 
ble army,  and  was  then  within  a  day's  march  of  the  city.  No  time  was 
therefore  to  be  lost. 

The  next  morning  he  summoned  the  governor  to  surrender,  who  returned 
for  answer,  '  My  head  or  yours.'  The  city  was  assaulted,  and  after  a  con- 
test of  two  hours  and  a  half,  possession  was  gained.  The  Christians 
suffered  severely,  and  the  general  was  slightly  wounded.  Great  exertions 
were  immediately  made  to  fortify  the  city.  On  the  8th  of  May  it  was 
attacked  by  the  Tripolitan  army.  Although  ten  times  more  numerous 
than  Eaton's  band,  the  assailants,  after  persisting  four  hours  in  the  attempt, 
were  compelled  to  retire.  On  the  10th  of  June  another  battle  was  fought, 
in  which  the  enemy  were  defeated.  The  next  day  the  American  frigate 
Constitution  arrived  in  the  harbor,  which  so  terrified  the  Tripolitans  that 
they  fled  precipitately  to  the  desert.  The  frigate  came,  however,  to  arrest 
the  operations  of  Eaton  in  the  midst  of  his  brilliant  and  successful  career- 
Alarmed  at  his  progress,  the  reigning  bashaw  had  offered  terms  of  peace, 
which  being  much  more  favorable  than  had  before  been  offered,  were  ac- 
cepted by  Mr.  Lear,  the  authorized  agent  of  the  government.  Sixty  thou- 
sand dollars  were  given  as  a  ransom  for  the  unfortunate  American  priso- 
ners, and  an  engagement  was  made  to  withdraw  all  support  from  Hamet. 
The  nation,  proud  of  the  exploits  of  Eaton,  regretted  this  diplomatic  inter- 
ference, but  the  treaty  was  subsequently  ratified  by  the  president  and  senate. 

During  the  year  1804,  the  Delaware  Indians  relinquished  to  the  United 
States  their  title  to  an  extensive  tract  east  of  the  Mississippi,  between  the 
Wabash  and  Ohio,  for  which  they  were  to  receive  annuities  in  animals  and 
implements  for  agriculture,  and  in  other  necessaries.  This  was  an  im- 
portant acquisition,  not  only  for  its  extent  and  fertility,  but  because,  by  its 
commanding  the  Ohio  for  three  hundred  miles,  and  nearly  half  that  distance 
the  Wabash,  the  produce  of  the  settled  country  could  be  safely  conveyed 
down  those  rivers,  and,  with  the  cession  recently  made  by  Kaskaskias,  it 
nearly  consolidated  the  possessions  of  the  United  States  north  of  the  Ohio, 
from  lake  Erie  to  the  Mississippi. 

Early  in  the  following  yeaT  Mr.  Jefferson  was  re-elected  to  fill  the  pre- 
sident's chair  by  the  decided  majority  of  sixty-two  votes  against  sixteen,  a 
circumstance  which  he  viewed  as  an  indication  of  a  great  decay  in  the 
strength  of  the  federal  party.*  George  Clinton  was  also  elected  vice-pre- 
sident. 

*  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  vol.  iv.  p.  34. 
93  62* 


738  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

During  the  year  1806,  a  circumstance  occurred  which  put  to  the  test  tha 
attachment  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  and  Western  states,  as  well  aa 
the  good  faith  of  the  American  government  in  her  foreign  relations.  Colo- 
nel Burr,  whose  character  and  influence  had  formerly  encouraged  him  ia 
the  hope  of  filling  the  highest  office  of  his  country,  subsequently  lost  the 
public  confidence  and  fell  into  obscurity.  While  unobserved  by  his  fellow- 
citizens  he  was  by  no  means  inactive ;  he  was  employed  in  purchasing 
and  building  boats  on  the  Ohio,  and  in  engaging  men  to  descend  that  river. 
His  professed  intention  was  to  form  a  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the 
Washita,  in  Louisiana  ;  but  the  nature  of  his  preparations,  and  the  incautious 
disclosures  of  his  associates,  led  to  the  suspicion  that  his  real  object  was  of 
a  far  different  character. 

*  His  conspiracy,'  says  president  Jefferson,  in  a  letter  to  the  marquis  do 
la  Fayette,  '  has  been  one  of  the  most  flagitious  of  which  history  will  evefc 
furnish  an  example.  He  meant  to  separate  the  western  states  from  us,  to 
add  Mexico  to  them,  place  himself  at  their  head,  establish  what  he  would 
deem  an  energetic  government,  and  thus  provide  an  example  and  an  instru- 
ment for  the  subversion  of  our  freedom.  The  man  who  could  expect  to 
effect  this  with  American  materials  must  be  a  fit  subject  for  Bedlam.  No- 
thing has  ever  so  strongly  proved  the  innate  force  of  our  form  of  govern* 
rnent  as  this  conspiracy.  Burr  had  probably  engaged  one  thousand  men 
to  follow  his  fortunes,  without  letting  them  know  his  projects,  otherwise 
than  by  assuring  them  the  government  approved  of  them.  The  moment  a 
proclamation  was  issued,  undeceiving  them,  he  found  himself  left  with 
about  thirty  desperadoes  only.  The  people  rose  in  a  mass  wherever  he 
was,  or  was  suspected  to  be,  and  by  their  own  energy  the  thing  was  crush- 
ed in  one  instant,  without  its  having  been  necessary  to  employ  a  man  of 
the  military  but  to  take  care  of  their  respective  stations.  His  first  enter- 
prise was  to  have  been  to  seize  New  Orleans,  which  he  supposed  would 
powerfully  bridle  the  upper  country,  and  place  him  at  the  door  of  Mexico. 
It  is  with  pleasure  I  inform  you  that  not  a  single  native  Creole,  and  but 
one  American,  of  those  settled  there  before  we  received  the  place,  took  any 
part  with  him.  His  partisans  were  the  new  emigrants  from  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere,  fugitives  from  justice  or  debt,  and  adveuturers  and 
speculators  of  all  descriptions.'  In  August,  1807,  he  was  tried  before  chief- 
justice  Marshall,  and  the  evidence  of  his  guilt  not  being  deemed  sufficient 
ke  Was  acquitted.  The  people,  however,  very  generally  believed  him 
guilty. 

The  American  government  at  this  period  began  to  be  seriously  affected 
by  the  contest  which  was  raging  in  Europe.  Under  the  guidance  of  the 
splendid  talents  of  Napoleon  the  military  prowess  of  France  had  brought 
most  of  the  European  nations  to  her  feet.  America  profited  from  the  de- 
struction of  the  ships  and  commerce  of  other  nations ;  being  neutral,  her 
vessels  carried  from  port  to  port  the  productions  of  France  and  the  depen- 
dent kingdoms ;  and  also  to  the  ports  of  those  kingdoms  the  manufactures 
of  England  :  indeed,  few  ships  were  found  on  the  ocean  except  those  of  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  These  advantages  were,  however,  too 
great  to  be  long  enjoyed  unmolested.  American  ships  carrying  to  Europe 
the  produce  of  French  colonies  were,  in  the  early  stage  of  the  war,  captured 
by  British  cruisers,  and  condemned  by  their  courts  as  lawful  prizes ;  and 
now  several  European  ports  under  the  control  of  France  were  by  British 


history.  739 

Orders  in  council,  dated  in  May,  1806,  declared  in  a  state  of  blockade, 
although  not  invested  with  a  British  fleet ;  and  American  vessels  attempt- 
ing to  enter  those  ports  were  also  captured  and  condemned.  France  and 
her  allies  suffered,  as  well  as  the  United  States,  from  these  proceedings ; 
but  her  vengeance  fell  not  so  much  upon  the  belligerent  as  upon  the  neu- 
tral party.  By  a  decree,  used  at  Berlin  in  November,  1806,  the  French 
emperor  declared  the  British  islands  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  of  course 
-authorized  the  capture  of  all  neutral  vessels  attempting  to  trade  with  those 
islands.  From  these  measures  of  both  nations  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States  severely  suffered,  and  their  merchants  loudly  demanded  of  the  go- 
vernment redress  and  protection. 

This  was  not  the  only  grievance  to  which  the  contest  between  the  Euro- 
pean powers  gave  rise.  Great  Britain  claimed  a  right  to  search  for  and 
seize  English  sailors,  even  on  board  neutral  vessels  while  traversing  the 
ocean.  In  the  exercise  of  this  pretended  right,  citizens  of  the  United  States 
were  seized,  dragged  from  their  friends,  transported  to  distant  parts  of  the 
world,  compelled  to  perform  the  duty  of  British  sailors,  and  to  fight  with 
nations  at  peace  with  their  own.  Against  this  outrage  upon  personal  liberty 
and  the  rights  of  American  citizens,  Washington,  Adams,  and  Jefferson  had 
remonstrated  in  vain.  The  abuse  continued,  and  every  year  added  to  its 
aggravation.  In  June,  1807,  a  circumstance  occurred  which  highly  and 
justly  incensed  the  Americans.  The  frigate  Chesapeake,  being  ordered  on 
a  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean  sea,  under  the  command  of  commodore  Bar- 
anon,  sailing  from  Hampton  roads,  was  come  up  with  by  the  British  ship 
of  war  Leopard,  one  of  a  squadron  then  at  anchor  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States.  An  officer  was  sent  from  the  Leopard  to  the  Chesapeake, 
with  a  note  from  the  captain  respecting  some  deserters  from  some  of  his 
Britannic  majesty's  ships,  supposed  to  be  serving  as  part  of  the  crew  of  the 
Chesapeake,  and  inclosing  a  copy  of  an  order  from  vice-admiral  Berkeley, 
requiring  and  directing  the  commanders  of  ships  and  vessels  under  his 
command,  in  case  of  meeting  with  the  American  frigate  at  sea,  and  without 
the  limits  of  the  United  States,  to  show  the  order  to  her  captain,  and  to  re- 
quire to  search  his  ship  for  the  deserters  from  certain  ships  therein  named, 
and  to  proceed  and  search  for  them  J  and  if  a  similar  demand  should  be 
made  by  the  American,  he  was  permitted  to  search  for  deserters  from  their 
service,  according  to  the  customs  and  usage  of  civilized  nations  on  terms  of 
amity  with  each  other. 

Commodore  Barron  gave  an  answer,  purporting  that  he  knew  of  no  such 
men  as  were  described  ;  that  the  recruiting  officers  for  the  Chesapeake  had 
been  particularly  instructed  by  the  government,  through  him,  not  to  enter 
any  deserters  from  his  Britannic  majesty's  ships ;  that  he  knew  of  none 
such  being  in  her ;  that  he  was  instructed  never  to  permit  the  crew  of  any 
ship  under  his  command  to  be  mustered  by  any  officers  but  her  own  ;  that 
he  was  disposed  to  preserve  harmony,  and  hoped  his  answer  would  prove 
satisfactory.  The  Leopard,  shortly  after  this  answer  was  received  by  her 
commander,  ranged  along  side  of  the  Chesapeake,  and  commenced  a  heavy 
fire  upon  her.  The  Chesapeake,  unprepared  for  action,  made  no  resistance, 
hut  having  suffered  much  damage,  and  lost  three  men  killed,  and  eighteen 
wounded,  commodore  Barron  ordered  his  colors  to  be  struck,  ana*  sent  a 
lieutenant  on  board  the  Leopard,  to  inform  her  commander  that  he  con- 
sidered the  Chesapeake  her  prize.     The  commander  of  the  Leopard  sent 


T40  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Tin  officer  on  board,  who  took  possession  of  the  Chesapeake,  mustered  he» 
crew,  and,  carrying  off  four  of  her  men,  abandoned  the  ship.  Commodore 
Barron,  finding  that  the  Chesapeake  was  very  much  injured,  returned,  with 
the  advice  of  his  officers,  to  Hampton  roads.  On  receiving  information  of 
this  outrage,  the  president,  by  proclamation,  interdicted  the  harbors  and 
waters  of  the  United  States  to  all  armed  British  vessels,  forbade  intercourse 
with  them,  and  ordered  a  sufficient  force  for  the  protection  of  Norfolk,  and 
such  other  preparations  as  the  occasion  appeared  to  require.  An  armed 
vessel  of  the  United  States  was  despatched  with  instructions  to  the  Ameri- 
can minister  at  London,  to  call  on  the  British  government  for  the  satisfaction 
und  security  which  this  outrage  required. 

Buonaparte  having  declared  his  purpose  of  enforcing  with  rigor  the  Berlin 
decree  ;  the  British  government  having  solemnly  asserted  the  right  of  search 
and  impressment,  and  having  intimated  their  intention  to  adopt  measures 
in  retaliation  of  the  French  decree,  the  president  recommended  to  congress 
that  the  seamen,  ships,  and  merchandise  of  the  United  States  should  be 
detained  in  port  to  preserve  them  from  the  dangers  which  threatened  them 
on  the  ocean ;  and  a  law  laying  an  indefinite  embargo  was  in  consequence 
enacted.  A  few  days  only  had  elapsed  when  information  was  received 
that  Great  Britain  had  prohibited  neutrals,  except  upon  most  injurious 
conditions,  from  trading  with  France  or  her  allies,  comprising  nearly  every 
maritime  nation  of  Europe.  This  was  followed  in  a  few  weeks  by  a  de- 
cree issued  by  Buonaparte,  at  Milan,  declaring  that  every  neutral  vessel 
which  should  submit  to  be  visited  by  a  British  ship,  or  comply  with  the 
terms  demanded,  should  be  confiscated,  if  afterwards  found  in  his  ports,  or 
taken  by  his  cruisers.  Thus,  at  the  date  of  the  embargo,  were  orders  and 
decrees  in  existence  rendering  liable  to  capture  almost  every  American 
vessel  sailing  on  the  ocean.  In  the  New  England  states,  the  embargo, 
withholding  the  merchant  from  a  career  in  which  he  had  been  highly 
prosperous,  and  in  which  he  imagined  that  he  might  still  be  favored  by 
fortune,  occasioned  discontent  and  clamor.  The  federalists,  more  nume- 
rous there  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  Union,  pronounced  it  a  measure 
unwise  and  oppressive.  These  representations,  and  the  distress  which  the 
people  endured,  induced  a  zealous  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  go- 
vernment. 

The  president,  in  his  message  on  the  opening  of  the  tenth  congress, 
stated  the  continued  disregard  shown  by  the  belligerent  nations  to  neutral 
rights,  so  destructive  to  the  American  commerce ;  and  referred  it  to  the 
wisdom  of  congress  to  decide  on  the  course  best  adapted  to  such  a  state  of 
things.  '  With  the  Barbary  powers,'  he  said,  '  we  continue  in  harmony, 
with  the  exception  of  an  unjustifiable  proceeding  of  the  dey  of  Algiers 
towards  our  consul  to  that  regency,'  the  character  and  circumstances  of 
which  he  laid  before  congress.  'With  our  Indian  neighbors  the  public 
peace  has  been  steadily  maintained.  From  a  conviction  that  we  consider 
them  as  a  part  of  ourselves,  and  cherish  with  sincerity  their  rights  and 
interests,  the  attachment  of  the  Indian  tribes  is  gaining  strength  daily,  is 
extending  from  the  nearer  to  the  more  remote,  and  will  amply  requite  us 
for  the  justice  and  friendship  practised  towards  them.  Husbandry  and 
household  manufacture  are  advancing  among  them,  more  rapidly  with  the 
southern  than  northern  tribes,  from  circumstances  of  soil  and  climate  ;  and 
one  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Cherokee  nation  has  now  under  con* 


HISTORY.  741 

•iteration  to  solicit  the  friendship  of  the  United  States,  and  to  be  identified 
with  us  in  laws  and  government  in  such  progressive  manner  as  we  shall 
tnink  best.' 

Mr.  Jefferson,  following  and  confirming  the  example  of  Washington, 
determined  not  to  continue  in  office  for  a  longer  term  than  eight  years. 
•Never  did  a  prisoner,'  says  the  president  of  the  American  republic,  're- 
leased from  his  chains,  feel  such  relief  as  I  shall  on  shaking  off  the  shackles 
of  power.  Nature  intended  me  for  the  tranquil  pursuits  of  science,  by 
rendering  them  my  supreme  delight.  But  the  enormities  of  the  times  in 
which  I  have  lived  have  forced  me  to  take  a  part  in  resisting  them,  and  to 
commit  myself  on  the  boisterous  ocean  of  political  passions.  I  thank  God 
for  the  opportunity  of  retiring  from  them  without  censure,  and  carrying 
with  me  the  most  consoling  proofs  of  public  approbation.  I  leave  every 
thing  in  the  hands  of  men  so  able  to  take  care  of  them,  that  if  we  are  des- 
tined to  meet  misfortunes  it  will  be  because  no  human  wisdom  couhj 
avert  them.' 

ADMINISTRATION    OF    MR.  MADISON. 

Mr.  Jefferson  was  succeeded  in  the  presidency  by  Mr.  Madison.  One 
of  the  first  acts  of  congress  under  the  new  president  was  to  repeal  the  em- 
bargo ;  but  at  the  same  time  to  prohibit  all  intercourse  with  France  and 
England. 

In  the  non-intercourse  law  a  provision  was  inserted,  that  if  either  nation 
should  revoke  her  hostile  edicts,  and  the  president  should  announce  that 
fact  by  proclamation,  then  the  law  should  cease  to  be  in  force  in  regard  to 
the  nation  so  revoking.  On  the  23d  of  April,  Mr.  Erskine,  minister  pleni- 
potentiary from  his  Britannic  majesty  to  the  United  States,  pledged  his 
court  to  repeal  its  anti-neutral  decrees  by  the  10th  of  June ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  arrangement  now  made  with  the  British  minister,  the  presi- 
dent proclaimed  that  commercial  intercourse  would  be  renewed  on  that 
day ;  but  this  arrangement  was  disavowed  by  the  ministry ;  and,  in  Octo- 
ber, Mr.  Erskine  was  replaced  by  Mr.  Jackson,  who  soon  giving  offence  to- 
the  American  government,  all  farther  intercourse  with  him  was  refused, 
and  he  was  recalled. 

The  Rambouillet  decree,  alleged  to  be  designed  to  retaliate  the  act  of 
eongress  which  forbade  French  vessels  to  enter  the  ports  of  the  United 
States,  was  issued  by  Buonaparte  on  the  23d  of  March.  By  this  decree,, 
all  American  vessels  and  cargoes,  arriving  in  any  of  the  ports  of  France,  or 
of  countries  occupied  by  French  troops,  were  ordered  to  be  seized  and 
condemned. 

On  the  1st  of  May  congress  passed  an  act,  excluding  British  and  French 
armed  vessels  from  the  waters  of  the  United  States ;  but  providing,  that 
if  either  of  the  above  nations  should  modify  its  edicts  before  the  3d  of 
March,  1811,  so  that  they  should  cease  to  violate  neutral  commerce,  of 
which  fact  the  president  was  to  give  notice  by  proclamation,  and  the  other 
nation  should  not,  within  three  months  after,  pursue  a  similar  course,  com* 
ciercial  intercourse  with  the  first  might  be  renewed,  but  not  with  the  other. 

In  August  the  French  government  assured  Mr.  Armstrong,  the  American 
envoy  at  Paris,  that  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  were  revoked,  the  revo- 
cation to  take  effect  on  the  first  day  of  November  ensuing.     Confiding  ir> 


742  book  or  the  united  states. 

this  assurance,  the  president,  on  the  second  day  of  November,  issued  his 
proclamation,  declaring  that  unrestrained  commerce  with  France  was  allow* 
ed,  but  that  all  intercourse  with  Great  Britain  was  prohibited. 

Great  Britain,  having  previously  expressed  a  willingness  to  repeal  her 
orders  whenever  France  should  repeal  her  decrees,  was  now  called  upon, 
by  the  American  envoy  to  fulfil  that  engagement.  The  British  ministry 
objected,  however,  that  the  French  decrees  could  not  be  considered  as  re- 
pealed, a  letter  from  the  minister  of  state  not  being,  for  that  purpose,  a 
document  of  sufficient  authority  ;  and  still  persisted  to  enforce  the  orders  in 
council.  For  this  purpose  British  ships  of  war  were  stationed  before  the 
principal  harbors  of  the  United  States.  All  American  merchantmen,  de- 
parting or  returning,  were  boarded,  searched,  and  many  of  them  sent  to 
British  ports  as  legal  prizes.  The  contempt  in  which  the  British  officers 
held  the  republican  navy,  in  one  instance,  led  to  an  action.  Commodore 
Rogers,  in  the  President  frigate,  met  in  the  evening  a  vessel  on  the  coast 
of  Virginia  ;  he  hailed  ;  but,  instead  of  receiving  an  answer,  was  hailed  in 
turn,  and  a  shot  was  fired,  which  struck  the  main-mast  of  the  President. 
The  fire  was  instantly  returned  by  the  commodore,  and  continued  for  a 
few  minutes,  when,  finding  his  antagonist  was  of  inferior  force,  and  that 
her  guns  were  almost  silenced,  he  desisted.  On  hailing  again,  an  answer 
was  given,  that  the  ship  was  the  British  sloop  of  war  Little  Belt,  of  eighteen 
guns.  Thirty-two  of  her  men  were  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  ship  was 
much  disabled. 

For  several  years  the  Indian  tribes  residing  near  the  sources  of  the 
Mississippi  had  occupied  themselves  in  murdering  and  robbing  the  white 
settlers  in  their  vicinity.  At  length,  the  frontier  inhabitants  being  seriously 
alarmed  by  their  hostile  indications,  in  the  autumn  of  1811  governor  Har- 
rison resolved  to  move  towards  the  Prophet's  town,  on  the  Wabash,  with  a 
body  of  Kentucky  and  Indiana  militia,  and  the  fourth  United  States  regi- 
ment, under  colonel  Boyd,  to  demand  satisfaction  of  the  Indians,  and  to 
put  a  stop  to  their  threatened  hostilities.  His  expedition  was  made  early 
in  November.  On  his  approach  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Prophet's  town, 
the  principal  chiefs  came  out  with  offers  of  peace  and  submission,  and 
requested  the  governor  to  encamp  for  the  night ;  but  this  was  only  a  treache- 
rous artifice.  At  four  in  the  morning  the  camp  was  furiously  assailed, 
and  a  bloody  contest  ensued ;  the  Indians  were  however  repulsed.  The 
loss  on  the  part  of  the  Americans  was  sixty-two  killed,  and  one  hundred 
and  twenty-six  wounded,  and  a  still  greater  number  on  the  side  of  the 
Indians.  Governor  Harrison,  having  destroyed  the  Prophet's  town,  and 
established  forts,  returned  to  Vincennes. 

In  November  reparation  was  made  by  the  British  for  the  attack  on  the 
Chesapeake.  Mr.  Foster,  the  British  envoy,  informed  the  secretary  of  the 
United  States,  that  he  was  instructed  to  repeat  to  the  American  govern- 
ment the  prompt  disavowal  made  by  his  majesty,  on  being  apprized  of  the 
unauthorized  act  of  the  officer  in  command  of  his  naval  forces  on  the  coast 
of  America,  whose  recall  from  a  highly  important  and  honorable  command 
immediately  ensued,  as  a  mark  of  his  majesty's  disapprobation ;  that  he 
was  authorized  to  offer,  in  addition  to  that  disavowal  on  the  part  of  his 
royal  highness,  the  immediate  restoration,  as  far  as  circumstances  would 
admit,  of  the  men  who,  in  consequence  of  admiral  Berkeley's  orders,  were 
forcibly  taken  out  of  the  Chesapeake,  to  the  vessel  from  which  they  were 


HISTORY.  743 

taken ;  or,  if  that  ship  were  no  longer  in  commission,  to  such  seaport  of 
the  United  States  as  the  American  government  may  name  for  the  purpose  ; 
and  that  he  was  also  authorized  to  offer  to  the  American  government  a 
suitable  pecuniary  provision  for  the  sufferers,  in  consequence  of  the  attack 
on  the  Chesapeake,  including  the  families  of  those  seamen  who  fell  in  the 
action,  and  of  the  wounded  survivors.  The  president  acceded  to  these 
propositions ;  and  the  officer  commanding  the  Chesapeake,  then  lying  in 
the  harbor  of  Boston,  was  instructed  to  receive  the  men  who  were  to  be 
restored  to  that  ship.  The  British  envoy,  however,  could  give  no  assu- 
rance that  his  government  was  disposed  to  make  a  satisfactory  arrangement 
of  the  subject  of  impressment,  or  to  repeal  the  orders  in  council.  These 
orders,  on  the  contrary,  continued  to  be  enforced  with  rigor ;  and,  on  the 
restoration  of  a  free  commerce  with  France,  a  large  number  of  American 
vessels,  laden  with  rich  cargoes,  and  destined  to  her  ports,  fell  into  the 
power  of  British  cruisers,  which,  since  1803,  had  captured  nine  hundred 
American  vessels. 

Early  in  November,  1811,  president  Madison  summoned  the  congress. 
His  message  indicating  an  apprehension  of  hostilities  with  Great  Britain, 
the  committee  of  foreign  relations  in  the  house  of  representatives  reported 
resolutions  for  filling  up  the  ranks  of  the  army  ;  for  raising  an  additional 
force  of  ten  thousand  men ;  for  authorizing  the  president  to  accept  the 
services  of  fifty  thousand  volunteers,  and  for  ordering  out  the  militia  when 
he  should  judge  it  necessary ;  for  repairing  the  navy  ;  and  for  authorizing 
the  arming  of  merchantmen  in  self-defence.  A  bill  from  the  senate,  for 
raising  twenty-five  thousand  men,  after  much  discussion,  was  also  agreed 
to  by  the  house. 

The  American  congress,  although  continuing  the  preparations  for  war, 
still  cherished  the  hope  that  a  change  of  policy  in  Europe  would  render 
unnecessary  an  appeal  to  arms  till  May  in  the  following  year.  Towards 
the  close  of  that  season,  the  Hornet  arrived  from  London,  bringing  informa 
tion  that  no  prospect  existed  of  a  favorable  change.  On  the  1st  of  June, 
the  president  sent  a  message  to  congress,  recounting  the  wrongs  received 
from  Great  Britain,  and  submitting  the  question,  whether  the  United  States 
should  continue  to  endure  them,  or  resort  to  war.  The  message  was  con- 
sidered with  closed  doors.  On  the  18th,  an  act  was  passed,  declaring  war 
against  Great  Britain;  and  the  next  day  a  proclamation  was  issued. 
Against  this  declaration,  however,  the  representatives  belonging  to  the 
federal  party  presented  a  solemn  protest,  which  was  written  with  great 
ability. 

At  the  time  of  the  declaration  of  war,  general  Hull  was  also  governor  of 
the  Michigan  territory,  of  which  Detroit  is  the  capital.  On  the  12th  of 
July,  with  two  thousand  regulars  and  volunteers,  he  crossed  the  river 
dividing  the  United  States  from  Canada,  apparently  intending  to  attack 
Maiden,  and  thence  to  proceed  to  Montreal.  Information  was,  however, 
received,  that  Mackinaw,  an  American  post  above  Detroit,  had  surrendered 
to  a  large  body  of  British  and  Indians,  who  were  rushing  down  the  river 
in  numbers  sufficient  to  overwhelm  the  American  forces.  Panic-struck, 
general  Hull  hastened  back  to  Detroit.  General  Brock,  the  commander  at 
Maiden,  pursued  him,  and  erected  batteries  opposite  Detroit.  The  next 
day,  meeting  with  no  resistance,  general  Brock  resolved  to  march  directly 
forward  and  assault  the  fort.     The  American  troops  awaited  the  approach 


744  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  the  enemy,  and  anticipated  victory ;  but,  to  their  dismay,  general  Hull 
opened  a  correspondence,  which  ended  in  the  surrender  of  the  army,  and 
of  the  territory  of  Michigan.  An  event  so  disgraceful,  occurring  in  a 
quarter  where  success  was  confidently  anticipated,  caused  the  greatest  mor- 
tification and  amazement  throughout  the  Union. 

-  General  Van  Rensselaer,  of  the  New  York  militia,  had  the  command  of 
the  troops  which  were  called  the  army  of  the  centre.  His  head-quarters 
were  at  Lewistown,  on  the  river  Niagara,  and  on  the  opposite  side  was 
Queenstown,  a  fortified  British  post.  The  militia  displaying  great  eager- 
ness to  be  led  against  the  enemy,  the  general  determined  to  cross  the  riveT 
at  the  head  of  about  one  thousand  men ;  though  successful  at  first,  he  was 
compelled,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  engagement,  to  surrender.  General 
Brock,  the  British  commander,  fell  in  rallying  his  troops. 

The  army  of  the  north,  which  was  under  the  immediate  command  of 
general  Dearborn,  was  stationed  at  Greenbush,  near  Albany,  and  at  Platts- 
burgh,  on  lake  Champlain.  From  the  latter  post,  a  detachment  marched 
a  short  distance  into  Canada,  surprised  a  small  body  of  British  and  Indians, 
and  destroyed  a  considerable  quantity  of  public  stores.  Other  movements! 
were  anxiously  expected  by  the  people  ;  but,  after  the  misfortunes  of  Detroit 
and  Niagara,  the  general  deemed  it  inexpedient  to  engage  in  any  important 
enterprise. 

While,  on  land,  defeat  attended  the  arms  of  the  republic,  on  the  ocean 
we  gained  victories,  which  compensated  our  loss,  and  gained  us  immortal 
glory.  On  the  19th  of  August,  captain  Hull,  commanding  the  Constitution, 
of  forty-four  guns,  fell  in  with  the  British  frigate  Le  Guerriere.  She  ad- 
vanced towards  the  Constitution,  firing  broadsides  at  intervals;  the  Ameri- 
can reserved  her  fire  till  she  had  approached  within  half  pistol-shot,  when  a 
tremendous  cannonade  was  directed  upon  her,  and  in  thirty  minutes,  every 
mast  and  nearly  every  spar  being  shot  away,  captain  Dacres  struck  his 
flag.  Of  the  crew,  fifty  were  killed  and  sixty-four  wounded  ;  while  the 
Constitution  had  only  seven  killed  and  seven  wounded.  The  Guerriere 
received  so  much  injury,  that  it  was  thought  to  be  impossible  to  get  her 
into  port,  and  she  was  burned.  Captain  Hull,  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States,  was  welcomed'  with  enthusiasm  by  his  grateful  and  admiring 
countrymen.  The  vast  difference  in  the  number  of  killed  and  wounded 
certainly  evinced  great  skill,  as  well  as  bravery,  on  the  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can seamen.  But  this  was  the  first  only  of  a  series  of  naval  victories.  On 
the  18th  of  October,  captain  Jones,  in  the  Wasp,  of  eighteen  guns,  captured 
the  Frolic,  of  twenty-two,  after  a  bloody  conflict  of  three-quarters  of  an 
hour.  In  this  action  the  Americans  obtained  a  victory  over  a  superior 
force;  and,  on  their  part,  but  eight  were  killed  and  wounded,  while  on 
that  of  the  enemy  about  eighty.  The  Wasp  was  unfortunately  captured, 
soon  after  her  victory,  by  a  British  ship  of  the  line.  On  the  25th,  the 
frigate  United  States,  commanded  by  captain  Decatur,  captured  the  British 
frigate  Macedonian.  In  this  instance,  also,  the  disparity  of  loss  was  asto- 
nishingly great :  on  the  part  of  the  enemy,  a  hundred  and  four  were  killed 
and  wounded ;  on  that  of  the  Americans,  but  eleven.  The  United  States 
brought  her  prize  safely  to  New  York.  A  most  desperate  action  was 
fought  on  the  29th  of  December,  between  the  Constitution,  of  forty-four 
£Tuns,  then  commanded  by  captain  Bainbridge,  and  the  British  frigate  Java, 
of  thirty-eight.     The  combat  continued  more  than  three  hours ;  nor  did! 


HISTORY  745 

the  Java  strike  till  she  was  reduced  to  a  mere  wreck.  Of  her  crew,  a 
hundred  and  sixty-one  were  killed  and  wounded,  while  of  that  of  the  Con- 
stitution there  were  only  thirty-four. 

These  naval  victories  were  peculiarly  gratifying  to  the  feelings  of  the 
Americans ;  they  were  gained  in  the  midst  of  disasters  on  land,  and  by 
that  class  of  citizens  whose  rights  had  been  violated ;  they  were  gained 
over  a  nation  whom  long  continued  success  had  taught  to  consider  them- 
selves lords  of  the  sea,  and  who  had  confidently  affirmed  that  the  whole 
American  navy  would  soon  be  swept  from  the  ocean.  Many  British 
merchantmen  were  also  captured,  both  by  the  American  navy  and  by 
privateers,  which  issued  from  almost  every  port,  and  were  remarkably 
successful.  The  number  of  prizes  made  during  the  first  seven  months  of 
the  War  exceeded  five  hundred. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  session  of  congress  held  in  the  autumn  of 
1S12,  the  president,  in  his  message,  stated  that  immediately  after  the  de- 
claration of  war,  he  communicated  to  the  British  government  the  terms  on 
which  its  progress  might  be  arrested  ;  that  these  terms  were,  the  repeal  of 
the  orders  in  council,  the  discharge  of  American  seamen,  and  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  practice  of  impressment ;  and  that  the  ministry  had  declined 
to  accede  to  his  offers.  He  also  stated  that,  at  an  early  period  of  the  war, 
he  had  received  official  information  of  the  repeal  of  the  orders  in  council ; 
that  two  propositions  for  an  armistice  had  been  made  to  him,  both  of  which 
he  had  rejected,  as  they  could  not  have  been  accepted  without  conceding 
to  Great  Britain  the  right  of  impressment.  The  rejection  of  these  propo- 
sitions was  approved  by  the  national  representatives,  who,  far  from  aban- 
doning the  ground  they  had  taken,  adopted  more  vigorous  measures  for  tho 
prosecution  of  the  war. 

While  the  war  was  proceeding  in  America,  a  friendly  power  abroad 
interposed  for  its  termination.  Soon  after  the  spring  session  of  congress, 
an  offer  was  communicated  from  the  emperor  of  Russia  of  his  mediation, 
as  the  common  friend  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  facilitating  a  peace  between  them.  The  offer  was  immediately 
accepted  by  the  American  government,  and  provision  made  for  the  con- 
templated negotiation.  Albert  Gallatin,  James  A.  Bayard,  and  John 
Quincy  Adams,  were  appointed  commissioners,  and  invested  with  the 
requisite  powers  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace  with  persons  clothed  with 
like  powers  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  They  were  also  authorized  to 
enter  into  such  conventional  regulations  of  the  commerce  between  the  two 
countries  as  might  be  mutually  advantageous.  The  two  first-named  envoys 
proceeded  to  join  their  colleague  at  St.  Petersburgh,  where  he  then  was  as 
resident  minister  from  the  United  States.  A  commission  was  also  given 
to  the  envoys,  authorizing  them  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  commerce  with 
Russia,  with  a  view  to  strengthen  the  amicable  relations,  and  improve  the 
beneficial  intercourse,  between  the  two  countries. 

On  the  24th  of  May,  congress  was  convened  by  proclamation  of  the  pre- 
sident. Laws  were  enacted,  imposing  a  direct  tax  of  three  millions  of 
dollars ;  authorizing  the  collection  of  various  internal  duties ;  providing  for 
a  loan  of  seven  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars  ;  and  prohibiting  the  merchant 
vessels  of  the  United  States  from  sailing  under  British  licenses.  Near  the 
close  of  the  session,  a  committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  subject  mads 
94  63 


746  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

a  long  report  upon  the  spirit  and  manner  in  which  the  war  had  been  con- 
ducted by  the  British. 

The  scene  of  the  campaign  of  1813  was  principally  in  the  north,  towards 
Canada.  Brigadier-general  Winchester,  of  the  United  States  army,  and 
nearly  five  hundred  men,  officers  and  soldiers,  were  made  prisoners  at 
Frenchtown,  by  a  division  of  the  British  army  from  Detroit,  with  their 
Indian  allies,  under  colonel  Proctor.  Colonel  Proctor  leaving  the  wounded 
Americans  without  a  guard,  the  Indians  returned,  and  deeds  of  horror  fol- 
lowed. The  wounded  officers  were  dragged  from  the  houses,  killed,  and 
scalped  in  the  streets.  The  buildings  were  set  on  fire.  Some  who  at- 
tempted to  escape  were  forced  back  into  the  flames,  while  others  were  put 
to  death  by  the  tomahawk,  and  left  shockingly  mangled  in  the  highway. 
The  infamy  of  this  butchery  does  not  fall  upon  the  perpetrators  alone,  but 
extends  to  those  who  were  able,  and  were  bound  by  a  solemn  engagement, 
to  restrain  them.  The  battle  and  massacre  at  Frenchtown  clothed  Ken- 
tucky and  Ohio  in  mourning.  Other  volunteers,  indignant  at  the  treachery 
and  cruelty  of  their  foes,  hastened  to  the  aid  of  Harrison.  He  marched  to 
the  rapids  of  the  Miami,  where  he  erected  a  fort,  which  he  called  fort 
Meigs,  in  honor  of  the  governor  of  Ohio.  On  the  1st  of  May  it  was  in- 
vested by  a  large  number  of  Indians,  and  by  a  party  of  British  troops  from 
Maiden,  the  whole  commanded  by  colonel  Proctor.  An  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  raise  the  siege  was  made  by  general  Clay,  at  the  head  of  twelve 
hundred  Kentuckians ;  but  the  fort  continued  to  be  defended  with  bravery 
and  skill.  The  Indians,  unaccustomed  to  sieges,  became  weary  and  dis- 
contented ;  and,  on  the  8th  of  May,  they  deserted  their  allies.  The  Bri- 
tish, despairing  of  success,  then  made  a  precipitate  retreat. 

On  the  northern  frontier  a  body  of  troops  had  been  assembled,  under  the 
command  of  general  Dearborn,  at  Sackett's  Harbor,  and  great  exertions 
were  made  by  commodore  Chauncey  to  build  and  equip  a  squadron  on 
lake  Ontario,  sufficiently  powerful  to  contend  with  that  of  the  British.  By 
the  25th  of  April  the  naval  preparations  were  so  far  completed,  that  the 
general  and  seventeen  thousand  troops  were  conveyed  across  the  lake  to 
the  attack  of  York,  the  capital  of  Upper  Canada.  On  the  27th,  an  advan- 
ced party,  commanded  by  brigadier-general  Pike,  who  was  born  in  a  camp, 
and  bred  a  soldier  from  his  birth,  landed,  although  opposed  at  the  water's 
edge  by  a  superior  force.  After  a  short  but  severe  conflict,  the  British 
were  driven  to  their  fortifications.  The  rest  of  the  troops  having  landed, 
the  whole  party  pressed  forward,  carried  the  first  battery  by  assault,  and 
were  moving  towards  the  main  works,  when  the  English  magazine  blew 
up,  with  a  tremendous  explosion,  hurling  upon  the  advancing  troops  im- 
mense quantities  of  stone  and  timber.  Numbers  were  killed  ;  the  gallant 
Pike  received  a  mortal  wound ;  the  troops  halted  for  a  moment,  but,  reco- 
vering from  the  shock,  again  pressed  forward,  and  soon  gained  possession 
of  the  town.  Of  the  British  troops,  one  hundred  were  killed,  nearly  three 
hundred  were  wounded,  and  the  same  number  made  prisoners. 

The  object  of  the  expedition  attained,  the  squadron  and  troops  returned 
to  Sackett's  Harbor,  and  subsequently  sailed  to  fort  George,  situated  at  the 
head  of  the  lake.  After  a  warm  engagement,  the  British  abandoned  the 
fort,  and  retired  to  the  heights  at  the  head  of  Burlington  bay. 

While  the  greater  part  of  the  American  army  was  thus  employed,  the 
British  made  an  attack  upon  the  important  post  of  Sackett's  Harbor.     Orj 


fcitfroftY.  747 

tfie  27th  of  May,  their  squadron  appeared  before  the  town.  Alarm  guns 
instantly  assembled  the  citizens  of  the  neighborhood.  General  Brown's 
force  amounted  to  about  one  thousand  men ;  a  slight  breastwork  was 
hastily  thrown  up  at  the  only  place  where  the  British  could  land,  and  be- 
hind this  he  placed  the  militia,  the  regulars,  under  colonel  Backus,  forming 
a  second  line.  On  the  morning  of  the  29th,  one  thousand  British  troops 
landed  from  the  squadron,  and  advanced  towards  the  breastwork;  the 
militia  gave  way,  but  by  the  bravery  of  the  regulars,  under  the  skilful 
arrangement  of  general  Brown,  the  British  were  repulsed,  and  re-embarked 
so  hastily  as  to  leave  behind  most  of  their  wounded. 

The  sea-coast  was  harassed  by  predatory  warfare,  carried  on  by  large 
detachments  from  the  powerful  navy  of  Great  Britain.  One  squadron, 
stationed  in  Delaware  bay,  captured  and  burnt  every  merchant  vessel 
which  came  within  its  reach,  while  a  more  powerful  squadron,  commanded 
by  admiral  Cockburn,  destroyed  the  farm-houses  and  gentlemen's  seats 
along  the  shore  of  Chesapeake  bay.  Frenchtown,  Havre-de-Grace,  Fre- 
dericktown,  and  Georgetown  were  sacked  and  burnt.  Norfolk  was  saved 
from  a  similar  fate  by  the  determined  bravery  of  a  small  force  stationed  on 
Craney  island,  in  the  harbor.  A  furious  attack  was  made  upon  Hampton, 
which,  notwithstanding  the  gallant  resistance  of  its  small  garrison,  was 
captured. 

The  ocean  was  the  theatre  of  sanguinary  conflicts.  Captain  Lawrence, 
In  the  sloop  of  war  Hornet,  on  the  23d  of  February,  met  the  British  brig 
Peacock,  and  a  fierce  combat  ensued.  In  less  than  fifteen  minutes  the 
Peacock  struck  her  colors,  displaying  at  the  same  time  a  signal  of  distress. 
The  victors  hastened  to  the  relief  of  the  vanquished ;  the  same  strength 
which  had  been  exerted  to  conquer  was  equally  ready  to  save ;  but  the 
Peacock  sunk  before  all  her  crew  could  be  removed,  carrying  down  nine 
British  seamen,  and  three  brave  and  generous  Americans.  On  his  return 
to  the  United  States,  captain  Lawrence  was  promoted  to  the  command  of 
the  frigate  Chesapeake,  then  in  the  harbor  of  Boston.  For  several  weeks 
the  British  frigate  Shannon,  of  superior  force,  had  been  cruising  before  the 
port ;  and  captain  Broke,  her  commander,  had  announced  his  wish  to  meet, 
in  single  combat,  an  American  frigate.  Inflamed  by  this  challenge,  captain 
Lawrence,  although  his  crew  was  just  enlisted,  set  sail  on  the  1st  of  June 
to  seek  the  Shannon.  Towards  evening  of  the  same  day  they  met,  and 
instantly  engaged,  with  unexampled  fury.  In  a  very  few  minutes,  and  in 
quick  succession,  the  sailing  master  of  the  Chesapeake  was  killed,  captain 
Lawrence  and  three  lieutenants  were  severely  wounded,  her  rigging  was 
60  cut  to  pieces  that  she  fell  on  board  the  Shannon,  captain  Lawrence 
received  a  second  and  mortal  wound,  and  was  carried  below ;  at  this  instant, 
captain  Broke,  at  the  head  of  his  marines,  gallantly  boarded  the  Chesa- 
peake, when  resistance  ceased,  and  the  American  flag  was  struck  by  the 
British.  Of  the  crew  of  the  Shannon  twenty-four  were  killed  and  fifty-six 
wounded.  Of  that  of  the  Chesapeake,  forty-eight  were  killed  and  nearly 
one  hundred  wounded.  The  youthful  and  intrepid  Lawrence  was  lament- 
ed, with  sorrow  deep,  sincere,  and  lasting.* 

*  The  capture  of  this  ill-fated  ship  by  the  English  frigate  Shannon  was  mainly  owing 
to  a  bugleman's  desertion  of  his  quarters.  Notwithstanding  the  fall  of  captain  Law- 
rence and  the  principal  officers  of  the  Chesapeake  early  in  the  action,  had  the  buglemau 


748  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  next  encounter  at  sea  was  between  the  American  brig  Argus  and 
the  British  brig  Pelican,  in  which  the  latter  was  victorious.  Soon  after, 
the  American  brig  Enterprise,  commanded  by  lieutenant  Burrows,  captured 
the  British  brig  Boxer,  commanded  by  captain  Blyth.  Both  commanders 
were  killed  in  the  action,  and  were  buried,  each  by  the  other's  side,  in 
Portland. 

While  each  nation  was  busily  employed  in  equipping  a  squadron  on 
lake  Erie,  general  Clay  remained  inactive  at  fort  Meigs.  About  the  last 
of  July,  a  large  number  of  British  and  Indians  appeared  before  the  fort, 
hoping  to  entice  the  garrison  to  a  general  action  in  the  field.  After  wait- 
ing a  few  days  without  succeeding,  they  decamped,  and  proceeded  to  fort 
Stephenson,  on  the  river  Sandusky.  This  fort  was  little  more  than  a 
picketing,  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  and  the  garrison  consisted   of  but  one 

whose  duty  it  was  to  call  the  boarders  sounded  his  horn  when  ordered,  the  crew  would 
have  promptly  repaired  to  the  deck,  and  the  issue  of  the  engagement  been,  in  all  proba- 
bility, different.  As  it  was,  the  usual  signal  was  not  sounded  that  the  enemy  were 
boarding,  and  when  some  midshipmen  ran  below  to  pass  the  word,  the  seamen  knew 
not  what  was  meant,  were  thrown  into  confusion,  and  abandoned  their  quarters. 

Previous  to  the  two  ships  falling  foul  of  each  other,  the  fire  of  the  Chesapeake  made 
unexampled  destruction  on  board  the  Shannon.  All  the  damage  that  the  enemy  receiv- 
ed was  before  they  boarded.  In  the  short  space  of  eight  minutes,  the  Shannon  was  so 
cut  in  her  hull  by  the  Chesapeake's  broadsides  that  it  was  with  difficulty  she  could  be 
kept  afloat  during  that  night,  and  she  had  eighty-eight  of  her  crew  killed  and  wounded, 
while  the  Chesapeake  was  comparatively  uninjured. 

The  Chesapeake  was  rated  as  a  thirty-six  gun  frigate  but  mounted  forty-nine ;  the 
Shannon  mounted  fifty-two  carriage  guns  and  had  a  picked  crew  of  four  hundred  men. 
The  seamen  of  the  Chesapeake  were  fresh  recruits,  and  little  or  no  opportunity  had  been 
afforded  to  exercise  and  discipline  them. 

It  was  on  the  morning  of  the  first  of  June  that  the  Shannon  appeared  off  our  harbor 
and  tauntingly  displayed  her  colors.  The  Chesapeake  was  lying  at  anchor  below  fort 
Independence.  As  soon  as  the  enemy's  flag  was  seen,  she  fired  a  gun  and  ran  up  the 
American  flag.  Preparation  was  at  once  made  for  sailing,  and  when  the  tide  served, 
she  got  under  way.  The  Shannon  stood  immediately  down  the  bay,  followed  by  the 
Chesapeake  under  a  press  of  sail. 

Every  elevated  spot  in  Boston  which  commanded  a  view  of  the  sea  was  crowded 
with  anxious  spectators.  But  the  ship  proceeded  so  far  to  the  eastward  that  the  conflict 
could  not  be  seen.  A  large  number  of  boats  sailed  out  to  witness  the  result,  and  brought 
back  the  melancholy  tidings,  that  when  the  smoke  of  the  cannonade  had  dispersed,  the 
English  colors  were  seen  flying  on  board  the  Chesapeake,  and  soon  after  both  vessels 
standing  towards  Halifax.  The  suspense  that  ensued  for  more  than  a  fortnight  was 
painful  in  the  extreme.  The  fate  of  no  one  was  known,  though  it  was  generally  anti- 
cipated from  the  intrepid  character  of  captain  Lawrence  that  he  had  fallen  a  martyr  to 
his  country. 

Captain  Lawrence  was  first  wounded  in  the  leg,  but  he  refused  to  be  carried  below 
until  he  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  grape-shot.  He  continued,  however,  to  issue  his 
orders  from  the  cockpit ;  '  Fight  her  till  she  sinks — keep  the  guns  going  •'  and  when 
told  that  the  enemy  had  carried  the  upper  deck,  he  sent  that  emphatic  and  memorable 
message,  'Don't  give  up  the  ship.'  When  apprized  of  the  unhappy  issue,  he  exclaimed, 
'  The  Shannon  was  whipped  when  Heft.' 

Captain  Broke,  of  the  Shannon,  was  dangerously  wounded  at  the  close  of  the  action 
by  the  stroke  of  a  sabre.  He  was  delirious  for  a  long  period,  but  recovered  and  went 
to  England.  He  lived  long  enough  to  be  made  an  admiral,  but  within  a  year  or  two 
has  deceased.  He  was  a  generous  as  well  as  brave  officer,  and  never  would  have  allow- 
ed the  carnage  to  take  place  which  was  committed  on  board  the  Chesapeake,  after  her 
surrender,  had  he  been  aware  of  it.  If  it  be  true,  as  there  is  good  reason  to  believe, 
that  he  was  wounded  while  stooping  to  save  the  life  of  one  of  the  Chesapeake's  crew 
whom  one  of  his  men  was  mangling,  his  memory  deserves  to  be  embalmed,  as  well  by 
Americans  as  by  his  countrymen. — Boston  Atlas. 


HISTORY.  749 

hundred  and  sixty  men,  who  were  commanded  by  major  Croghan,  a  youth 
of  twenty-one.  The  force  of  the  assailants  was  estimated  at  about  four 
hundred  in  uniform,  and  as  many  Indians ;  they  were  repulsed,  and  their 
loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  is  supposed  to  have  exceeded 
one  hundred  and  fifty  ;  those  of  the  remainder  who  were  not  able  to  escape 
were  taken  off  during  the  night  by  the  Indians.  The  whole  loss  of  major 
Croghan  during  the  siege  was  one  killed  and  seven  slightly  wounded. 
About  three  the  next  morning  the  British  sailed  down  the  river,  leaving 
behind  them  a  boat  containing  clothing  and  considerable  military  stores. 

By  the  exertions  of  commodore  Perry,  an  American  squadron  had  been 
fitted  out  on  lake  Erie  early  in  September.  It  consisted  of  nine  small 
vessels,  in  all  carrying  fifty-four  guns.  A  British  squadron  had  also  been 
built  and  equipped,  under  the  superintendence  of  commodore  Barclay.  It 
consisted  of  six  vessels,  mounting  sixty-three  guns.  Commodore  Perry, 
immediately  sailing,  offered  battle  to  his  adversary,  and  on  the  10th  of 
September  the  British  commander  left  the  harbor  of  Maiden  to  accept  the 
offer.  In  a  few  hours  the  wind  shifted,  giving  the  Americans  the  advan- 
tage. Perry,  forming  the  line  of  battle,  hoisted  his  flag,  on  which  were 
inscribed  the  words  of  the  dying  Lawrence,  '  Don't  give  up  the  ship." 
Loud  huzzas  from  all  the  vessels  proclaimed  the  animation  which  this  motto 
inspired.  About  noon  the  firing  commenced;  and  after  a  short  action  two 
of  the  British  vessels  surrendered,  and  the  rest  of  the  American  squadron 
now  joining  in  the  battle,  the  victory  was  rendered  decisive  and  complete. 
The  British  loss  was  forty-one  killed,  and  ninety-four  wounded.  The 
American  loss  was  twenty-seven  killed,  and  ninety-six  wounded,  of  which 
number  twenty-one  were  killed  and  sixty-two  wounded  on  board  the  flag- 
ship Lawrence,  whose  whole  complement  of  able-bodied  men  before  the 
action  was  about  one  hundred.  The  commodore  gave  intelligence  of  the 
victory  to  general  Harrison  in  these  words :  '  We  have  met  the  enemy, 
and  they  are  ours.     Two  ships,  two  brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop.' 

The  Americans  were  now  masters  of  the  lake ;  but  the  territory  of 
Michigan  was  still  in  the  possession  of  colonel  Proctor.  The  next  move- 
ments were  against  the  British  and  Indians  at  Detroit  and  Maiden.  Ge- 
neral Harrison  had  previously  assembled  a  portion  of  the  Ohio  militia  on 
the  Sandusky  river ;  and  on  the  7th  of  September  four  thousand  from 
Kentucky,  the  flower  of  the  state,  with  governor  Shelby  at  their  head,  arriv- 
ed at  his  camp.  With  the  co-operation  of  the  fleet,  it  was  determined  to 
proceed  at  once  to  Maiden.  On  the  27th  the  troops  were  received  on 
board,  and  reached  Maiden  on  the  same  day ;  but  the  British  had,  in  the 
mean  time,  destroyed  the  fort  and  public  stores,  and  had  retreated  along 
the  Thames  towards  the  Moravian  villages,  together  with  Tecumseh's  In- 
dians, amounting  to  twelve  or  fifteen  hundred.  It  was  now  resolved  to 
proceed  in  pursuit  of  Proctor.  On  the  5th  of  October  a  severe  battle  was 
fought  between  the  two  armies  at  the  river  Thames,  and  the  British  army 
was  taken  by  the  Americans.  In  this  battle  Tecumseh  was  killed,  and 
the  Indians  "fled.  The  British  loss  was  nineteen  regulars  killed,  and  fifty 
wounded,  and  about  six  hundred  prisoners.  The  American  loss,  in  killed 
and  wounded,  amounted  to  upwards  of  fifty.  Proctor  made  his  escape 
down  the  Thames. 

On  the  29th  of  September  the  Americans  took  possession  of  Detroit, 
which,  on  the  approach  of  Harrison's  army,  had  been  abandoned  by  the 

63* 


750  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

British.  Preparations  were  now  made  for  subduing  Upper  Canada,  and 
taking  Montreal;  but  owing  to  the  difficulties  attending  the  concentration 
of  the  troops,  and  perhaps  also  to  the  want  of  vigor  in  the  commanders, 
that  project  was  abandoned,  and  the  army  under  Wilkinson,  marching  to 
French  Mills,  there  encamped  for  the  winter.  This  abortive  issue  of  the 
campaign  occasioned  murmurs  throughout  the  nation,  and  the  causes  which 
led  to  it  have  never  been  fully  developed.  The  severest  censure  fell  upon 
general  Armstrong,  who  was  secretary  of  war,  and  upon  general  Hampton. 
The  latter  soon  after  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army,  and  general 
Izard  was  selected  to  command  the  post  at  Plattsburgh. 

Major-general  Harrison,  commander-in-chief  of  the  eighth  military  district 
in  the  United  States,  issued  a  proclamation,  stating,  that  the  enemy  having 
been  driven  from  the  territory  of  Michigan,  and  a  part  of  the  army  under 
his  command  having  taken  possession  of  it,  it  became  necessary  that  the 
civil  government  of  the  territory  should  be  re-established,  and  the  former 
officers  resume  the  exercise  of  their  authority.  He  therefore  proclaimed, 
that  all  appointments  and  commissions  which  have  been  derived  from  Bri- 
tish officers  were  at  an  end  ;  that  the  citizens  were  restored  to  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  which  they  enjoyed  previously  to  the  capitulation  made  by 
general  Hull  on  the  15th  of  August,  1812 ;  and,  until  the  will  of  the  go- 
vernment should  be  known,  directed  that  all  persons  having  civil  offices  in 
the  territory  of  Michigan,  at  the  period  of  the  capitulation  of  Detroit, 
should  resume  the  exercise  of  the  powers  appertaining  to  their  offices  re- 
spectively. 

The  United  States  squadron,  chased  by  commodore  Hardy  with  a  supe- 
rior naval  force,  had  taken  refuge  in  the  harbor  of  New  London,  where 
the  decayed  and  feeble  state  of  the  fortifications  afforded  a  precarious  de- 
fence. The  menacing  appearance  of  the  British  squadron  at  the  entrance 
of  the  harbor,  and  the  strong  probability  that  the  town  would  be  destroyed 
in  the  conflict,  which  had  been  long  expected,  produced  among  the  inhabi- 
tants the  greatest  consternation.  In  this  moment  of  alarm,  the  major- 
general  of  the  third  division,  and  the  brigadier-general  of  the  third  brigade, 
considered  themselves  justified,  at  the  earnest  entreaty  of  the  citizens,  in 
summoning  the  militia  to  their  assistance.  Governor  Smith,  of  Connecti- 
cut, approved  this  proceeding,  and  immediately  forwarded  supplies,  and 
adopted  measures  of  defence.  '  On  this  occasion,'  said  the  governor  to  the 
legislature,  !  I  could  not  hesitate  as  to  the  course  which  it  became  my  duty 
to  pursue.  The  government  of  Connecticut,  the  last  to  invite  hostilities, 
should  be  the  first  to  repel  aggression.' 

The  Indians  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Union  had  imbibed  the 
same  hostile  spirit  as  those  at  the  north-western.  They  had  been  visited 
by  Tecumseh,  and  by  his  eloquence  had  been  persuaded  that  the  Great 
Spirit  required  them  to  unite  and  attempt  the  extirpation  of  the  whites.  In 
the  fall  of  1812,  a  cruel  war  was  carried  on  by  the  Creeks  and  Seminoles 
against  the  frontier  inhabitants  of  Georgia.  General  Jackson,  at  the  head 
of  two  thousand  five  hundred  volunteers  from  Tennessee,  marched  into  the 
country  of  the  Indians.  Overawed  by  his  presence,  they  desisted  for  a 
time  from  hostility ;  but,  after  his  return,  their  animosity  burst  forth  with 
increased  and  fatal  violence.  Dreading  their  cruelty,  about  three  hundred 
men,  women,  and  children,  sought  safety  in  fort  Mimms,  in  the  Tensaw 
settlement.     Although  frequent  warnings  of  an  intended  attack  had  been 


HISTORY.  751 

given  them,  yet,  at  noonday,  on  the  30th  of  August,  they  were  surprised 
by  a  party  of  six  hundred  Indians,  who,  with  axes,  cut  their  way  into  the 
fort,  and  drove  the  people  into  the  houses  which  it  inclosed.  To  these 
they  set  fire.  Many  persons  were  burnt,  and  many  killed  by  the  tomahawk. 
Only  seventeen  escaped  to  carry  the  horrid  tidings  to  the  neighboring  sta- 
tions.    The  whites  resolved  on  vengeance. 

Again  general  Jackson,  at  the  head  of  three  thousand  five  hundred  mili- 
tia of  Tennessee,  marched  into  the  southern  wilderness.  A  detachment 
under  general  CofTee  encountering  at  Tallushatchie  a  body  of  Indians, 
a  sanguinary  conflict  ensued.  The  latter  fought  with  desperation,  neither 
giving  nor  receiving  quarter,  until  nearly  every  warrior  had  perished. 
Yet  still  was  the  spirit  of  the  Creeks  unsubdued,  and  their  faith  in  victory 
unshaken.  With  no  little  sagacity  and  skill  they  selected  and  fortified 
another  position  on  the  Tallapoosa,  called  by  themselves  Tohopeka, 
and  by  the  whites  Horseshoe  Bend.  Here  nearly  a  thousand  warriors, 
animated  with  a  fierce  and  determined  resolution,  were  collected.  Three 
thousand  men,  commanded  by  general  Jackson,  marched  to  attack  this 
post.  To  prevent  escape,  a  detachment  under  general  CofTee  encircled 
the  Bend.  The  main  body  advanced  to  the  fortress  ;  and  for  a  few  minutes 
the  opposing  forces  were  engaged  muzzle  to  muzzle  at  the  port-holes  j  but 
at  length  the  troops,  leaping  over  the  walls,  mingled  in  furious  combat 
with  the  savages.  When  the  Indians,  fleeing  to  the  river,  beheld  the 
troops  on  the  opposite  bank,  they  returned  and  fought  with  increased  fury 
and  desperation.  Six  hundred  warriors  were  killed ;  four  only  yielded 
themselves  prisoners;  the  remaining  three  hundred  escaped.  Of  the 
whites,  fifty-five  were  killed,  and  one  hundred  and  forty-six  wounded. 

It  was  deemed  probable  that  further  resistance  would  be  made  by  the 
Indians  at  a  place  called  the  Hickory-ground  ;  but  on  general  Jackson's 
arriving  thither  in  April,  1814,  the  principal  chiefs  came  out  to  meet  him, 
and  among  them  was  Wetherford,  a  half-blood,  distinguished  equally  for 
his  talents  and  cruelty.  '  I  am  in  your  power,'  said  he  ;  'do  with  me  what 
you  please.  I  have  done  the  white  people  all  the  harm  1  could.  I  have 
fought  them,  and  fought  them  bravely.  There  was  a  time  when  I  had  a 
choice  ;  I  have  none  now,  even  hope  is  ended.  Once  I  could  animate  my 
warriors ;  but  I  cannot  animate  the  dead.  They  can  no  longer  hear  my 
voice ;  their  bones  are  at  Tallushatchie,  Talladega,  Emuckfaw,  and  Toho- 
peka. While  there  was  a  chance  of  success  I  never  supplicated  peace  ;  but 
my  people  are  gone,  and  I  now  ask  it  for  my  nation  and  myself.'  Peace 
was  concluded,  and  general  Jackson  and  his  troops  enjoyed  an  honorable 
but  short  repose. 

It  was  the  declared  intention  of  the  British  to  lay  waste  the  whole  Ame- 
rican coast,  from  Maine  to  Georgia.  Of  this  intention  demonstration  was 
made  by  their  descent  upon  Pettipauge,  and  the  destruction  which  follow- 
ed in  that  harbor.  Early  in  April,  a  number  of  British  barges,  supposed 
to  contain  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  men,  entered  the  mouth  of  Con- 
necticut river,  passed  up  seven  or  eight  miles,  and  came  on  shore  at  a  part 
of  Saybrook  called  Pettipauge,  where  they  destroyed  about  twenty-five 
vessels.  Guards  of  militia  were  placed  without  delay  at  nearly  all  the 
vulnerable  points  on  the  seaboard,  and  where  troops  could  not  be  stationed 
patrols  of  videttes  were  constantly  maintained. 

On  the  25th  of  April,  admiral  Cochrane  declared,  in  addition  to  the  ports 


752  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

*nd  places  blockaded  by  admiral  Warren,  all  the  remaining  ports,  harbors, 
bays,  creeks,  rivers,  inlets,  outlets,  islands,  and  sea-coasts  of  the  United 
States,  from  Black  Point,  on  Long  Island  sound,  to  the  northern  and 
eastern  boundaries  between  the  United  States  and  the  British  province  of 
New  Brunswick,  to  be  in  a  state  of  strict  and  rigorous  blockade.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  president  of  the  United  States  issued  a  proclamation,  de- 
claring that  the  blockade  proclaimed  by  the  British  of  the  whole  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States,  nearly  two  thousand  miles  in  extent,  being  inca- 
pable of  execution  by  any  adequate  force  actually  stationed  for  the  purpose, 
formed  no  lawful  prohibition  or  obstacle  to  such  neutral  and  friendly  vessels 
as  may  choose  to  visit  and  trade  with  the  United  States ;  and  strictly 
ordered  and  instructed  all  the  public  armed  vessels  of  the  United  States, 
and  all  private  armed  vessels  commissioned  as  privateers,  or  with  letters 
of  marque  and  reprisal,  not  to  interrupt,  detain,  or  molest  any  vessels  be- 
longing to  neutral  powers,  bound  to  any  port  or  place  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  United  States ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  to  render  all  such  vessels 
all  the  aid  and  kind  offices  which  they  might  need  or  require. 

The  pacification  in  Europe  offered  to  the  British  a  large  disposable  force, 
both  naval  and  military,  and  with  it  the  means  of  giving  to  the  war  in 
America  a  character  of  new  and  increased  activity  and  extent.  The  friends 
of  the  administration  anticipated  a  severer  conflict,  and  prepared  for  greater 
sacrifices  and  greater  sufferings.  Its  opposers,  where  difficulties  thickened 
and  danger  pressed,  were  encouraged  to  make  more  vigorous  efforts  to 
wrest  the  reins  of  authority  from  men  who,  they  asserted,  had  shown  them- 
selves incompetent  to  hold  them.  The  president  deemed  it  advisable  to 
strengthen  the  line  of  the  Atlantic,  and  therefore  called  on  the  executive 
of  several  states  to  organize  and  hold  in  readiness  for  immediate  service  a 
corps  of  ninety-three  thousand  five  hundred  men. 

The  hostile  movements  on  the  northern  frontier  were  now  becoming 
vigorous  and  interesting.  In  the  beginning  of  July,  general  Brown,  who 
had  been  assiduously  employed  in  disciplining  his  troops,  crossed  the  Nia- 
gara with  about  three  thousand  men,  and  took  possession,  without  oppo- 
sition, of  fort  Erie.  In  a  strong  position  at  Chippewa,  a  few  miles  distant, 
was  intrenched  an  equal  number  of  British  troops,  commanded  by  general 
Kiall.  On  the  4th,  general  Brown  approached  their  works  ;  and  the  next 
day,  on  the  plains  of  Chippewa,  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  battle  was 
fought,  which  compelled  the  British  to  retire  to  their  intrenchments.  In. 
this  action,  which  was  fought  with  great  judgment  and  coolness  on  both 
sides,  the  loss  of  the  Americans  was  about  four  hundred  men,  that  of  the 
British  was  upwards  of  five  hundred.  Soon  afterwards,  general  Riall, 
abandoning  his  works,  retired  to  the  heights  of  Burlington.  Here  lieute- 
nant-general Drummond,  with  a  large  reinforcement,  joined  him,  and  as- 
suming the  command,  led  back  the  army  towards  the  American  camp.  On 
the  25th  was  fought  the  battle  of  Bridgewater,  which  began  at  four  in  the 
afternoon  and  continued  until  midnight.  After  a  desperate  conflict  the 
British  troops  were  withdrawn,  and  the  Americans  left  in  possession  of  the 
field. 

The  loss  on  both  sides  was  severe,  and  nearly  equal.  Generals  Brown 
and  Scott  having  both  been  severely  wounded,  the  command  devolved  up- 
on general  Ripley.  He  remained  a  few  hours  upon  the  hill,  collected  the 
wounded,  and  then  returned  unmolested  to  the  camp.     This  battle  was 


HisroRy.  753 

fought  near  the  cataract  of  Niagara,  whose  roar  was  silenced  by  the  thunder 
of  cannon  and  the  din  of  arms,  but  was  distinctly  heard  during  the  pauses 
of  the  fight.  The  American  general  found  his  force  so  much  weakened, 
that  he  deemed  it  prudent  again  to  occupy  fort  Erie.  On  the  4th  of 
August  it  was  invested  by  general  Drummond  with  five  thousand  troops. 
In  the  night  between  the  14th  and  15th,  the  besiegers  made  a  daring  assault 
upon  the  fort,  which  was  repelled  with  conspicuous  gallantry  by  the  garri- 
son, the  former  losing  more  than  nine  hundred  men,  the  latter  but  eighty- 
four.  The  siege  was  still  continued.  On  the  2d  of  September,  general 
Brown,  having  recovered  from  his  wounds,  threw  himself  into  the  fort,  and 
took  command  of  the  garrison.  For  their  fate  great  anxiety  was  felt  by 
the  nation,  which  was,  however,  in  some  degree,  removed  by  the  march 
from  Plattsburgh  of  five  thousand  men  to  their  relief.  After  an  hour  of 
close  fighting  they  entered  the  fort,  having  killed,  wounded,  and  taken  one 
thousand  of  the  British.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  was  also  considerable, 
amounting  to  more  than  five  hundred.  On  the  21st  of  September,  the 
forty-ninth  day  of  the  siege,  general  Drummond  withdrew  his  forces. 

The  march  of  the  troops  from  Plattsburgh  having  left  that  post  almost 
defenceless,  the  enemy  determined  to  attack  it  by  land,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  attempt  the  destruction  of  the  American  flotilla  on  lake  Champlain. 
On  the  3d  of  September,  Sir  George  Prevost,  the  governor-general  of 
Canada,  at  the  head- of  fourteen  thousand  men,  entered  the  territories  of 
the  United  States.  On  the  6th  they  arrived  at  Plattsburgh.  It  is  situated 
near  lake  Champlain,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  small  river  Saranac. 
On  their  approach,  the  American  troops,  who  were  posted  on  the  opposite 
bank,  tore  up  the  planks  of  the  bridges,  with  which  they  formed  slight 
breastworks,  and  prepared  to  dispute  the  passage  of  the  stream.  The 
British  employed  themselves  for  several  days  in  erecting  batteries,  while 
the  American  forces  were  daily  augmented  by  the  arrival  of  volunteers  and 
militia.  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  11th,  the  British  squadron,  command- 
ed by  commodore  Downe,  appeared  off  the  harbor  of  Plattsburgh,  where 
that  of  the  United  States,  commanded  by  commodore  M'Donough,  lay  at 
anchor  prepared  for  battle.  At  nine  o'clock  the  action  commenced.  Sel- 
dom has  there  been  a  more  furious  encounter  than  the  bosom  of  this  trans- 
parent and  peaceful  lake  was  now  called  to  witness.  During  the  naval 
conflict  the  British  on  land  began  a  heavy  cannonade  upon  the  American 
lines,  and  attempted  at  different  places  to  cross  the  Saranac  ;  but  as  often 
as  the  British  advanced  into  the  water  they  were  repelled  by  a  destructive 
fire  from  the  militia.  At  half-past  eleven  the  shout  of  victory  heard  along 
the  American  lines  announced  the  result  of  the  battle  on  the  lake.  Thus 
deprived  of  naval  aid,  in  the  afternoon  the  British  withdrew  to  their  in- 
trenchments,  and  in  the  night  they  commenced  a  precipitate  retreat.  Upon 
the  lake  the  American  loss  was  one  hundred  and  ten;  the  British,  one 
hundred  and  ninety-four,  besides  prisoners.  On  land,  the  American  loss 
was  one  hundred  and  nineteen ;  that  of  the  British  has  been  estimated  as 
high  as  two  thousand  five  hundred. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  middle  and  southern  states,  anticipating  a  great 
augmentation  of  the  English  force,  and  uncertain  where  the  blow  would 
fall,  made  exertions  to  place  every  exposed  position  in  a  posture  of  defence. 
About  the  middle  of  August,  a  British  squadron  of  between  fifty  and  sixty 


754  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

sail  arrived  in  the  Chesapeake,  with  troops  destined  for  the  attack  of  Wash* 
ington,  the  capital  of  the  United  States. 

A  body  of  five  thousand  of  them  having  landed,  an  action  was  fought  at 
Bladensburg,  six  miles  from  Washington.  General  Winder  commanded 
the  whole  American  force ;  commodore  Barney  the  flotilla.  The  British 
were  commanded  by  major-general  Ross  and  rear-admiral  Cockburn.  The 
Americans  were  repulsed,  and  the  British  advanced  towards  the  capital. 
A  body  of  militia  had  been  assembled  in  this  emergency;  but  the  president 
and  heads  of  departments,  on  reviewing  the  force  brought  out  for  defence, 
despaired  of  success,  and  dispersed.  General  Ross,  at  the  head  of  about 
seven  hundred  men,  took  possession  of  Washington,  and  burned  the  capitol, 
or  senate-house,  the  president's  house,  and  public  offices,  the  arsenal,  the 
navy  yard,  and  the  bridge  over  the  Potomac.  The  loss  of  the  British  in 
this  expedition  was  nearly  a  thousand  men,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing ; 
the  loss  of  the  Americans  was  ten  or  twelve  killed,  and  thirty  or  forty 
wounded.  Commodore  Barney's  horse  was  killed  under  him,  and  himself 
wounded  in  the  thigh  and  taken  prisoner  ;  but  he  was  parolled  on  the  field 
of  battle  for  his  bravery.  The  capture  of  Washington  reflected  no  credit 
upon  those  by  whom  it  ought  to  have  been  defended ;  but  the  destruction 
of  the  national  edifices  was  still  more  disgraceful  to  the  character  of  the 
invaders.  The  whole  civilized  world  exclaimed  against  the  act,  as  a  viola- 
tion of  the  rules  of  modern  warfare.  The  capitals  of  most  of  the  European 
kingdoms  had  lately  been  in  the  power  of  an  enemy ;  but  in  no  instance 
had  the  conqueror  been  guilty  of  similar  conduct.  The  act  was  also  as 
impolitic  as  it  was  barbarous ;  it  naturally  excited  an  indignant  spirit 
throughout  the  republic,  and  led  its  inhabitants  to  vie  with  each  other  in 
exerting  all  their  faculties  to  overcome  the  ravagers  of  their  country. 

After  the  capture  of  Washington,  the  British  army  re-embarked  on  board 
the  fleet  in  the  Patuxent,  and  admiral  Cockburn  moved  down  that  river, 
and  proceeded  up  the  Chesapeake.  On  the  29th  of  August  the  corporation 
of  Alexandria  submitted  to  articles  of  capitulation,  and  the  city  was  deliver- 
ed up  to  the  British.  On  the  11th  of  September  the  British  admiral  ap- 
peared at  the  mouth  of  the  Patapsco,  fourteen  miles  from  Baltimore,  with 
a  fleet  of  ships  of  war  and  transports  amounting  to  fifty  sail.  The  next 
day  six  thousand  troops  were  landed  at  North  point,  and  commenced  their 
march  towards  the  city.  In  this  march,  when  the  foremost  ranks  were 
harassed  by  a  brisk  fire  from  a  wood,  major-general  Ross  was  mortally 
wounded.  A  battle  was  fought  on  this  day.  The  American  forces,  the 
militia,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Baltimore,  made  a  gallant  defence,  but  were 
compelled  to  retreat ;  the  British,  however,  abandoning  the  attempt  to  get 
possession  of  the  city,  retired  to  their  shipping  during  the  night  of  the  13th 
of  September, 

On  the  ocean,  the  Essex,  commanded  by  captain  Porter,  after  a  bloody 
combat,  struck  to  a  British  frigate  and  sloop  of  war,  whose  united  force 
was  much  superior.  The  American  sloop  Peacock  captured  the  Epervier, 
of  equal  force.  The  sloop  Wasp,  commanded  by  captain  Blakely,  captur- 
ed the  Reindeer,  and  afterwards,  in  the  same  cruise,  sunk  the  Avon,  both 
of  superior  force.  She  made  several  other  prizes,  but  never  returned  into 
port ;  she  probably  foundered  at  sea. 

The  closing  scene  of  this  unnecessary  and  disgraceful  war,  the  more  de» 
testable  when  contemplated  as  a  series  of  human  sacrifices  for  the  preser* 


HISTORY.  755 

vation  of  a  commercial  system,  was  creditable  to  the  genius  and  bravery  of 
the  American  republic.  The  operations  of  the  British  in  Louisiana  were 
commenced  by  a  small  expedition,  the  naval  part  under  the  command  of 
captain  Percy,  and  the  troops  under  colonel  Nicholls.  They  landed  and 
took  forcible  possession  of  Pensacola,  and  were  aided  by  the  Spaniards  in 
all  their  proceedings ;  they  collected  all  the  Indians  that  would  resort  to 
their  standard ;  and  colonel  Nicholls  then  sent  an  officer  to  the  piratical 
establishment  at  Barataria  to  enlist  the  chief,  Lafitte,  and  his  followers  in 
their  cause  ;  the  most  liberal  and  tempting  offers  were  made  them. 

These  people,  however,  showed  a  decided  preference  for  the  American 
cause  ;  they  deceived  the  English  by  delay ;  conveyed  intelligence  of  their 
designs  to  the  governor  at  New  Orleans,  and  offered  their  services  to  de- 
fend the  country.  Disappointed  in  securing  their  aid,  the  expedition  pro- 
ceeded to  the  attack  of  fort  Bowyer,  on  Mobile  point,  commanded  by  ma- 
jor Lawrence,  with  one  hundred  and  thirty  men.  The  result,  however, 
was  a  loss  to  the  besiegers  of  more  than  two  hundred  men  ;  the  commo- 
dore's ship  was  so  disabled  that  they  set  fire  to  her,  and  she  blew  up,  and 
the  remaining  three  vessels,  shattered  and  filled  with  wounded  men,  re- 
turned to  Pensacola.  While  the  British  thus  sheltered  in  this  place,  where 
they  were  busily  occupied  in  bringing  over  the  Indians  to  join  them,  gene- 
ral Jackson  formed  an  expedition  of  about  four  thousand  men,  regulars  and 
militia,  to  dislodge  them.  He  summoned  the  town,  was  refused  entrance 
by  the  Spanish  governor,  and  his  flag  of  truce  was  fired  upon ;  the  British 
soldiers  being  in  the  forts,  where  their  flag  had  been  hoisted,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Spanish,  the  day  before  the  American  forces  appeared.  Prepara- 
tions were  immediately  made  to  carry  the  place  ;  one  battery  having  been 
taken  by  storm,  with  slight  loss  on  either  side,  the  governor  surrendered, 
the  English  having  previously  retired  on  board  their  ships.  The  forts  be- 
low, which  commanded  the  passage,  were  blown  up,  and  this  enabled  the 
English  fleet  to  put  to  sea. 

General  Jackson  then  evacuated  the  Spanish  territory,  and  marched  his 
troops  back  to  Mobile  and  New  Orleans,  which  he  reached  on  the  second 
day  of  December.  Having  reviewed  a  corps  of  volunteers  the  day  of  his 
arrival,  he  immediately  proceeded  to  visit  every  post  in  the  neighborhood, 
to  give  orders  for  adding  fortifications,  and  establishing  defensive  works 
and  outposts  in  every  spot  where  the  enemy  might  be  expected,  as  there 
was  the  greatest  uncertainty  where  a  landing  would  be  made ;  he  mingled 
with  the  citizens,  and  infused  into  the  greater  part  his  own  spirit  and  ener- 
gy. By  his  presence  and  exhortations  they  were  animated  to  exertions 
of  which  before  they  were  not  supposed  to  be  capable.  All  who  could 
wield  a  spade,  or  carry  a  musket,  were  either  put  to  work  upon  the  fortifi- 
cations, or  trained  in  the  art  of  defending  them.  The  Mississippi,  upon 
the  eastern  bank  of  which  New  Orleans  stands,  flows  to  the  ocean  in  seve- 
ral channels ;  one,  leaving  the  main  stream  above  the  city,  runs  east  of  it, 
and  forms  in  its  course  lake  Pontchartrain  and  lake  Borgne.  Early  in 
December,  the  British  entered  this  channel,  with  a  force  of  about  eight 
thousand  men,  a  part  of  whom  had  just  left  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake, 
the  remainder  having  arrived  direct  from  England. 

A  small  squadron  of  gun-boats,  under  lieutenant  Jones,  was  despatched 
to  oppose  their  passage  into  the  lake.  These  were  met  by  a  superior  force, 
and  after  a  spirited  conflict,  in  which  the  killed  and  wounded  of  the  British 


T56  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

exceeded  the  whole  number  of  the  Americans,  they  were  compelled  to  sur* 
render.  The  loss  of  the  gun-boats  left  no  means  of  watching  the  move- 
ments of  the  enemy,  or  of  ascertaining  where  the  landing  would  be  made. 
Orders  were  given  for  increased  vigilance  at  every  post ;  the  people  of 
color  were  formed  into  a  battalion  ;  the  offer  of  the  Baratarians  to  volunteer, 
on  condition  of  a  pardon  for  previous  offences,  if  they  conducted  themselves 
with  bravery  and  fidelity,  was  accepted.  General  Jackson,  after  applying 
to  the  legislature  to  suspend  the  act  of  habeas  corpus,  and  finding  that  they 
were  consuming  these  extreme  moments  in  discussion,  proclaimed  martial 
law,  and  from  that  moment  his  means  became  more  commensurate  with 
the  weight  of  responsibility  he  had  to  sustain. 

On  the  22d  the  British,  having  landed,  took  a  position  near  the  main 
channel  of  the  river,  about  eight  miles  below  the  city.  In  the  evening  of 
the  23d,  general  Jackson  made  a  sudden  and  furious  attack  upon  their 
camp.  They  were  thrown  into  disorder;  but  they  soon  rallied,  and  fought 
with  a  bravery  at  least  equal  to  that  of  the  assailants.  Satisfied  with  the 
advantage  first  gained,  he  withdrew  his  troops,  fortified  a  strong  position 
four  miles  below  New  Orleans,  and  supported  it  by  batteries  erected  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  river.  On  the  28th  of  December,  and  the  1st  of 
January,  vigorous  but  unsuccessful  attacks  were  made  upon  these  fortifica- 
tions by  the  English.  In  the  mean  time  both  armies  had  received  rein- 
forcements ;  and  general  Sir  E.  Packenham,  the  British  commander,  re- 
solved to  exert  all  his  strength  in  a  combined  attack  upon  the  American 
positions  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  With  almost  incredible  industry,  he 
caused  a  canal,  leading  from  a  creek  emptying  itself  into  lake  Borgne  to 
the  main  channel  of  the  Mississippi,  to  be  dug,  that  he  might  remove  a 
part  of  his  boats  and  artillery  to  that  river.  On  the  7th  of  January,  from 
the  movements  observed  in  the  British  camp,  a  speedy  attack  was  antici- 
pated. This  was  made  early  on  the  8th.  The  British  troops,  formed  in 
a  close  column  of  about  sixty  men  in  front,  the  men  shouldering  their  mus- 
kets, all  carrying  fascines,  and  some  with  ladders,  advanced  towards  the 
American  fortifications,  from  whence  an  incessant  fire  was  kept  up  on  the 
column,  which  continued  to  advance,  until  the  musketry  Of  the  troops  of 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  joined  with  the  fire  of  the  artillery,  began  to 
make  an  impression  on  it  which  soon  threw  it  into  confusion. 

For  some  time  the  British  officers  succeeded  in  animating  the  courage  of 
their  troops,  making  them  advance  obliquely  to  the  left,  to  avoid  the  fire 
of  a  battery,  every  discharge  from  which  opened  the  column,  and  mowed 
down  whole  files,  which  were  almost  instantaneously  replaced  by  new 
troops  coming  up  close  after  the  first ;  but  these  also  shared  the  same  fate, 
until  at  last,  after  twenty-five  minutes'  continual  firing,  through  which  a 
few  platoons  advanced  to  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  the  column  entirely  broke, 
and  part  of  the  troops  dispersed,  and  ran  to  take  shelter  among  the  bushes 
on  the  right.  The  rest  retired  to  the  ditch  where  they  had  been  when 
first  perceived,  four  hundred  yards  from  the  American  lines.  There  the 
officers  with  some  difficulty  rallied  their  troops,  and  again  drew  them  up 
for  a  second  attack,  the  soldiers  having  laid  down  their  knapsacks  at  the 
edge  of  the  ditch,  that  they  might  be  less  encumbered.  And  now,  for  the 
second  time,  the  column,  recruited  with  the  troops  that  formed  the  rear, 
advanced.  Again  it  was  received  with  the  same  galling  fire  of  musketry 
and  artillery,  till  it  at  last  broke  again,  and  retired  in  the  utmost  confusion, 


HISTORY.  757 

tn  vain  did  the  officers  now  endeavor,  as  before,  to  revive  the  courage  of 
their  men ;  to  no  purpose  did  they  strike  them  with  the  flat  of  their 
swords,  to  force  them  to  advance ;  they  were  insensible  of  every  thing  but 
danger,  and  saw  nothing  but  death,  which  had  struck  so  many  of  their 
comrades. 

The  attack  had  hardly  begun,  when  the  British  commander-in-chief,  Sir 
Edward  Packenham,  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  intrepidity,  while  endeavoring 
to  animate  his  troops  with  ardor  for  the  assault.  Soon  after  his  fall,  two 
other  generals,  Keane  and  Gibbs,  were  carried  off  the  field  of  battle,  dan- 
gerously wounded.  A  great  number  of  officers  of  rank  had  fallen ;  the 
ground  over  which  the  column  had  marched  was  strewed  with  the  dead 
and  wounded.  Such  slaughter  on  their  side,  with  scarcely  any  loss  on 
the  American,  spread  consternation  through  the  British  ranks,  as  they 
were  now  convinced  of  the  impossibility  of  carrying  the  lines,  and  saw 
that  even  to  advance  was  certain  death.  Some  of  the  British  troops  had 
penetrated  into  the  wood  towards  the  extremity  of  the  American  line,  to 
make  a  false  attack,  or  to  ascertain  whether  a  real  one  were  practicable. 
These  the  troops  under  general  Coffee  no  sooner  perceived,  than  they 
opened  on  them  a  brisk  fire  with  their  rifles,  which  made  them  retire.  The 
greater  part  of  those  who,  on  the  column's  being  repulsed,  had  taken  shel- 
ter in  the  thickets,  only  escaped  the  batteries  to  be  killed  by  the  musketry. 
During  the  whole  hour  that  the  attack  lasted,  the  American  fire  did  not 
slacken  for  a  single  moment.  By  half  after  eight  in  the  morning,  the  fire 
of  the  musketry  had  ceased.  The  whole  plain  on  the  left,  as  also  the  side 
of  the  river,  from  the  road  to  the  edge  of  the  water,  was  covered  with  the 
British  soldiers  who  had  fallen.  About  four  hundred  wounded  prisoners 
were  taken,  and  at  least  double  that  number  of  wounded  men  escaped  into 
the  British  camp ;  and  a  space  of  ground,  extending  from  the  ditch  of  the 
American  lines  to  that  on  which  the  enemy  drew  up  his  troops,  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  yards  in  length,  by  about  two  hundred  in  breadth,  was  lite- 
rally covered  with  men,  either  dead  or  severely  wounded.^  Perhaps  a 
greater  disparity  of  loss  never  occurred ;  that  of  the  British  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  in  this  attack,  which  was  not  made  with  sufficient 
judgment,  and  which,  besides,  was  embarrassed  by  unforeseen  circumstan- 
ces, was  upwards  of  two  thousand  men  ;  the  killed  and  wounded  of  the 
Americans  was  only  thirteen. 

The  events  of  the  day  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  present  a  striking 
instance  of  the  uncertainty  of  military  operations.  There  the  Americans 
were  thrice  the  number  of  their  brave  assailants,  and  were  protected  by 
intrenchments ;  but  they  ingloriously  fled.  They  were  closely  pursued, 
until  the  British  party,  receiving  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  the  main  army, 
withdrew  from  pursuit,  and  recrossed  the  river.  They  then  returned  and 
resumed  possession  of  their  intrenchments.  General  Lambert,  upon  whom 
the  command  of  the  British  army  had  devolved,  having  lost  all  hopes  of 
success,  prepared  to  return  to  his  shipping.  In  his  retreat  he  was  not  mo- 
lested ;  general  Jackson  wisely  resolving  to  hazard  nothing  that  he  had 
gained  in  attempting  to  gain  still  more. 

The  Americans  naturally  indulged  in  great  joy  for  this  signal  victory. 

*  Historical  Memoir  of  the  War  in  Louisiana,  by  Major  A.  L.  Latour,  Engineer  in 
(he.  United  States  Army.    Philadelphia,  1816. 

64 


753  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Te  Deum  was  sung  at  New  Orleans,  and  every  demonstration  of  gratitude 
manifested  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Union  generally.  The  state  of  Lou- 
isiana passed  votes  of  thanks  to  several  of  the  officers  concerned  in  the  de- 
fence, and  omitted  general  Jackson,  in  consequence  of  his  having  set 
aside  the  action  of  the  civil  authorities -and  proclaimed  martial  law. 

Although  the  results  of  the  war  had  been  honorable  to  the  American 
arms,  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  England  states  were 
unceasingly  opposed  to  the  measures  of  the  administration.  The  governor 
of  Massachusetts  convoked  the  general  court  of  that  state  ;  the  legislature 
of  Connecticut  was  about  to  hold  its  usual  semi-annual  session ;  and  the 
legislature  of  Rhode  Island  also  assembled.  When  these  several  bodies 
met,  what  should  be  done  in  this  unexampled  state  of  affairs  became  a 
subject  of  most  solemn  deliberation.  To  insure  unity  of  views  and  concert 
in  action,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  proposed  a  '  conference,'  by  dele- 
gates from  the  legislatures  of  the  New  England  states,  and  of  any  other 
states  that  might  accede  to  the  measure.  Their  resolution  for  this  purpose, 
and  the  circular  letter  accompanying  it,  show,  that  the  duty  proposed  to  be 
assigned  to  these  delegates  was  merely  to  devise  and  recommend  to  the 
states  measures  for  their  security  and  defence,  and  such  measures  as  were 
'not  repugnant  to  their  federal  obligations  as  members  of  the  Union.' 

The  proposition  was  readily  assented  to  by  several  states,  and  the  dele- 
gates appointed  in  pursuance  of  it  met  at  Hartford,  on  the  15th  of  December 
following.  The  convention  recommended,  1.  That  the  states  they  repre- 
sent take  measures  to  protect  their  ckizens  from  '  forcible  draughts,  con- 
scriptions, or  impressments,  not  authorized  by  the  constitution  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.'  2.  That  an  earnest  application  be  made  to  the  government  of 
the  United  States,  requesting  their  consent  to  some  arrangement,  whereby 
the  states  separately,  or  in  concert,  may  take  upon  themselves  the  defence 
of  their  territory  against  the  enemy,  and  that  a  reasonable  portion  of  the 
taxes  collected  within  the  states  be  appropriated  to  this  object.  3.  That 
the  several  governors  be  authorized  by  law  to  employ  the  military  force 
under  their  command  in  assisting  any  state  requesting  it,  to  repel  the  in- 
vasions of  the  public  enemy.  4.  That  several  amendments  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  calculated  in  their  view  to  prevent  a  recurrence 
of  the  evils  of  which  they  complain,  be  proposed  by  the  states  they  repre- 
sent for  adoption  either  by  the  states'  legislatures,  or  by  a  convention  chosen 
by  the  people  of  each  state.  Lastly,  That  if  the  application  of  these  states 
to  the  government  of  the  United  States  should  be  unsuccessful,  and  peace 
should  not  be  concluded,  and  the  defence  of  these  states  be  still  neglected, 
it  would,  in  their  opinion,  be  expedient  for  the  legislatures  of  the  several 
states  to  appoint  delegates  to  another  convention,  to  meet  at  Boston,  in 
June,  with  such  powers  and  instructions  as  the  exigency  of  a  crisis  so  mo- 
mentous may  require.  The  effect  of  these  proceedings  upon  the  public 
mind  in  the  aggrieved  states  was  alike  seasonable  and  salutary.  The 
very  proposal  to  call  a  convention,  and  the  confidence  reposed  in  the  men 
delegated  to  that  trust,  served  greatly  to  allay  the  passions,  and  to  inspire 
confidence  and  hope.  Nor  was  the  influence  of  this  body  upon  the  national 
councils  less  perceptible.  Within  three  weeks  after  the  adjournment  of 
the  convention  and  the  publication  of  their  report,  an  act  passed  both  houses 
of  the  national  legislature,  and  received  the  signature  of  the  president, 
authorizing  and  requiring  him  to  '  receive  into  the  service  of  the  United 


history.  759 

States  any  corps  of  troops  which  may  have  been  or  may  be  raised,  organ- 
ized, and  officered,  under  the  authority  of  any  of  the  states,'  to  be  'em- 
ployed  in  the  state  raising  the  same,  or  an  adjoining  state,  and  not  else- 
where, except  with  the  consent  of  the  executive  of  the  state  raising  the 
same.'  Before  the  commissioners  who  were  sent  to  confer  with  the  go- 
vernment could  reach  Washington,  a  bill  passed  the  senate,  providing  for 
the  payment  of  the  troops  and  militia  already  called  into  service  under  the 
authority  of  the  states.  The  arrival  of  the  treaty  of  peace  at  this  juncture 
rendered  all  farther  proceedings  unnecessary. 

During  the  preceding  year  the  British  government  had  declined  to  treat 
under  the  mediation  of  Russia,  and  a  direct  negotiation  had  been  agreed 
on.  Ghent  was  ultimately  determined  as  the  place  of  meeting;  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1814  the  commissioners  prosecuted  their  labors,  but  at  first  with 
very  doubtful  success.  By  the  24th  of  December  a  treaty  was  agreed  upon 
and  signed  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  respective  powers  at  Ghent ;  and 
in  February  of  the  following  year  it  received  the  ratification  of  the  presi- 
dent.^ 

While  the  people  of  the  United  States  were  rejoicing  at  the  return  of 
peace,  their  attention  was  called  to  a  new  scene  of  war.  By  a  message 
from  the  president  to  the  house  of  representatives,  with  a  report  of  the 
secretary  of  state,  it  appeared  that  the  dey  of  Algiers  had  violently,  and 
without  just  cause,  obliged  the  consul  of  the  United  States,  and  all  the 
American  citizens  in  Algiers,  to  leave  that  place,  in  violation  of  the  treaty 
then  subsisting  between  the  two  nations ;  that  he  had  exacted  from  the 
consul,  under  pain  of  immediate  imprisonment,  a  large  sum  of  money,  to 
which  he  had  no  just  claim ;  and  that  these  acts  of  violence  and  outrage 
had  been  followed  by  the  capture  of  at  least  one  American  vessel,  and  by 
the  seizure  of  an  American  citizen  on  board  of  a  neutral  vessel ;  that  the 
captured  persons  were  yet  held  in  captivity,  with  the  exception  of  two  of 
them,  who  had  been  ransomed  ;  that  every  effort  to  obtain  the  release  of 

*  By  the  first  article  of  this  treaty  it  was  agreed  that  there  shall  be  a  firm  and  uni- 
versal peace  between  his  Britannic  majesty  and  the  United  States,  and  between  their 
respective  countries,  territories,  cities,  towns,  and  people,  of  every  degree,  without  ex- 
ception of  places  or  persons  ;  and  that  all  hostilities,  both  by  sea  and  land,  shall  cease 
as  soon  as  this  treaty  shall  have  been  ratified  by  both  parties.  By  the  third  article,  all 
prisoners  of  war  taken  on  either  side,  as  well  by  land  as  by  sea,  shall  be  restored  as 
soon  as  practicable  after  the  ratifications  of  this  treaty.  By  the  fourth  article,  the  de- 
cision of  the  conflicting  claims  of  the  United  States  and  of  G  reat  Britain  to  several  islands 
m  the  bay  of  Passamaquoddy  was  referred  to  two  commissioners,  one  to  be  appointed 
by  his  Britannic  majesty,  and  one  by  the  president  of  the  United  States,  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  senate;  and  it  was  agreed,  in  the  event  of  the  two  commissioners 
differing  upon  all  or  any  of  the  matters  referred  to  them,  or  of  their  not  acting,  they 
shall  make  report  or  reports  to  their  respective  governments,  which  report  or  reports 
they  agreed  to  refer  to  some  friendly  sovereign  or  state,  to  be  then  named  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  engaged  to  consider  such  decision  to  be  final  and  conclusive.  By  the  ninth 
article,  the  United  States  engaged  to  put  an  end,  immediately  after  the  ratification  of 
the  present  treaty,  to  hostilities  with  all  the  tribes  or  nations  of  Indians  with  whom 
they  may  be  at  war  at  the  time  of  such  ratification,  provided  they  shall  agree  to  desist 
from  all  hostilities  against  the  United  States ;  and  his  Britannic  majesty,  on  his  part, 
entered  into  a  correspondent  engagement  on  the  like  condition  of  their  desisting  from 
all  hostilities  against  him  and  his  subjects.  The  tenth  article  has  respect  to  the  abolition 
of  the  slave-trade ;  '  Whereas  the  traffic  in  slaves  is  irreconcilable  with  the  principles 
of  humanity  and  justice  ;  and  whereas  both  his  majesty  and  the  United  States  are  desirous 
of  continuing  their  efforts  to  promote  its  entire  abolition  j  it  is' hereby  agreed  that  both 
the  contracting  parties  shall  use  their  best  endeavors  to  accomplish  so  desirable  an  object.' 


760  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  others  had  proved  abortive  ;  and  that  there  was  some  reason  to  belier© 
they  were  held  by  the  dey  as  means  by  which  he  calculated  to  extort  from 
the  United  States  a  degrading  treaty.  The  president  observed,  that  the 
considerations  which  rendered  it  unnecessary  and  unimportant  to  com- 
mence hostile  operations  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  were  now  termi- 
nated by  the  peace  with  Great  Britain,  which  opened  the  prospect  of  an 
active  and  valuable  trade  of  their  citizens  within  the  range  of  the  Algerine 
cruisers ;  and  recommended  to  congress  the  consideration  of  an  act  de- 
claring the  existence  of  a  state  of  war  between  the  United  States  and  the 
dey  of  Algiers,  and  of  such  provisions  as  might  be  requisite  for  the  prose- 
cution of  it  to  a  successful  issue.  A  committee  of  congress,  to  whom  was 
referred  a  bill  '  for  the  protection  of  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
against  the  Algerine  cruisers,'  after  a  statement  of  facts,  concluded  theij 
report  by  expressing  their  united  opinion,  '  that  the  dey  of  Algiers  considers 
his  treaty  with  the  United  States  as  at  an  end,  and  is  waging  war  with 
them  ;'  and  in  March  war  was  declared  against  the  Algerines. 

An  expedition  was  immediately  ordered  to  the  Mediterranean,  under  the 
command  of  commodore  Bainbridge.  The  squadron  in  advance  on  that 
service,  under  commodore  Decatur,  lost  not  a  moment  after  its  arrival  in 
the  Mediterranean  in  seeking  the  naval  force  of  the  enemy,  then  cruising 
in  that  sea,  and  succeeded  in  capturing  two  of  his  ships,  one  of  them  com- 
manded by  the  Algerine  admiral.  The  American  commander,  after  this 
demonstration  of  skill  and  prowess,  hastened  to  the  port  of  Algiers,  where 
he  readily  obtained  peace,  in  the  stipulated  terms  of  which  the  rights  and 
honor  of  the  United  States  were  particularly  consulted  by  a  perpetual 
relinquishment,  on  the  part  of  the  dey,  of  all  pretensions  to  tribute  from 
them.  The  impressions  thus  made,  strengthened  by  subsequent  transac- 
tions with  the  regencies  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  by  the  appearance  of  the 
larger  force  which  followed  under  commodore  Bainbridge,  and  by  the  judi- 
cious precautionary  arrangements  left  by  him  in  that  quarter,  afforded  a 
reasonable  prospect  of  future  security  for  the  valuable  portion  of  American 
commerce  which  passes  within  reach  of  the  Sarbary  cruisers. 

President  Madison,  in  his  message  to  the  congress  of  1816,  having  ad- 
verted to  the  peace  of  Europe  and  to  that  of  the  United  States  with  Great 
Britain,  said,  he  had  the  '  satisfaction  to  state,  generally,  that  they  remain- 
ed in  amity  with  foreign  powers.'  He  proceeded  to  say,  that  the  posture 
of  affairs  with  Algiers  at  that  moment  was  not  known ;  but  that  the  dey 
had  found  a  pretext  for  complaining  of  a  violation  of  the  last  treaty,  and 
presenting  as  the  alternative  war  or  a  renewal  of  the  former  treaty,  which 
stipulated,  among  other  things,  an  annual  tribute.  '  The  answer,'  says  the 
president,  '  with  an  explicit  declaration  that  the  United  States  preferred 
war  to  tribute,  required  his  recognition  and  observance  of  the  treaty  last 
made,  which  abolishes  tribute,  and  the  slavery  of  our  captured  citizens. 
The  result  of  the  answer  had  not  been  received.  Should  he  renew  his 
warfare  on  our  commerce,  we  rely  on  the  protection  it  will  find  in  our  na- 
val force  actually  in  the  Mediterranean.  With  the  other  Barbary  states 
our  affairs  have  undergone  no  change.  With  reference  to  the  aborigines 
of  our  own  country,'  he  continues,  '  the  Indian  tribes  within  our  limits 
appear  also  disposed  to  remain  in  peace.  From  several  of  them  purchases 
of  lands  have  been  made,  particularly  favorable  to  the  wishes  and  security  of 
our  frontier  settlements   as  well  as  to  the  general  interests  of  the  nation 


HISTORY.  761 

In  some  instances,  the  titles,  though  not  supported  by  due  proof,  and  clash- 
ing those  of  one  tribe  with  the  claims  of  another,  have  been  extinguished 
by  double  purchases,  the  benevolent  policy  of  the  United  States  preferring 
the  augmented  expense  to  the  hazard  of  doing  injustice,  or  to  the  enforce- 
ment of  justice  against  a  feeble  and  untutored  people,  by  means  involving 
or  threatening  an  effusion  of  blood.  I  am  happy  to  add  that  the  tranquillity 
which  has  been  restored  among  the  tribes  themselves,  as  well  as  between 
them  and  our  own  population,  will  favor  the  resumption  of  the  work  of 
civilization,  which  had  made  an  encouraging  progress  among  some  tribes ; 
and  that  the  facility  is  increasing  for  extending  that  divided  and  individual 
ownership,  which  exists  now  in  movable  property  only,  to  the  soil  itself; 
and  of  thus  establishing,  in  the  culture  and  improvement  of  it,  the  true 
foundation  for  a  transit  from  the  habits  of  a  savage  to  the  arts  and  comforts 
of  social  Hfe.' 

The  doubtful  state  of  the  relations  between  the  United  States  and  the 
dey  of  Algiers,  to  which  the  president  alluded  in  his  message,  arose  either 
from  a  strong  impulse  of  the  love  of  extortion  in  the  dey,  or  from  the  influ- 
ence of  some  foreign  personages ;  the  rising  differences  were,  however, 
settled  by  the  prudent  management  of  the  American  consul,  Mr.  Shaler, 
and  peace  has  not  since  been  broken  on  the  part  of  the  Algerines. 

Among  the  incidents  of  domestic  interest  which  indicate  the  rapid  growth 
and  increasing  prosperity  of  the  republic,  we  may  notice  the  formation  of 
the  territory  of  Indiana  into  a  state,  and  its  admission  into  the  Union ;  the 
progress  of  canals  in  various  states ;  the  institution  of  a  national  bank ;  and 
the  arrival  of  many  thousand  emigrants,  chiefly  from  Great  Britain.  Trea- 
ties were,  during  this  year,  negotiated  with  the  Choctaw,  Chickasaw,  and 
Cherokee  Indians,  ceding  large  portions  of  their  respective  territories  to 
the  United  States,  and  acknowledging  their  tribes  to  be  under  the  protection 
of  the  republic. 

ADMINISTRATION    OF   JABIES    MONROE. 

The  term  of  Mr.  Madison's  administration  having  expired  in  the  year 
1817,  James  Monroe  was  inaugurated  president,  and  Daniel  D.  Tompkins 
vice-president.  In  his  speech  to  congress  on  his  inauguration,  the  presi- 
dent expresses  sentiments  in  which  every  true  friend  to  the  human  race 
will  fully  concur.  '  It  is  particularly  gratifying  to  me,'  says  Mr.  Monroe, 
*  to  enter  on  the  discharge  of  these  official  duties  at  a  time  when  the  United 
States  are  blessed  with  peace.  It  is  a  state  most  consistent  with  their  pros- 
perity and  happiness.  It  will  be  my  sincere  desire  to  preserve  it,  so  far  as 
depends  on  the  executive,  on  just  principles,  with  all  nations,  claiming  no- 
thing unreasonable  of  any,  and  rendering  to  each  what  is  its  due.' 

During  this  year  the  republic  received  another  accession  by  the  erection 
of  the  territory  of  Mississippi  into  a  state,  and  its  admission  into  the  Union. 
By  the  act  of  admission  it  is  provided,  that  the  public  lands,  while  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States,  and  for  five  years  from  the  day  of  sale,  shall  be 
exempted  from  all  taxes  ;  that  lands  belonging  to  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States  residing  without  the  state  shall  never  be  taxed  higher  than  lands 
belonging  to  persons  residing  within  the  state ;  and  that  the  river  Missis- 
sippi, and  the  navigable  rivers  and  waters  leading  into  it,  or  into  the  gulf 
of  Mexico,  shall  be  common  highways,  and  forever  free  of  toll  or  duty  to 
96  64* 


762  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATE& 

all  the  citizens  of  the  United  States.  In  return  for  this  concession,  congress 
provided,  that,  after  paying  a  debt  to  Georgia  and  indemnifying  certain 
claimants,  five  per  cent,  of  the  net  proceeds  of  the  public  lands  lying 
within  the  state  shall  be  devoted  to  the  making  of  roads  and  canals  for  the 
benefit  of  the  state. 

In  the  summer  of  this  year  an  expedition  was  undertaken  against  East 
Florida  by  persons  claiming  to  act  under  the  authority  of  some  of  the  re- 
volted Spanish  colonies.  The  leader  of  this  expedition  styled  himself 
'  Citizen  Gregor  M'Gregor,  brigadier-general  of  the  armies  of  the  united 
provinces  of  New  Grenada  and  Venezuela,  and  general-in-chief,  employed 
to  liberate  the  provinces  of  both  the  Floridas,  commissioned  by  the  supreme 
governments  of  Mexico  and  South  America.'  The  persons  that  combined 
for  this  purpose  took  possession  of  Amelia  island,  at  the  mouth  of  St. 
Mary's  river,  near  the  boundary  of  the  state  of  Georgia.  The  president, 
apprized  of  this  transaction,  ordered  an  expedition,  consisting  of  naval  and 
land  forces,  to  repel  the  invaders,  and  to  occupy  the  island.  A  squadron, 
under  the  command  of  J.  D.  Henley,  with  troops  under  the  command  of 
James  Banhead,  arrived  off  Amelia  island  on  the  22d  of  December,  and 
the  next  day  took  possession  of  it,  hoisting  the  American  flag  at  Fernan- 
dina.  The  president,  in  a  message  to  congress  relative  to  the  capture, 
observed  :  '  In  expelling  these  adventurers  from  these  posts  it  was  not  in- 
tended to  make  any  conquest  from  Spain,  or  to  injure,  in  any  degree,  the 
cause  of  the  colonies.'  The  real  reason  of  the  measure  seems  to  have 
been,  that  the  invasion  interfered  with  endeavors  which  were  then  making 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to  obtain  the  cession  of  the  Floridas  from 
the  Spaniards. 

In  the  following  year  the  Union  received  the  accession  of  another  state* 
that  of  Illinois.  At  the  time  of  its  admission,  the  government  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  granted  to  the  state  one  section  or  thirty-sixth  part  of  every 
towTnship  for  the  support  of  schools,  and  three  per  cent,  of  the  net  proceeds 
of  the  United  States'  lands  lying  within  the  state  for  the  encouragement  of 
learning,  of  which  one-sixth  part  must  be  exclusively  bestowed  on  a  college 
or  university.  The  constitution  happily  provides  that  no  more  slaves  shall 
be  introduced  into  the  state.  In  1819,  the  Alabama  territory  was  admitted 
as  a  state  into  the  Union ;  and  the  Arkansaw  territory  was,  by  an  act  of 
congress,  erected  into  a  territorial  government.  In  the  following  year  the 
district  of  Maine  was  separated  from  Massachusetts,  formed  into  a  distinct 
state,  and  admitted  into  the  Union. 

During  this  year  the  American  congress  did  themselves  honor  by  pro- 
viding more  effectually  against  carrying  on  the  slave-trade.  The  enact- 
ment declared,  that  if  any  citizen  of  the  United  States,  being  of  the  ship's 
company  of  any  foreign  ship  or  vessel  engaged  in  the  slave-trade,  or  any 
person  whatever  being  of  the  crew  or  ship's  company  of  any  ship  or  vessel 
owned  by,  or  navigated  for,  any  citizens  of  the  United  States,  shall  on 
foreign  shore  seize  any  negro  or  mulatto,  not  held  to  service  or  labor  by 
the  laws  either  of  the  states  or  territories  of  the  United  States,  with  intent 
to  make  him  a  slave,  or  shall  decoy  or  forcibly  bring  or  receive  him  on 
board  with  such  intent,  he  shall  be  adjudged  a  pirate,  and  on  conviction 
shall  suffer  death. 

A  treaty  for  the  cession  of  the  Floridas  was  concluded  at  Washington, 
February  22,  1829,  between  Spain  and  the  United  States.     In  the  vear 


HISTORY.  763 

1521,  it  was  reluctantly  ratified  by  the  king  of  Spain,  and  possession  was 
■laken  of  those  provinces  according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty.  On  the  1st 
of  July,  general  Jackson,  who  had  been  appointed  governor  of  the  Floridas, 
issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  '  that  the  government  heretofore  exercised 
over  the  said  provinces  under  the  authority  of  Spain  has  ceased,  and  that 
that  of  the  United  States  of  America  is  established  over  the  same  ;  that  the 
inhabitants  thereof  will  be  incorporated  in  the  union  of  the  United  States, 
as  soon  as  may  be  consistent  with  the  principles  of  the  federal  constitution, 
and  admitted  to  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  privileges,  rights,  and  immunities 
of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  ;  that  in  the  mean  time  they  shall  be 
maintained  and  protected  in  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  liberty,  property, 
and  the  religion  they  profess  ;  that  all  laws  and  municipal  regulations  which 
were  in  existence  at  the  cessation  of  the  late  government  remain  in  full 
force,  and  all  civil  officers  charged  with  their  execution,'  with  certain  ex- 
ceptions and  limitations,  'are  continued  in  their  functions.'  On  the  7th  of 
July,  the  colonel  commandant,  Don  Jose  Gallava,  commissioner  on  the  part 
of  his  Catholic  majesty,  made  to  major-general  Jackson,  the  commissioner 
of  the  United  States,  a  delivery  of  the  keys  of  the  town  of  Pensacola,  of 
the  archives,  documents,  and  other  articles,  mentioned  in  the  inventories, 
declaring  that  he  releases  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  Spain  the  citizens 
and  inhabitants  of  West  Florida  who  may  choose  to  remain  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  United  States.  On  the  same  day,  colonel  Joseph  Coppinger, 
governor  of  East  Florida,  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  inhabitants,  an- 
nouncing that,  on  the  10th  day  of  this  month,  '  possession  will  be  given  to 
colonel  Robert  Butler,  the  commissioner  legally  authorized  by  the  United 
States.'  The  American  authorities  were  accordingly  put  in  possession  of 
the  Floridas. 

During  this  year  Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  state  into  the  Union,  form- 
ing the  eleventh  state  added  to  the  thirteen  confederated  states  which  sign- 
od  the  declaration  of  independence,  making  the  present  number  of  the 
United  States  twenty-four.  The  proposition  for  the  admission  of  this 
state,  which  was  brought  forward  in  the  session  of  1819,  produced  vehe- 
ment discussion  in  the  congress,  and  excited  an  intense  interest  throughout 
the  whole  Union.  The  inhabitants  of  Missouri,  the  territory  having  been 
considered  as  a  part  of  Louisiana,  had  derived  from  their  connection  with 
the  Spaniards  and  French  the  custom,  which  they  deemed  equivalent  to 
the  right,  of  possessing  slaves  ;  it  was  proposed,  however,  in  admitting  the 
territory  to  the  privileges  of  a  state,  to  prevent  the  increase  and  to  insure 
the  ultimate  abolition  of  slavery,  by  the  insertion  of  the  following  clause : 
4  Provided,  that  the  further  introduction  of  slavery  or  involuntary  servitude 
be  prohibited,  except  for  the  punishment  of  crimes  whereof  the  party  shall 
have  been  duly  convicted  ;  and  that  all  the  children  born  within  the  said 
state  after  the  admission  thereof  into  the  Union  shall  be  free  at  the  age  of 
twenty-five  years.'  Judging  from  the  previous  views  and  measures  of  the 
general  government,  in  similar  and  analogous  cases,  it  could  hardly  have 
been  conjectured,  that  the  result  of  proposing  such  a  limited  and  qualified 
restriction  would  be  doubtful.  The  house  of  representatives,  after  a  short 
but  animated  debate,  refused  to  pass  the  bill  without  the  restriction  ;  but  tho 
senate  refused  to  pass  the  bill  with  it ;  consequently  the  bill  itself  was  lost, 
and  Missouri  still  continued  under  her  former  territorial  government. 

Such  was  the  rapidity  with  which  the  several  proceedings  passed  in  the 


T64  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

two  houses  of  congress,  that  it  was  scarcely  known  beyond  its  walls  that 
such  a  question  was  agitated,  before  it  was  decided.  When,  however,  it 
came  to  be  generally  known  what  principles  had  been  advanced,  what 
votes  had  been  given,  with  what  ardor  and  vehemence  the  advocates  of 
slavery  had  urged  their  demands,  not  merely  upon  the  justice,  the  reason, 
and  good  sense  of  congress,  but  upon  their  interests,  their  prejudices,  and 
their  fears,  by  how  slender  a  majority  a  measure  had  been  checked,  which, 
in  the  estimation  of  many  of  the  best  friends  of  American  liberty,  would 
have  been  productive  of  incalculable  and  interminable  mischiefs,  it  excited 
a  feeling  of  universal  surprise  and  alarm.  It  is  instructive  to  observe  that 
many  of  the  staunchest  advocates  of  liberal  ideas,  who  delighted  in  appro- 
priating to  themselves  exclusively  the  name  of  republicans,  suffered  their 
jealousy  of  the  interference  of  the  congress  in  the  internal  goverment  of  an 
individual  state  to  engage  them  on  the  side  of  the  perpetuators  of  slavery. 
Jefferson,  who  prided  himself  in  being  the  devoted  friend  of  liberty,  thus 
expresses  himself:  '  The  real  question,  as  seen  in  the  states  afflicted  with 
this  unfortunate  population,  is,  are  our  slaves  to  be  presented  with  freedom 
and  a  dagger  ?  For,  if  congress  has  the  power  to  regulate  the  conditions 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  states  within  the  states,  it  will  be  but  another  ex- 
ercise of  that  power  to  declare  that  all  shall  be  free.  Are  we  then  to  see 
again  Athenian  and  Lacedemonian  confederacies  ?  to  wage  another  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war  to  settle  the  ascendency  between  them  ?  Or  is  this  the 
tocsin  of  merely  a  servile  war  ?  That  remains  to  be  seen ;  but  not,  I  hope, 
by  you  or  me.  Surely  they  will  parley  awhile,  and  give  us  time  to  get  out 
of  the  way.'^  The  consequence  of  this  combination  was  the  passing  of  the 
bill  for  the  admission  of  Missouri  in  the  next  session  of  the  congress,  with- 
out the  restricting  clause. 

No  circumstances  of  particular  interest  in  the  transactions  of  the  general 
government  occurred  till  the  year  1824,  when  articles  of  a  convention  be- 
tween the  United  States  of  America  and  Great  Britain  for  the  suppression 
of  the  African  slave-trade  were  subscribed  at  London  by  plenipotentiaries 
appointed  for  that  purpose.  By  the  first  article,  the  commanders  and  com- 
missioned officers  of  each  of  the  two  high  contracting  parties,  duly  author- 
ized by  their  respective  governments  to  cruise  on  the  coasts  of  Africa, 
America,  and  the  West  Indies,  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade,  are 
empowered,  under  certain  restrictions,  to  detain,  examine,  capture,  and 
deliver  over  for  trial  and  adjudication  by  some  competent  tribunal,  any 
ship  or  vessel  concerned  in  the  illicit  traffic  of  slaves,  and  carrying  the 
flag  of  the  other. 

In  the  spring  of  this  year  a  convention  was  also  concluded  between  the 
United  States  of  America  and  the  emperor  of  Russia.  By  the  third  article 
of  this  convention  it  was  agreed,  *  that,  hereafter,  there  shall  not  be  formed 
by  the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  under  the  authority  of  the  said 
states,  any  establishment  upon  the  northern  [north-west]  coast  of  America, 
nor  in  any  of  the  islands  adjacent,  to  the  north  of  fifty-four  degrees  and 
forty  minutes  of  north  latitude  ;  and  that,  in  the  same  manner,  there  shall 
be  none  formed  by  Russian  subjects,  or  under  the  authority  of  Russia, 
south  of  the  same  parallel.' 

This  year  is  signalized  in  American  history  by  the  visit  of  the  venerable 

#  Memoirs,  vol.  iv.  p.  347. 


HISTORY.  765 

!a  Fayette,  on  the  express  invitation  of  congress.  He  arrived  in  the  har- 
bor of  New  York  on  the  13th  of  August,  and  proceeded  to  the  residence 
of  the  vice-president  at  Staten  island.  A  committee  of  the  corporation  of 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  a  great  number  of  distinguished  citizens,  pro- 
ceeded to  Staten  island  to  welcome  him  to  their  capital.  A  splendid 
escort  of  steam-boats,  decorated  with  the  flags  of  every  nation,  and  bearing 
thousands  of  citizens,  brought  him  to  the  view  of  assembled  multitudes  at 
New  York,  who  manifested  their  joy  at  beholding  him,  by  acclamations 
and  by  tears.  At  the  city  hall  the  officers  of  the  city  and  many  citizens 
were  presented  to  him;  and  he  was  welcomed  by  an  address  from  the 
mayor.  While  he  was  at  New  York,  deputations  from  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore, New  Haven,  and  from  many  other  cities,  arrived  with  invitations 
for  him  to  visit  them.  After  remaining  a  few  days  at  New  York,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Boston,  where  he  met  with  the  same  cordial  reception.  The 
general  soon  after  returned  to  New  York,  visited  Albany  and  the  towns 
on  Hudson's  river,  and  afterwards  passed  through  the  intermediate  states 
to  Virginia.  He  returned  to  Washington  during  the  session  of  congress, 
and  remained  there  several  weeks.  Congress  voted  him  the  sum  of  two 
hundred  thousand  dollars,  and  a  township  of  land,  as  a  remuneration,  in 
part,  of  his  services  during  the  war  of  the  revolution,  and  as  a  testimony 
of  their  gratitude. 

In  the  year  1825,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  inaugurated  president  of 
the  United  States,  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  vice-president.  In  his  speech  to 
congress  the  president  took  a  retrospective  view  to  the  epoch  of  the  confe- 
deration. '  The  year  of  jubilee  since  the  first  formation  of  our  union,' 
observed  Mr.  Adams,  '  has  just  elapsed ;  that  of  the  declaration  of  our 
independence  is  at  hand.  Since  that  period,  a  population  of  four  millions 
has  multiplied  to  twelve.  A  territory  bounded  by  the  Mississippi  has 
been  extended  from  sea  to  sea.  New  states  have  been  admitted  to  the 
Union,  in  numbers  nearly  equal  to  those  of  the  first  confederation.  Trea- 
ties of  peace,  amity,  and  commerce,  have  been  concluded  with  the  princi- 
pal dominions  of  the  earth.  The  people  of  other  nations,  inhabitants  of 
regions  acquired,  not  by  conquest,  but  by  compact,  have  been  united  with 
us  in  the  participation  of  our  rights  and  duties,  of  our  burdens  and  bles- 
sings.' Having  noticed  the  progress  of  agriculture  and  of  settlements,  of 
commerce  and  arts,  of  liberty  and  law,  Mr.  Adams  thus  sketches  the  features 
of  the  administration  of  the  preceding  president :  '  In  his  career  of  eight 
years,  the  internal  taxes  have  been  repealed  ;  sixty  millions  of  public  debt 
nave  been  discharged ;  provision  has  been  made  for  the  comfort  and  relief 
of  the  aged  and  indigent  among  the  surviving  warriors  of  the  revolution ; 
the  regular  armed  force  has  been  reduced,  and  the  constitution  revised  and 
perfected ;  the  accountability  for  the  expenditure  of  public  moneys  has 
been  made  more  effective  ;  the  Floridas  have  been  peaceably  acquired, 
and  our  boundary  has  been  extended  to  the  Pacific  ocean  ;  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  southern  nations  of  this  hemisphere  has  been  recognised,  and 
recommended,  by  example  and  by  counsel,  to  the  potentates  of  Europe  ; 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  defence  of  the  country,  by  fortifications  and 
the  increase  of  the  navy ;  towards  the  effectual  suppression  of  the  African 
traffic  in  slaves  ;  in  alluring  the  aboriginal  hunters  of  our  land  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil  and  of  the  mind ;  in  exploring  the  interior  regions  of  the 
Union ;  and  in  preparing,  by  scientific  researches  and  surveys,  for  the  fur- 


766  BOOK  OP  THE  ttNTTED  STATES 

ther  application  of  our  national  resources  to  the  internal  improvement  of 
our  country.  In  this  brief  outline  of  the  promise  and  performance  of  my 
predecessor,  the  line  of  duty  for  his  successor  is  clearly  delineated.  To 
pursue  to  their  consummation  those  purposes  of  improvement  in  our  com- 
mon condition  instituted  or  recommended  by  him,  will  embrace  the  whole 
sphere  of  my  obligations.' 

The  transactions  between  the  United  States  and  the  Indian  tribes  have 
occasioned  considerable  discussion  among  the  philanthropists  of  hoth  the 
new  and  the  old  world ;  we  shall,  therefore,  notice  the  treaties  which  were 
formed  somewhat  particularly.  In  February,  a  treaty  was  concluded  with 
the  Creek  nation  of  Indians.  The  commissioners  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  represented  to  the  Creeks,  that  it  is  the  policy  and  wish  of  the  gene- 
ral government,  that  the  several  Indian  tribes  within  the  limits  of  any  of 
the  states  of  the  Union  should  remove  to  territory  to  be  designated  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Mississippi  river,  as  well  for  the  better  protection  and 
security  of  the  said  tribes,  and  their  improvement  in  civilization,  as  for 
the  purpose  of  enabling  the  United  States,  in  this  instance,  to  comply  with 
a  compact  entered  into  with  the  state  of  Georgia,  on  the  24th  of  April, 
1802.  The  chiefs  of  the  Creek  towns  assented  to  the  reasonableness  of 
the  proposition,  and  expressed  a  willingness  to  emigrate  beyond  the  Mis- 
sissippi, those  of  Tokaubatchee  excepted.  The  Creeks  accordingly,  by 
the  first  article  of  the  treaty,  ceded  to  the  United  States  all  the  lands  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  state  of  Georgia  now  occupied  by  them,  or  to  which 
they  have  title  or  claim,  lying  within  certain  described  boundaries ;  and 
by  the  second  it  was  agreed,  that  the  United  States  will  give  in  exchange 
for  the  lands  hereby  acquired  the  like  quantity,  acre  for  acre,  westward  of 
the  Mississippi,  on  the  Arkansas  river.  Other  stipulations  favorable  to 
the  equitable  claims  of  the  emigrating  parties  were  made  ;  particularly 
that  a  deputation  may  be  sent  to  explore  the  territory  herein  offered  them 
in  exchange ;  and  if  the  same  be  not  acceptable  to  them,  then  they  may 
select  any  other  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi,  on  Red,  Canadian,  Ar- 
kansas, or  Missouri  rivers,  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Cherokees  and 
Choctaws  excepted ;  and  if  the  territory  to  be  selected  shall  be  in  the  occu- 
pancy of  other  Indian  tribes,  then  the  United  States  will  extinguish  the 
title  of  such  occupants  for  the  benefit  of  the  said  emigrants. 

The  Kansas  Indians,  by  treaty,  ceded  to  the  United  States  all  their 
lands  both  within  and  without  the  limits  of  Missouri,  excepting  a  reserva- 
tion beyond  that  state  on  the  Kansas  river,  about  thirty  miles  square,  in- 
cluding their  villages.  In  consideration  of  this  cession,  the  United  States 
agreed  to  pay  three  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  a  year  for  twenty  years  ; 
to  furnish  the  Kansas  immediately  with  three  hundred  head  of  cattle,  three 
hundred  hogs,  five  hundred  fowls,  three  yoke  of  oxen,  and  two  carts,  and 
with  such  farming  utensils  as  the  Indian  superintendent  may  deem  neces- 
sary ;  to  provide  and  support  a  blacksmith  for  them ;  and  to  employ  per- 
sons to  aid  and  instruct  them  in  their  agricultural  pursuits,  as  the  president 
may  deem  expedient.  Of  the  ceded  lands,  thirty-six  sections  on  the  Big 
Blue  river  were  to  be  laid  out  under  the  direction  of  the  president,  and 
sold  for  the  support  of  schools  among  the  Kansas.  Reservations  were  also 
made  for  the  benefit  of  certain  half-breeds ;  and  other  stipulations  mutually 
satisfactory.  It  was  also  agreed,  that  no  private  revenge  shall  be  taken 
fcy  the  Indians  for  the  violation  of  their  rights ;  but  that  they  shall  make 


HISTORY.  767 

their  complaint  to  the  superintendent  or  other  agent,  and  receive  justice  in 
&  due  course  of  law ;  and  it  was  lastly  agreed,  that  the  Kansas  nation 
shall  never  dispose  of  their  lands  without  the  consent  of  the  United  States, 
and  that  the  United  States  shall  always  have  the  free  right  of  navigation 
in  the  waters  of  the  Kansas. 

A  treaty  was  also  concluded  with  the  Great  and  Little  Osages,  at  St. 
Louis,  Missouri.  The  general  principles  of  this  treaty  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  treaty  with  the  Kansas.  The  Indians  cede  all  their  lands  in 
Arkansas  and  elsewhere,  and  then  reserve  a  defined  territory,  west  of  the 
Missouri  line,  fifty  miles  square ;  an  agent  to  be  permitted  to  reside  on  the 
reservation,  and  the  United  States  to  have  the  right  of  free  navigation  in 
all  the  waters  on  the  tract.  The  United  States  pay  an  annuity  of  seven 
thousand  dollars  for  twenty  years ;  furnish  forthwith  six  hundred  head  of 
cattle,  six  hundred  hogs,  one  thousand  fowls,  ten  yoke  of  oxen,  six  carts, 
with  farming  utensils,  persons  to  teach  the  Indians  agriculture,  and  a 
blacksmith,  and  build  a  commodious  dwelling-house  for  each  of  the  four 
principal  chiefs,  at  his  own  village.  Reservations  were  made  for  the 
establishment  of  a  fund  for  the  support  of  schools  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Osage  children  ;  and  provision  was  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  Harmony 
missionary  establishment.  The  United  States  also  assume  certain  debts 
due  from  certain  chiefs  of  the  tribes ;  and  agree  to  deliver  at  the  Osage 
villages,  as  soon  as  may  be,  four  thousand  dollars  in  merchandise,  and  two 
thousand  six  hundred  in  horses  and  their  equipments. 

In  May  a  general  convention  of  peace,  amity,  navigation,  and  commerce, 
between  the  United  States  of  America  and  the  republic  of  Colombia,  was 
signed  by  the  president,  at  Washington. 

The  fiftieth  anniversary,  the  jubilee,  as  it  was  termed,  of  American  inde- 
pendence, was  observed  throughout  the  states  with  great  enthusiasm,  and 
was  rendered  additionally  interesting  by  the  remarkable  circumstance  that 
both  Adams  and  Jefferson,  eminent  men  among  the  fathers  of  their  country, 
died  on  that  day. 

The  opposition  to  the  administration  of  Mr.  Adams  gained  strength  and 
development  by  daily  increase,  and  numerous  parties  combined  for  its 
support  or  overthrow  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These  parties  were 
generally  of  a  geographical  character,  and  in  the  nineteenth  congress  it 
was  usually  found  that  the  representatives  from  the  southern,  took  sides 
directly  opposed  to  those  from  the  northern  and  western  states.  A  reso- 
lution was  expressed  in  some  quarters  to  put  down  the  administration  at 
every  hazard,  no  matter  what  might  be  its  policy,  its  integrity,  or  its 
success.  The  cry  of  corruption  was  re-echoed  by  office  seekers,  and  the 
more  desperate  portion  of  the  oppositionists,  till  it  began  to  gain  currency 
with  the  public,  and  proved  sufficient  to  secure  the  downfall  of  the  admi- 
nistration against  which  it  was  raised. 

The  Panama  mission  was  a  fruitful  subject  of  clamor  and  opposition. 
It  was  stigmatized  as  imprudent,  unnecessary,  at  variance  with  our  true 
and  prevailing  policy,  and  pregnant  with  peril.  Charges  of  extravagance 
in  expenditures  were  next  brought  against  the  heads  of  the  government, 
and  resolutions  were  introduced  in  congress,  intimating  that  the  executive 
patronage  was  too  large,  and  ought  to  be  diminished.  The  assertion  of 
the  president  of  his  constitutional  authority  to  appoint,  during  the'  vaca- 
tion of  congress,  diplomatic  agents  to  transact  the  foreign  business  of  th© 


768  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

country,  was  represented  as  the  assumption  of  an  undelegated  power. 
Every  opportunity  was  seized  to  represent  the  policy  of  the  federal  authori- 
ties as  tending  towards  consolidation,  and  as  indicating  a  disposition  for 
an  expensive  and  magnificent  scheme  of  government. 

In  conformity  with  the  views  of  the  opposition,  a  nomination  for  the 
next  presidency  was  immediately  made,  and  in  October,  1825,  the  legisla- 
ture of  Tennessee  recommended  general  Jackson  to  the  suffrages  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States  for  the  highest  office  in  their  gift.  The  nomi- 
nation he  formally  accepted,  in  an  address  delivered  before  both  houses  of 
the  legislature  of  that  state,  in  which  he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  senate. 
In  this  address  he  plainly  intimated  his  dissatisfaction  at  the  result  of  the 
late  presidential  election,  and  a  willingness  to  sanction  an  opposition  to 
the  administration  on  the  ground  of  its  corrupt  origin.  This  same  ground 
had  been  taken  by  the  adherents  of  the  vice-president  in  the  discussion  of 
Mr.  M'Duffie's  proposed  amendment  of  the  constitution  in  the  first  ses- 
sion of  the  nineteenth  congress.  The  public  mind  was  irritated  and 
exasperated  by  these  charges,  which  were  diffused  with  an  industry  and 
^eal  to  be  paralleled  only  by  their  baseness.  Accusation  and  recrimina- 
tion became  frequent  and  passionate,  and  the  most  bitter  and  indignant 
feelings  took  place  of  the  tranquillity  that  had  so  long  reigned  in  the  politi- 
cal world. 

At  length  the  charge  of  corruption  was  brought  from  a  responsible 
quarter,  and  an  investigation  ensued,  which  resulted  in  the  complete  ac- 
quittal of  the  parties  accused.  Directly  after  the  adjournment  of  the 
eighteenth  congress,  a  letter  appeared,  bearing  date  the  8th  of  March, 
1825,  purporting  to  relate  a  conversation  with  general  Jackson,  in  which 
he  said  that  a  proposition  had  been  made  to  him  by  Mr.  Clay's  friends 
to  secure  his  election  to  the  presidency,  on  condition  that  Mr.  Adams 
should  not  continue  as  secretary  of  state.  This  proposition  was  said  to 
have  been  indignantly  repelled.  A  correspondence  immediately  ensued 
on  this  subject  between  Mr.  Beverly,  the  author  of  the  letter  in  question, 
and  general  Jackson,  in  which  an  account  of  the  negotiation  alluded  to 
was  given  at  length,  and  the  general  disclaimed  making  any  charge  against 
Mr.  Clay,  and  denied  having  accused  him  of  being  privy  to  the  commu- 
nication. Testimony  was  now  produced  by  Mr.  Clay  and  his  friends, 
which  completely  refuted  the  charge  of  bargain,  and  hurled  it  with  scorn 
in  the  teeth  of  his  enemies.  It  was  proved  beyond  a  question  that  in 
voting  for  Mr.  Adams  in  the  house  of  representatives,  Mr.  Clay  and  his 
friends  had  acted  with  entire  consistency,  and  that  any  other  course  would 
have  indeed  laid  them  open  to  the  charge  of  gross  and  palpable  violation 
of  the  principles  they  had  always  professed  in  relation  to  the  election. 
But  the  accusation  had  been  made  to  answer  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
framed,  and  the  opposition  to  the  administration  had  found  a  permanent 
basis  to  build  upon. 

Mr.  Adams  continued  to  act  on  the  principles  which  he  had  professed 
in  his  inaugural  speech,  of  administering  the  government  without  regard 
to  the  distinctions  of  party.  In  the  distribution  of  offices  he  asked  merely 
as  to  the  qualifications  of  the  candidates,  not  of  their  political  opinions* 
No  one  suffered  by  that  ruthless  policy,  which  bears  so  close  a  resemblance 
to  the  proscription  of  the  Roman  emperors ;  the  one  striking  at  life  itself, 
the  other  at  the  means  of  life.     It  is  difficult  to  say  which  of  the  two  ia 


HISTORY.  7G9 

the  more  cruel,  but  they  are  surely  equally  unjust  and  vindictive.  The 
system  which  makes  the  presidential  chair  a  mere  scramble  for  office,  and 
the  chief  executive  of  the  nation  a  dispenser  of  loaves  and  fishes  to  political 
adherents,  is  too  mean,  narrow,  and  contemptible,  not  to  be  subversive  of 
all  the  best  purposes  of  government,  and  must  end  in  the  subversion  of 
government  itself.  The  political  forum  is  converted  into  an  arena  of  battle, 
and  the  first  moments  of  victory  are  sacred  to  spoil,  devastation,  and  rapine. 
The  lust  of  gold  stifles  the  cry  of  mercy,  and  all  the  rules  of  honorable 
warfare  are  violated  in  the  fierceness  and  vindictiveness  of  triumph. 
Office  holders  should  be  content  with  fulfilling  the  duties  of  their  respec- 
tive stations,  and  not  consider  themselves  in  the  light  of  mere  partisans, 
rewarded  for  upholding  a  particular  man  or  set  of  men.  The  people  pay 
them  for  a  different  service.  Mr.  Adams  regarded  this  subject  in  its  true 
bearings,  and  he  acted  in  it  with  the  stern  and  fearless  integrity  which  has 
marked  the  whole  course  of  his  political  life.  Regardless  of  consequences, 
he  was  perhaps  often  injudicious  in  the  diffusion  of  executive  patronage, 
and  sometimes  furnished  the  enemy  with  artillery  to  be  employed  in  the 
destruction  of  his  own  citadel. 

But  however  the  efforts  of  the  opposition  might  embarrass  the  move- 
ments of  the  administration,  they  could  not  retard  the  rapid  progress  of  the 
country  in  wealth  and  prosperity.  The  great  works  of  internal  improve- 
ment contemplated  by  the  act  of  April,  1824,  were  prosecuted  with  great 
spirit  and  vigor.  Many  routes  for  roads  and  canals  were  surveyed,  and 
a  great  mass  of  topographical  knowledge  was  thus  collected  at  Washington. 
The  attention  of  the  general  government  was  also  directed  to  many  other 
subjects  of  internal  improvement,  such  as  the  navigation  of  several  im- 
portant rivers,  building  lighthouses,  piers,  and  removing  obstructions  from 
Days  and  harbors.  The  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  was  much 
improved  during  this  year,  by  the  removal  of  snags  and  other  impediments 
from  their  channels.  An  impulse  was  thus  given  to  the  efforts  of  the 
state  governments,  and  canals  and  roads  were  laid  out  in  various  direc- 
tions. Manufacturing  establishments  flourished  with  great  vigor,  and 
gave  proofs  of  becoming  lasting  sources  of  wealth  and  employment  to  the 
national  industry.  In  the  year  ending  September  30,  1826,  the  value  of 
domestic  manufactures  exported  amounted  to  five  millions  eight  hundred 
and  fifty-two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty-three  dollars,  of  which 
one  million  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  thousand  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  dollars  consisted  of  cotton  piece  goods.  The  increase  of  ton- 
nage in  the  United  States  during  1826,  was  one  hundred  eleven  thousand 
and  seventy-nine  tons,  being  double  the  increase  of  any  one  of  the  preced- 
ing twelve  years.  In  conformity  with  the  plan  proposed  for  the  settlement 
of  the  remaining  tribes  of  the  aborigines  on  the  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
provision  was  made  for  the  removal  thither  of  such  Indians  as  were  dis- 
posed to  emigrate.  Fourteen  hundred  Shawnees,  and  about  seven  hundred 
Creeks,  removed  in  this  manner  to  spots  selected  by  themselves.  The 
Cherokees  refused  to  cede  another  foot  of  land,  notwithstanding  the  efforts 
made  by  the  general  government  to  procure  such  a  cession  of  territory  as 
would  satisfy  the  claims  of  Georgia.  The  north-western  Indians  now 
gave  hostile  indications,  and  attacked  and  murdered  some  American  citi- 
zens ;  but  by  the  prompt  measures  adopted  by  governor  Cass,  the  murder- 
ers were  given  up  and  tranquillity  again  restored. 

97  65 


770  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Congress  having  adjourned  without  passing  any  law  for  the  purpose  of 
meeting  the  restrictive  measures  of  the  British  government  in  respect  to 
the  colonial  trade,  the  president  issued  a  proclamation,  dated  March  17th, 
closing  the  ports  of  the  United  States  against  vessels  from  the  British 
colonies,  which  had  been  opened  by  the  act  of  1822.  By  this  measure  the 
British  restrictions  were  completely  reciprocated,  and  the  president  was 
sustained  in  it  by  public  opinion. 

The  second  session  of  the  nineteenth  congress  commenced  on  the  4th 
of  December,  1826,  when  the  two  houses  were  organized  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  message  of  the  president  on  this  occasion  gave  a  clear 
account  of  our  foreign  relations,  and  made  particular  reference  to  the 
controversy  with  Great  Britain  on  the  colonial  trade.  The  death  of  the 
emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  was  mentioned  in  terms  which  the  friendly 
feelings  displayed  by  that  monarch  towards  this  country  seemed  to  require. 
Our  commercial  connections  with  France  and  the  Netherlands  were  repre- 
sented to  be  placed  on  a  more  favorable  basis  than  at  the  commencement 
of  the  preceding  congress.  In  the  post-office  there  had  been  received  dur- 
ing the  year  a  surplus  of  eighty  thousand  dollars  above  the  expenditures. 
The  revenue  was  sufficiently  large  to  authorize  the  application  of  seven 
millions  sixty-seven  thousand  and  thirty-nine  dollars  to  the  reduction  of 
the  public  debt,  and  three  millions  nine  hundred  and  forty-four  thousand 
three  hundred  and  fifty-nine  dollars  to  the  payment  of  interest.  A  system 
was  recommended  for  the  permanent  increase  of  the  navy ;  the  unsettled 
land  claims  in  Florida  and  Louisiana ;  the  works  of  internal  improvement, 
reported  by  the  board  of  engineers ;  and  the  attention  of  congress  was 
particularly  called  to  the  irregularities  of  the  Brazilian  and  Buenos-Ayrean 
squadrons  towards  neutral  flags.  The  estimates  of  appropriations  for  the 
different  departments  of  the  government  wrere  submitted  with  the  message  ; 
and  a  system  of  cavalry  tactics  prepared  during  the  summer  under  the 
direction  of  the  war  department.  These  were  the  most  important  topics 
suggested  by  the  message. 

The  Creek  controversy,  which  might  have  been  considered  as  happily 
settled  by  the  treaty  of  22d  of  April,  was  still  to  continue  a  subject  of 
excitement.  Instead  of  waiting  till  the  tribes  had  removed  from  their 
ceded  lands,  governor  Troup  ordered  the  surveyors  employed  by  him  to 
enter  the  Indian  territories  and  commence  the  surveys,  previous  to  the 
time  prescribed  by  the  treaty  for  the  removal.  The  Indians  resisted  these 
encroachments,  and  the  governor  ordered  out  a  force  of  militia.  In  this 
posture  of  affairs,  the  president  determined  to  support  the  laws  of  the  Union 
by  the  authority  which  the  constitution  had  placed  in  his  hands,  previously 
submitting  the  affair  to  congress,  to  have  it  determined  whether  it  were 
necessary  to  resort  to  any  new  measures.  On  the  5th  of  February  he 
transmitted  to  both  houses  of  congress  a  message,  in  which  he  gave  a  plain 
statement  of  the  facts,  and  declared  his  determination  to  enforce  the  laws, 
and  fulfil  the  duties  of  the  nation  by  all  the  force  committed  for  that  pur- 
pose to  his  charge.  '  That  the  arm  of  military  force  will  be  resorted  to 
only  in  the  event  of  the  failure  of  all  other  expedients  provided  by  the 
laws,  a  pledge  has  been  given  by  the  forbearance  to  employ  it  at  this  time. 
It  is  submitted  to  the  wisdom  of  congress  to  determine,  whether  any  fur-, 
ther  acts  of  legislation  may  be  necessary  or  expedient  to  meet  the  emer* 
Fency  which  these  transactions  may  produce.' 


tttsrroR?.  771 

threat  excitement  was  displayed  in  both  houses  on  the  receipt  of  this 
fcnessage.  The  committee  of  the  representatives,  to  which  it  was  referred 
reported  that  it  '  is  expedient  to  procure  a  cession  of  the  Indian  lands  in 
the  state  of  Georgia,  and  that  until  such  a  cession  is  procured,  the  law  of 
the  land,  as  set  forth  in  the  treaty  at  Washington,  ought  to  be  maintained 
by  all  necessary,  constitutional,  and  legal  means.'  The  firmness  of  the 
president  brought  the  governor  of  Georgia  to  reason,  and  he  addressed  a 
letter  to  the  delegation  of  that  state  at  Washington,  submitting  to  the  de- 
cision of  congress,  and  denying  any  intention  of  a  resort  to  force,  except 
the  sovereignty  of  the  state  came  into  collision  with  the  United  States. 
A  cession  of  the  Creek  land  in  Georgia  was  finally  procured,  and  the  dis- 
pute in  respect  to  this  portion  of  the  Indian  territory  was  put  at  rest. 

A  bill  for  an  additional  protection  on  woollens  was  agitated  during  this 
session,  and  finally  laid  on  the  table  by  the  casting  vote  of  the  vice-presi- 
dent. The  defeat  of  this  measure  occasioned  much  discussion  in  all  parts 
of  the  Union,  and  stimulated  the  friends  of  this  branch  of  industry  to  re- 
newed exertions.  In  Pennsylvania  a  state  convention  was  proposed,  to 
choose  delegates  to  attend  a  general  convention  at  Harrisburg  on  the  30th 
of  July,  1827.  Other  states  answered  with  alacrity  to  this  invitation,  and 
a  meeting  was  held  at  the  appointed  time,  of  delegates  in  the  highest  de- 
gree respectable  in  point  of  talent,  weight  of  character,  and  dignity  of 
Btanding.  The  reports  of  their  committees,  on  various  subjects  connected 
with  domestic  industry,  exhibited  the  importance  and  the  necessity  of  in- 
creased protection,  and  a  memorial  to  congress,  drawn  up  in  conformity 
with  these  views,  was  unanimously  adopted.  These  proceedings  were 
received  in  the  southern  states  with  much  dissatisfaction.  They  were 
represented  as  at  war  with  their  best  interests,  and  with  the  spirit  of  the 
constitution.  No  means  were  omitted  to  raise  a  strong  excitement  in  the 
community,  in  opposition  to  all  increase  of  the  woollen  duty ;  but  at  the 
time  of  the  twentieth  congress,  the  public  mind  was  more  and  more  im- 
pressed with  the  opinion  that  effectual  measures  would  be  resorted  to  for 
the  relief  of  this  branch  of  national  industry. 

We  have  not  room  for  a  detailed  account  of  the  various  measures  of 
Mr.  Adams'  administration.  During  the  whole  of  it  the  United  States 
enjoyed  uninterrupted  peace  ;  for  the  foreign  policy  of  the  government 
had  nothing  in  view  but  the  maintenance  of  our  national  dignity,  the  ex- 
tension of  our  commercial  relations,  and  the  successful  prosecution  of  the 
claims  of  American  citizens  upon  foreign  governments. 

A  portion  of  these  claims  upon  Sweden  and  Denmark  was  obtained, 
and  the  claims  which  arose  against  the  Brazilian  government,  during  the 
war  between  that  power  and  Buenos  Ayres,  were  speedily  adjusted  by  the 
liquidation  of  the  claims.  The  exorbitant  pretensions  of  Great  Britain 
respecting  the  West  India  trade  were  resisted,  although  at  the  expense  of 
the  direct  trade  between  the  United  States  and  the  British  islands. 

The  difficulties  which  occurred  in  carrying  into  effect  the  treaty  of 
Ghent,  relative  to  deported  slaves,  and  other  property  taken  away,  having 
been  found  insurmountable,  the  sum  of  one  million  two  hundred  and  four 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty  dollars,  which  was  amply  sufficient,  was 
obtained  from  the  British  government  in  satisfaction  of  these  claims.  A 
convention  was  also  concluded  with  that  government,  and  a  mode  provided 
Cor  the  peaceable  settlement  of  the  long  pending  and  finally  threatening 


7r4  BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

dispute  concerning  the  north-east  boundary  of  the  United  States.  The 
treaty  of  commerce  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  and  the 
convention  effecting  a  temporary  compromise  of  their  conflicting  claims  to 
the  territory  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  both  of  which  expired  by  their 
own  limitation,  October  20th,  1828,  were  renewed  for  an  indefinite  period, 
with  liberty  to  either  party  to  terminate  them,  on  giving  one  year's  notice. 
Some  commercial  difficulties,  which  grew  out  of  an  adherence  of  the  go- 
vernment of  the  Netherlands  to  the  principles  of  discriminating  duties, 
were  adjusted  to  mutual  satisfaction.  New  treaties  of  amity,  navigation, 
and  commerce,  in  which  the  liberal  principles  maintained  by  the  United 
States,  in  her  commercial  and  foreign  policy,  were  generally  recognised, 
were  concluded  with  Colombia,  Austria,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Guatemala, 
and  the  Hanseatic  league. 

It  was,  however,  in  the  domestic  policy  of  the  government,  that  the  cha- 
racter of  the  administration  was  most  strongly  displayed.  During  its 
continuance  in  office,  new  and  increased  activity  was  imparted  to  those 
powers  vested  in  the  federal  government,  for  the  development  of  the 
resources  of  the  country ;  and  the  public  revenue  liberally  expended  in 
prosecuting  those  national  measures  to  which  the  sanction  of  congress  had 
been  deliberately  given,  as  the  settled  policy  of  the  government. 

In  the  condition  which  we  have  described,  in  peace  with  all  the  world 
with  an  increasing  revenue,  and  with  a  surplus  of  five  millions  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  thousand  six  hundred  and  thirty-eight  dollars  in  the 
public  treasury,  the  administration  of  the  government  of  the  United  States 
was  surrendered  by  Mr.  Adams,  who  became  a  private  citizen,  to  general 
Jackson,  his  successor. 

Thus  ended  the  administration  of  Mr.  Adams ;  an  administration  marked 
by  definite  and  consistent  policy  and  energetic  councils,  governed  by  up 
right  motives,  but  from  the  beginning  devoted  to  the  most  violent  opposi 
tion  and  a  signal  overthrow.  The  election  which  terminated  in  the  defea1 
of  Mr.  Adams  was  marked  with  extreme  bitterness,  asperity,  and  profligacy. 
On  both  sides  the  press  was  virulent,  libellous,  and  mean.  No  privacy 
was  safe,  no  confidence  was  sacred ;  even  the  tombs  of  the  illustrious  dead 
were  violated,  and  their  ashes  defiled.  The  arts  of  party  warfare  were, 
more  insidious  than  the  arts  of  savage  treachery,  and  its  arms  more  ruth- 
less than  the  tomahawk  or  the  scalping  knife.  Calumny  and  falsehood 
were  the  usual  resources  of  the  most  violent  partisans,  and  the  only  wea- 
pons that  they  never  for  a  moment  laid  aside.  The  brave  soldier  was  de- 
scribed as  a  malignant  savage,  and  the  experienced  statesman  as  a  mar- 
who  had  purchased  by  intrigue  a  position  that  he  was  determined  to  main 
tain  by  corruption.  It  must  be  most  sincerely  hoped  that  an  era  may  nevei 
again  arrive  in  our  history  to  be  stamped  so  indelibly  with  the  brand  of 
shame ;  that  public  opinion  will  ever  require  of  the  public  press  a  more 
decent  regard  to  the  charities  of  life  and  the  duties  of  truth. 

We  will  not  undertake  a  sketch  of  the  administration  of  president  Jack- 
son. The  events  of  his  rule  are  not  yet  ripe  for  the  historian.  His  mea- 
sures have  not  yet  produced  their  full  results.  His  policy  has  not  yet 
compassed  its  complete  development.  There  is  too  much  party  feeling 
and  party  prejudice  for  and  against  the  chief  magistrate,  to  permit  or 
justify  such  a  sketch  as  would  suit  the  purpose  of  the  present  volume.  All 
the  readers  of  this  work  are  too  familiar  with  the  details  of  this  adminis- 


HHTORT.  773 

Cration  to  desire  so  meagre  an  account  of  them  as  could  be  crowded  into 
the  end  of  a  volume.  We  cannot  close  this  volume,  however,  without 
avowing  that  our  researches  have  led  us  to  the  conviction,  that  the  United 
States  have  reached  a  measure  of  prosperity,  both  individual  and  national, 
never  before  witnessed  on  so  extensive  a  scale.  It  cannot  be  denied  that 
there  exist  in  them  a  real  and  substantial  equality  of  civil  and  political 
rights ;  a  general  diffusion,  not  only  of  the  necessaries,  but  of  the  comforts 
of  life ;  a  high  degree  of  mental  activity,  animating  the  mass  of  society; 
not  only  the  facility  of  acquiring,  but  the  actual  attainment,  of  practical 
knowledge ;  and  enterprises  of  internal  improvement  which  surpass  in 
extent  and  importance  those  of  the  richest  nations  on  the  globe ;  thirteen 
millions  of  inhabitants,  governed,  or  rather  governing  themselves,  and  pre- 
serving a  state  of  order  and  subordination  to  legal  authority,  almost  with- 
*out  military  aid,  and,  what  will  surprise  some  still  more,  almost  without 
taxes,  while  empires  ruled  on  despotic  principles,  whose  peculiar  boast  is 
the  adaptation  of  their  system  to  promote  internal  peace  and  tranquillity, 
are  as  much  exposed  to  domestic  convulsions  as  they  are  to  foreign  war ; 
and,  finally,  a  rapidity  in  the  advance  of  population,  and  of  improvement 
in  all  the  arts  of  life  and  society,  alike  unprecedented  in  the  past,  and 
baffling  all  conjecture  for  the  future. 


775 


APPENDIX. 


For  the  purpose  of  presenting  a  general 
statement  of  the  present  resources  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  most  important  de- 
partments, we  present  a  condensed  summa- 
ry of  the  reports  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
general  government,  with  tabular  views. 

WAR  DEPARTMENT. 

November  27,  1834. 

Since  my  last  annual  report,  no  military 
movement  of  any  importance,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  expedition  of  the  regiment 
of  dragoons,  has  been  rendered  necessary. 
The  reports  and  information  which  have 
reached  the  department  respecting  the  situ- 
ation of  the  army  are  highly  gratifying. 
In  its  discipline,  its  moral  character,  and 
the  general  performance  of  its  duties,  the 
government  and  the  country  have  every 
reason  to  be  satisfied  with  its  condition  and 
prospects.  As  a  safeguard  for  the  frontiers, 
as  a  school  of  practical  instruction,  as  a 
depository  of  military  information,  and  as 
the  means  of  preparing  and  providing  in 
peace  for  the  exigencies  of  war,  the  present 
military  establishment  has  fully  answered 
the  objects  of  its  organization  and  support. 
And  it  is  but  an  act  of  justice  to  state,  that, 
in  all  the  essential  requisites  of  capacity 
and  conduct,  the  officers  of  the  American 
army  do  honor  to  themselves  and  their  coun- 
try. 

It  is  well  known,  that  some  of  the  western 
tribes  of  Indians,  roaming  through  the  ex- 
tensive prairies  west  of  Arkansas  and  Mis- 
souri, particularly  the  Camanches  and  Kio- 
was,  have,  for  some  years,  interrupted  the 
peace  of  that  quarter,  by  predatory  attacks 
upon  our  citizens  and  upon  the  indigenous 
and  emigrant  Indians,  whom  we  are  under 
obligations  to  protect.  Their  war  parties 
have  annoyed  our  citizens  in  their  inter- 
course with  the  Mexican  states,  and  have 
rendered  the  communication  difficult  and 
hazardous.  It  became  necessary  to  put  a 
stop  to  this  state  of  things,  either  by  amica- 
ble representations  or  by  force.  Those  re- 
mote tribes  have  little  knowledge  of  the 
strength  of  the  United  States,  or  of  their 
own  relative  weakness  ;  and  it  was  hoped 
that  the  display  of  a  respectable  military  I 


force,  for  the  first  time,  in  their  country, 
would  satisfy  them  that  further  hostilities 
would  lead  to  their  destruction.  The  dra- 
goons, being  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  ser- 
vice, were  ordered  to  penetrate  into  that 
region,  and  to  endeavor,  by  peaceable  re- 
monstrances, to  establish  permanent  tran- 
quillity ;  and  if  these  should  fail,  to  repel 
any  hostile  demonstrations  which  might  be 
made.  Fortunately,  the  efforts  to  introduce 
amicable  relations  were  successful,  and  the 
object  of  the  expedition  was  obtained,  with- 
out a  single  act  of  hostility.  Colonel  Dodge, 
who  led  the  expedition,  and  his  whole  com- 
mand, appear  to  have  performed  their  du- 
ties in  the  most  satisfactory  manner  ;  and 
they  encountered  with  firmness  the  priva- 
tions incident  to  the  harassing  service  up- 
on which  they  were  ordered.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  prevalence  of  sickness 
prevented  the  whole  regiment  from  joining 
in  this  duty,  as  the  same  zeal  for  the  public 
interest  pervaded  the  whole.  That  sickness 
deprived  the  country  of  some  valuable  lives, 
and,  among  others,  of  brigadier-general 
Leavenworth.  Impelled  by  his  anxiety  to 
forward  the  views  of  the  government,  he 
exposed  himself,  while  yet  weak,  to  the 
hardships  of  a  border  campaign,  and  sunk 
under  the  malady  which  these  induced. 
His  high  personal  character,  his  services 
during  the  late  war,  and  his  exemplary  offi- 
cial conduct  since,  are  too  well  known  to 
you  to  require  from  me  any  thing  more 
than  this  brief  allusion  to  his  worth  and 
fate. 

Among  the  accompanying  documents 
will  be  found  a  full  statement  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  colonel  Dodge,  and  of  the  satis- 
factory result  of  his  expedition. 

The  report  of  the  chief  engineer  contains 
a  summary  of  the  various  objects  intrusted 
to  his  supervision,  and  of  their  progress  and 
condition.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Cumber- 
land road,  east  of  Wheeling,  will  be  soon 
completed,  in  the  manner  required  by  an 
act  of  last  session,  and  for  the  amount  al- 
lowed by  law.  No  further  appropriations 
will  be  asked  for.  As  much  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  other  works  as  the  ad- 
vanced state  of  the  season  when  the  appro- 
priations were  made  would  permit. 


776 


APPENUX. 


I  beg  leave  to  ask  your  particular  atten- 
tion to  that  part  of  the  report  of  the  chief 
engineer  which  recommends  an  addition  to 
the  number  of  officers  of  his  corps.  I  be- 
lieve the  public  service  requires  this  mea- 
sure. Similar  reasons  call  for  a  reorgani- 
zation of  the  topographical  corps,  and  the 
officer  at  the  head  of  it  has  submitted  a 
projet  for  this  purpose  which,  while  it  will 
render  that  corps  more  efficient,  will  not 
increase  the  public  expense. 

The  present  condition  of  the  work  at  the 
Delaware  breakwater  is  shown  in  the  re- 
port of  the  quartermaster-general,  and  in 
that  of  the  commission  lately  instituted  by 
your  orders  to  examine  it.  It  has  been 
known  for  some  time  that  gradual  deposi- 
tions were  making  in  the  vicinity  of  this 
work,  by  which  the  depth  of  water  was 
somewhat  reduced.  But,  until  this  season, 
the  process  was  so  slow  and  uncertain,  that 
no  anxiety  was  felt  with  respect  to  its  final 
«ffect  upon  this  great  national  improve- 
ment. Recently,  however,  the  accumula- 
tion of  sand  in  the  artificial  harbor  has  been 
much  more  rapid,  and  indicated  the  neces- 
sity of  a  thorough  examination  by  scientific 
persons,  in  order  to  ascertain,  if  possible, 
the  causes  of  this  occurrence,  and  to  check 
or  obviate  them.  The  views  of  the  officers 
selected  for  this  purpose  will  be  found  in 
their  report ;  and,  agreeably  to  your  direc- 
tions, they  have  been  adopted  by  the  de- 
partment. An  estimate  for  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  to  be  applied  to  this  work, 
is  among  the  annual  estimates  of  the  de- 
partment, and  if  approved  by  congress,  that 
sum  will  be  appropriated  in  the  manner 
pointed  out  by  the  report,  to  the  completion 
of  that  part  of  the  work  already  begun,  and 
yet  unfinished.  In  the  mean  time,  by  a 
series  of  observations,  frequently  and  care- 
fully taken,  the  probable  operation  of  the 
tides  and  currents  may  be  ascertained,  and 
the  best  remedy  to  counteract  them  pointed 
out. 

The  act  of  March  2,  1829,  '  to  continue 
the  present  mode  of  supplying  the  army  of 
the  United  States,1  expires,  by  its  own  limi- 
tation, on  the  2d  of  March  next.  The  sub- 
sistence department,  which  was  continued 
by  this  act,  has  been  found  highly  useful 
to  the  army,  and  beneficial  to  the  public, 
by  the  efficiency  and  economy  of  its  admi- 
nistration. From  my  own  knowledge  of  its 
officers  and  operations,  as  well  as  from 
what  I  have  otherwise  learned  of  these,  I 
feel  called  upon  to  present  this  subject  par- 
ticularly to  your  attention,  satisfied  that 
the  continuance  of  the  department  is  de- 
manded by  the  best  interest  of  the  service. 

Disclosures  have  oeea  made  during  the 


past  season,  showing  the  necessity  of  a 
thorough  investigation  into  the  operatioD  n( 
the  laws  granting  pensions  and  gratuities 
for  military  services.  It  is  ascertained 
that  many  frauds  have  been  committed ; 
some  in  the  application  for  pensions,  and 
others  in  the  continuance  of  these  payments. 
As  these  disclosures  have  been  the  result  of 
accident,  it  is  impossible  to  judge  to  what 
extent  frauds  may  have  been  committed  ; 
but  enough  has  occurred  to  satisfy  me  that 
some  new  mode  of  proceeding  is  essentially 
necessary  to  detect  and  check  these  abuses. 

The  provision  of  law  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  pension  office  as  a  branch  of  this 
department,  expires,  by  its  own  limitation, 
at  the  end  of  the  present  session  of  con- 
gress. It  is  essential  to  a  due  execution  of 
the  duties  connected  with  the  system  of 
pensions  and  gratuities  for  military  servi- 
ces, that  this  arrangement  should  be  re- 
newed and  continued.  The  applicants  and 
grantees  are  so  numerous ;  the  aggregate 
amount  disbursed  so  great,  equalling  at 
least  three  million  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars  annually;  and  the  doubtful  ques- 
tions, both  of  fact  and  principle,  so  fre- 
quent and  complicated,  that  unless  a 
branch  of  administration,  carefully  super- 
intended, is  devoted  exclusively  to  this  ser- 
vice, the  public  interest  must  materially 
suffer. 

The  commission  for  the  adjustment  of 
unsettled  relations  with  the  Indians  west 
of  the  Mississippi  terminated,  by  the  pro- 
visions of  the  act  instituting  it,  in  July  last- 
Important  benefits  have  resulted  from  the 
labors  of  the  commissioners  in  the  adjust- 
ment of  difficult  questions  connected  with 
the  Indians  of  that  region,  and  in  the  treaty 
arrangements  which  have  been  entered  into 
by  them.  The  country  assigned  for  the 
permanent  residence  of  the  eastern  Indians 
has  been  so  apportioned  among  them,  that 
little  difficulty  is  anticipated  from  conflicting 
claims,  or  from  doubtful  boundaries ;  and, 
both  in  quality  and  extent,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  the  region  allotted  to  them 
will  be  amply  sufficient  for  their  comforta- 
ble subsistence  during  an  indefinite  period 
of  time. 

An  important  council  has  been  held  at 
fort  Gibson  by  colonel  Dodge,  and  by  major 
Armstrong,  the  superintendent  of  Indian 
affairs,  with  the  chiefs  of  several  of  the 
tribes  of  that  quarter,  including  some  of 
the  wandering  bands,  whose  predatory  ope- 
rations have  heretofore  kept  the  frontier  in 
alarm.  At  this  council,  the  situation  of 
the  Indians  was  fully  discussed,  and  amica- 
ble relations  established.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  feelings  with  which  they  separated 


APPENDIX. 


777 


Tnil  be  permanent,  and  their  intercourse 
hereafter  uninterrupted. 

The  acts  of  the  last  session  of  congress, 
on  the  subject  of  Indian  affairs,  have  intro- 
duced important  changes  into  those  rela- 
tions. Many  of  the  provisions  of  former 
laws  had  become  inappropriate,  or  inade- 
quate, and  not  suited  to  the  changes  which 
time  and  circumstances  had  made.  In  the 
act  regulating  the  intercourse  with  the  va- 
rious tribes,  the  principles  of  intercommu- 
nication with  them  are  laid  down,  and  the 
necessary  details  provided.  In  that  for  the 
reorganization  of  the  department,  the  num- 
ber of  officers  employed  has  been  much  re- 
duced, and  the  current  expenses  diminished. 

The  system  of  removal  has  changed  es- 
sentially the  prospects  of  the  emigrants,  and 
has  imposed  new  obligations  upon  the  Uni- 
ted States.  A  vast  tract  of  country,  con- 
taining much  more  than  one  hundred  mil- 
lions of  acres,  has  been  set  apart  for  the 
permanent  residence  of  these  Indians,  and 
already  about  thirty  thousand  have  been 
removed  to  it.  The  government  is  under 
treaty  stipulations  to  remove  nearly  fifty 
thousand  others  to  the  same  region,  includ- 
ing the  Illinois  and  lake  Michigan  Indians, 
with  whom  a  conditional  arrangement  has 
been  made.  This  extensive  district,  em- 
bracing a  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate, 
has  been  divided  among  the  several  tribes, 
and  definite  boundaries  assigned  to  each. 
They  will  there  be  brought  into  juxtaposi- 
tion with  one  another,  and  also  into  con- 
tact, and  possibly  into  collision  with  the  na- 
tive tribes  of  that  country ;  and  it  seems 
highly  desirable  that  some  plan  should  be 
adopted  for  the  regulation  of  the  intercourse 
among  these  divided  communities,  and  for 
the  exercise  of  a  general  power  of  supervi- 
sion over  them,  so  far  as  these  objects  can 
be  effected  coAsistently  with  the  power  of 
congress,  and  with  the  various  treaty  stipu- 
lations existing  with  them.  It  is  difficult, 
indeed,  to  conceive  how  peace  can  be  pre- 
served, and  the  guaranty  of  protection  held 
out  to  the  eastern  Indians  fulfilled,  without 
some  legislative  provision  upon  this  subject. 

The  ordinary  expenditures  of  the  Indian 
department  have  been  reduced  to  the  sum 
of  fifty-nine  thousand  eight  hundred  dollars  ; 
a  material  diminution,  which  the  provisions 
of  the  law  of  the  last  session,  organizing 
that  department,  has  rendered  practicable 
and  which  brings  down  its  expenditures  to 
a  sum  less  by  one-half  than  the  average  an- 
nual amount  for  some  years  past. 

Lew.  Cass 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT. 

All  the  services  required  of  our  naval 

force  have  been  promptly  performed :  our 

98 


commerce  has  been  protected  in  the  remote 
as  well  as  the  neighboring  seas ;  our  na* 
tional  character  has  been  sustained  at  home 
and  abroad ;  while  a  large  portion  of  our 
naval  officers,  seamen,  and  marines,  have 
been  kept  in  active  service,  under  a  strict 
discipline,  calculated  to  fit  them  for  all  the 
duties  which  may  be  required  of  them, 
whether  in  defending  our  property  on  the 
ocean  from  pirates  or  open  enemies,  our 
shores  from  hostile  aggression,  or  our  flag 
from  insult. 

An  inspection  of  our  navyyards  at  Ports- 
mouth, Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Washington,  and  Norfolk,  made  in  August 
and  September  last,  in  company  with  the 
commissioners  of  the  navy  board,  has 
afforded  me  the  most  satisfactory  evidence 
of  our  means,  in  a  short  time,  of  increasing 
our  navy  to  any  extent  the  exigencies  of 
our  country  may  require. 

The  officers  in  charge  of  those  stations 
perform  their  duties  with  great  ability  and 
zeal  5  the  building  and  repairing  of  our  ships 
are  conducted  with  despatch  and  economy  ; 
and  the  ample  materials  on  hand  for  naval 
purposes  are  preserved  with  the  greatest 
care,  and  by  all  the  means  which  science 
and  experience  can  suggest  to  prevent  de* 
cay. 

Our  naval  force  consists  of  six  ships  of 
the  line  and  seven  frigates  now  building, 
for  the  completion  of  which  additional  ap- 
propriations to  the  amount  of  $1,527,640 
will  be  required  ;  of  five  ships  of  the  line, 
two  frigates,  and  six  sloops  of  war  in  ordi- 
nary, requiring  repairs  which  will  cost 
$1,362,000,  in  addition  to  the  materials  on 
hand  for  that  purpose  ;  and  of  one  ship  of 
the  line,  four  frigates,  eight  sloops  of  war, 
and  six  schooners  in  commission  ;  in  all, 
twelve  ships  of  the  line,  thirteen  frigates, 
fourteen  sloops  of  war,  and  six  schooners. 
Besides  which,  the  frames  of  ships  procured, 
or  under  contract,  for  the  gradual  increase 
of  the  navy,  and  other  materials  on  hand 
or  under  contract  for  that  purpose,  will 
afford  the  means  of  bringing  into  the  ser- 
vice, as  soon  as  it  can  probably  be  required, 
an  additional  force  of  five  ships  of  the  line, 
eleven  frigates,  seven  sloops  of  war,  and 
two  schooners,  the  building  of  which  may 
be  immediately  commenced  on  launching 
our  vessels  now  upon  the  stocks. 

Our  vessels  in  commission  during  the 
past  year  have  been  employed,  as  heretofore, 
in  protecting  our  commerce  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  the  West  Indies,  on  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  and  in  the  Pacific  ocean. 

Our  naval  force,  consisting  of  commission 
and  warrant  officers,  petty  officers,  seamen, 
ordinary  seamen,  landsmen,  and  boys, 
amounts  to  six  thousand  and  seventy-two ; 


778 


APPENDIX 


and  our  marine  corps,  under  its  new  organi- 
zation, will  consist  of  commissioned  officers, 
non-commissioned  officers,  musicians,  and 
privates,  to  the  number  of  one  thousand  two 
hundred  and  eighty-three ;  making  a  total 
■of  seven  thousand  three  hundred  and  fifty- 
five. 

The  dry  docks  at  Boston  and  Norfolk 
have  fully  answered  the  most  sanguine  ex- 
pectations that  were  formed  of  their  useful- 
ness. They  are  now  deemed  indispensable 
to  a  speedy  and  economical  repair  of  our 
larger  vessels.  But  the  two  already  finish- 
ed are  not  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  our 
navy.  An  additional  dry  dock,  at  some 
intermediate  point  between  Boston  and 
Norfolk,  would  greatly  promote  the  pur- 
poses for  which  our  navy  is  established  and 
maintained.  As  a  site  for  such  additional 
dry  dock,  the  harbor  of  New  York  presents 
greater  advantages  than  are  to  be  found  in 
any  other  situation  ;  among  which  may  be 
enumerated  the  great  commerce  of  the 
place,  the  facilities  which  the  city  of  New 
York  affords  for  recruiting  seamen,  and  for 
procuring  all  materials,  as  well  as  for  em- 
ploying skilful  mechanics  and  laborers  ne- 
cessary for  repairing  vessels. 

It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  power 
of  steam  is  soon  to  produce  as  great  a  revo- 
lution in  the  defence  of  rivers,  bays,  coasts, 
and  harbors,  as  it  has  already  done  in  the 
commerce,  intercourse,  and  business  of  all 
classes  of  men  in  Europe  as  well  as  Ame- 
rica. This  subject  has  already  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  maritime  powers  of 
Europe ;  and  our  honor  as  well  as  safety 
requires  that  no  nation,  whose  fleets  may 
come  in  conflict  with  ours,  should  be  in  ad- 
vance of  us  in  the  science  and  application 
of  this  power,  upon  which  the  success  of 
our  future  wars  with  them  may  depend. 
Should  the  power  of  steam,  as  a  means  of 
defence,  produce  all  the  effects  that  may  be 
justly  anticipated,  it  will  diminish,  in  some 
instances,  the  necessity  of  permanent  forti- 
fications on  our  coasts,  by  substituting  those 
which  may  be  moved  from  place  to  place 
as  they  may  be  wanted,  and  in  our  own 
waters  become  the  formidable  engines  of 
attack  as  well  as  defence. 

I  can  add  nothing  to  what  has  been  fre- 
quently urged  in  favor  of  a  peace  establish- 
ment for  our  navy  ;  but  must  be  permitted 
to  state,  what  has  often  before  been  stated, 
that  the  compensation  of  the  commanders 
of  our  ships  on  foreign  stations  is  altogether 
inadequate  to  an  honorable  discharge  of 
their  duties.  They  are  compelled  to  incur 
expenses  beyond  the  amount  of  their  pay 
and  rations,  or  decline  to  receive  and  return 
civilities  uniformly  offered  to  them  on  such 


stations,  and  upon  which  our  friendly  rela- 
tions with  foreign  nations  may,  in  some  de- 
gree, depend. 

It  is  believed  that  the  discipline  and  har- 
mony of  the  officers  and  men  of  the  navy 
proper,  and  of  the  marine  corps,  will  ba 
promoted  by  placing  the  marine  barracks 
without  the  bounds  of  the  different  navy 
yards  with  which  they  may  be  connected. 
This  arrangement  would  create  but  little' 
additional  expense  to  the  government.  The 
marine  barracks  at  Portsmouth,  should  it 
be  thought  proper  to  retain  them  as  such, 
are  at  a  sufficient  distance,  and  might  be 
easily  separated  from  that  part  of  the  navy 
yard  in  which  ships  are  built  and  repaired, 
and  in  which  are  placed  the  workshops  and 
stores  of  that  station. 

Under  the  first  section  of  the  act  concern- 
ing naval  pensions  and  the  navy  pension 
fund,  passed  the  30th  of  June  last,  fourteen 
pensions  to  widows  have  been  renewed,  and 
thirty-seven  original  pensions  have  been 
granted,  in  pursuance  of  the  provisions  of 
that  act.  These  constitute  a  heavy  charge 
upon  that  fund,  and  require  for  their  pay- 
ment annually  the  sum  of  $16,062. 

Under  the  second  section  of  that  act,  the 
sum  of  $141,303  80  has  been  reimbursed 
to  the  fund  for  the  cost  of  the  stock  of  the 
bank  of  Columbia,  heretofore  purchased  by 
the  commissioners  of  the  fund,  with  interest 
thereon  from  the  period  at  which  said  bank 
ceased  to  pay  interest  to  the  time  of  reim- 
bursement. $141,300  of  the  amount  has 
been  vested  in  the  stock  of  the  bank  of  the 
United  States,  as  authorized  by  the  act  of 
congress  of  the  10th  of  July,  1832. 

The  number  of  invalid  pensioners  is  two 
hundred  and  eighty-seven.  Should  all  of 
them  claim,  which  is  improbable,  the  amount 
required  for  their  annual  payment  will  be 
$23,321. 

The  number  of  widow  pensioners,  includ- 
ing those  under  the  act  of  the  30th  of  June 
last,  is  one  hundred  and  nine ;  and  the 
amount  required  for  their  annual  payment 
is  $24,023,  making  the  annual  charge,  ac- 
cording to  the  present  pension  roll,  $47,254. 

Of  the  privateer  pension  fund,  the  act  of 
congress  of  the  19th  of  June  last  revived 
five  years'  pensions  to  widows  of  officers, 
seamen,  and  marines,  slain  or  lost  on  board 
of  private  armed  vessels. 

The  amount  to  the  credit  of  the  navy  hos- 
pital fund,  on  the  1st  instant,  was  $35,559  04. 
The  increase  of  the  fund  arising  from  de- 
ductions in  the  settlement  of  accounts  in 
the  fourth  auditors  office  will  be  nearly 
$16,000  per  annum.  The  expenditures  for 
several  years  will  probably  not  exceed  $13,- 
000  per  annum.    This  will  leave  balances 


APPENDS. 


779 


not  wanted  for  current  expenses.  The  pro- 
priety of  authorizing  by  law  the  investment 
of  such  balances  in  some  well  secured,  pro- 
ductive stock,  is  respectfully  suggested. 

Of  the  appropriations  heretofore  made  for 
the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade,  there  re- 
mains in  the  treasury  a  balance  of  $14,213 
91.  It  is  not  believed  that  any  further  ap- 
propriation for  this  purpose  is  necessary  at 
this  time. 

In  the  report  of  my  predecessor,  of  the 
30th  of  November  last,  an  estimate  of  the 
expense  of  purchasing  and  maintaining  a 
lithographic  press  was  submitted,  as  a  means 
of  procuring  charts  and  blank  forms  for  this 
department,  as  well  as  for  the  several  navy 
yards  and  vessels  in  commission,  as  also 
for  the  purpose  of  multiplying  copies  of 
drawings  connected  with  the  survey  of  the 
coast.  As,  in  my  opinion,  the  employment 
of  such  a  press  would  be  a  saving  of  time 
and  money,  in  the  duties  now  performed 
by  clerks  and  draughtsmen  in  this  depart- 
ment, and  the  branches  of  service  connect- 
ed with  it,  I  respectfully  renew  the  applica- 
tion for  the  necessary  appropriation  for  this 
press  j  and  annex  hereto  copies  of  the  letters 
of  the  commissioners  of  the  navy  board,  and 
of  lieutenant  Charles  Wilkes  jr.,  heretofore 
laid  before  congress,  in  favor  of  this  appli- 
cation. 

The  charge  of  the  coast  survey,  now  un- 
der the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Hassler, 
•was,  on  the  11th  day  of  March  last,  transfer- 
red from  the  treasury  to  the  navy  depart- 
ment, to  which  it  was  thought  more  proper- 
ly to  belong.  The  report  of  Mr.  Hassler, 
of  the  17th  of  May  last,  and  his  supplementa- 
ry report  of  the  ilth  of  last  month,  with  the 
maps,  draughts,  and  sketches  accompanying 
the  same,  herewith  transmitted,  show  the 
progress  already  made  in  this  work  under 
the  law  of  1832,  and  its  connection  with  the 
progress  made  in  the  same  in  the  year  1817. 

From  what  has  been  done  in  this  survey, 
we  may  reasonably  hope  that  this  important 
work  will  advance  with  all  the  aid  which 
science,  skill,  and  industry  can  give  it,  and 
in  a  manner  as  honorable  to  the  govern- 
ment under  whose  auspices  it  was  begun, 
and  has  been  continued,  as  it  will  be  useful 
lo  the  present  and  to  future  ages. 

The  information  wanted  for  accurate  and 
detailed  estimates  of  the  necessary  appro- 
priations for  the  continuance  of  the  coast 
survey,  cannot  easily  be  obtained  until  fur- 
ther experience  shall  enable  the  officers  en- 
gaged in  it  to  introduce  more  system  in  the 
detail  of  duties  and  expenditures  in  their 
work  than  they  have  heretofore  been  able 
to  do. 

The  sum  of  thirty  thousand  dollars  was 
appropriated  for  this  purpose  the  past  year, 


and  it  is  believed  that  an  equal  sum  will  be 
wanted  for  the  ensuing  year,  as  stated  in 
the  estimates. 

MAHLON    DlCKERSON. 

GENERAL  POST-OFFICE  DEPARTMENT. 
November  29,  1834. 

The  report  which  I  had  the  honor  to  make 
on  the  30th  November,  1832,  exhibited  a- 
balance  due  from  this  department  on  the 
1st  July,  1833,  beyond  the  whole  amount 
of  its  available  funds,  of  $195,208  40. 

The  expenses  for  the  transportation  of 
the  mail  necessarily  continued  undiminish 
ed  till  the  close  of  the  year  1833,  prior  to- 
which  date  the  retrenchments  stated  in  that 
report  could  not  take  effect ;  consequently 
the  balance  of  debt  against  the  department 
continued  to  augment  till  that  period. 
The  gross  amount  of  posta- 
ges was,  from  July  1st 

to  December  31st,  1833,  $1,375,437  28 
The  total  expenses  of  the 

department  for  that  half 

year,     .  1,495,828  86 

The  balance  of  the  debt 
against  the  department, 
beyond  the  amount  of  its 
available  funds,  was,  on 
the  1st  of  January,  1834,  315,599  98 

From  the  1st  of  January,   1834,  the  re- 
trenchments in  the  transportation  of  the 
mail  began  to  take  effect ;  and  from   that 
period  the  revenues  of  the  department  ha ve 
exceeded  its  expenses. 
The  gross  amount  of  posta- 
ges was,  from  January 
1  to  June  30,  1834,  1,448,269  69 

The  total  expenses  of  the 
department  for  the  half 
year  ending  the  30th  of 
June,  1834,    .         .        .        1,400,762  45 


This  sum,  deducted  from 
the  gross  amount  of  pos- 
tages for  that  period, 
leaves  a  revenue  beyond 
the  amount  of  expenses 
for  the  half  year  from 
January  1  to  June  30, 
1834,  of 

This  sum,  deducted  from 
the  deficit  existing  Janu- 
ry  1,  1834,     . 


Reduces  the  balance  of  debt 
which  existed  against  the 
department  on  the  1st  of 
July,  1834,  to 


47,507  24 
315,599  99 

$268,092  74 


780 


APPENDIX. 


Such  was  the  financial  condition  of  the 
department  on  the  1st  day  of  July  last. 
The  amount  of  this  debt  has  been  continu- 
ally diminishing  to  the  present  time,  and  it 
continues  to  diminish  in  an  increased  ratio. 

On  the  1st  day  of  July,  1834,  the  balance 
of  the  account  with  banks  was  $398,616  99 
against  the  department,  consisting  of  loans, 
$275,000,  and  overchecks  to  the  amount  of 
$123,619  99.  In  this  statement,  the  diffe- 
rence between  loans  and  overchecks  is  ra- 
ther  nominal  than  essential. 

The  contracts  for  the  southern  section,  in- 
cluding the  states  of  Virginia,  North  Caroli- 
na, South  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  and  the 
territory  of  Florida,  which  will  expire  with 
the  current  year,  have  been  renewed  to  take 
effect  from  the  1st  of  January  next,  on  such 
terms  as  will  effect  an  annual  saving  from 
the  amount  now  paid  for  transportation  in 
that  section,  of  about         .  $120,000 

Additional     retrenchments 

have  also  been  made  in 

the  expense  of  transpor- 
tation subsequent  to  my 

last  report,  to  the  annual 

amount  of  about    .        .  59,000 


Making,  together,  an  annu- 
al saving  from  the  1st  of 
January  next,  of    . 


$179,000 


From  the  savings  thus  effected,  together 
with  the  current  excess  of  revenue  in  favor 
of  the  department,  it  may  be  safely  calcu- 
lated, that,  without  any  reliance  upon  an 
increase  in  the  gross  amount  of  postages, 
the  revenues  of  the  department  will  exceed 
its  expenditures  during  the  ensuing  calendar 
year,  to  the  amount  of  $270,000. 

From  a  careful  estimate,  it  may  be  an- 
ticipated, with  entire  confidence,  that,  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  year  1835,  the  whole 
balance  of  debt  against  the  department  will 
be  extinguished.  It  was  never  regarded 
by  either  of  the  parties  in  the  character  of 
a  debt  of  the  government,  but  a  mere  expe- 
dient to  anticipate  the  resources  of  the  de- 
partment, based  upon  the  credit  of  the  re- 
sources alone.  The  means  of  its  liquidation 
within  a  reasonable  time  were  always  with- 
in the  legal  control  of  the  department,  and 
no  other  means  have  at  any  time  been 
sought  or  desired  by  the  department. 

In  my  report  of  November,  1833,  the  ex- 
pense for  transporting  the  mail,  and  for  in- 
cidentals, from  July  1  to  December  31, 
!833,  was  estimated  at  .  $1,061,644  71 
The  actual  expense  for  that 

period  was      .        .        .       1,061,199  97 


Varying  from  the  estimate 
only       .... 

The  net  proceeds  for  posta- 
ges for  the  year  ending 
30th  June,  1834,  were 
then  estimated  at 

The  actual  net  proceeds  of 
postages    for  that    year 


Falling  below  the  estimate 
by  the  sum  of 


$444  74 


1,927,644  44 


$109,766  37 


Thus  it  appears  that  the  expenses  of  the 
department  have  not  essentially  varied  from 
the  estimate  j  but  the  net  revenue  arising 
from  postages  has  fallen  short  of  the  esti 
mate  then  made  more  than  a  hundred  thou 
sand  dollars. 

Though  the  amount  of  revenue  arising 
from  postages  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
183 4,  did  not  equal  the  estimate,  yet  there 
was  a  considerable  increase  above  the 
amount  of  the  preceding  year.  The  gross 
amount  of  postages  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1833,  was  .  .  $2,616,538  27 
For  the  year  ending  June 

30,  1834,  it  was     .         .       2,823,706  97 


Making  an  increase  in  the 
gross  amount  of    . 


$207,168  70 


The  net  amount  of  posta? 

ges,  after  deducting  com- 
missions to  post-masters, 

and   the   contingent    ex? 

penses  of   their  offices, 

was,  for  the  year  ending 

June  30,  1833,       .         .     $1,790,254  65 
For  the  year  ending  June 

30,  1834,  it  was     .         .         1,927,644  44 


Making  an  increase  in  the 
net  proceeds  of 


$137,389  79 


The  finances  of  the  department  continue 
to  be  in  an  improving  condition ;  and  the 
solicitude  which  has  been  shown  to  obtain 
mail  contracts,  the  reduced  rates  at  which 
they  have  been  taken  for  the  southern  sec- 
tion, and  the  zeal  with  which  contractors 
generally  persevere  in  their  services  to  the 
department,  furnish  ample  demonstration 
that  its  credit  is  unimpaired. 

The  number  of  post-offices  in  the  United 
States  was,  on  the  1st  of  July  last,  ten  thou- 
sand six  hundred  and  ninety-three,  being 
an  increase  of  five  hundred  and  sixty-six 
over  the  number  reported  last  year. 

The  annual  amount  of  transportation  naa 


APPENDIX. 


7S1 


been  but  slightly  varied  since  my  last  re- 1 
port.  The  mail  is  now  carried  in  stages 
and  steam-boats  about  sixteen  million  nine 
hundred  thousand  miles  a  year,  and  on 
horseback  and  in  sulkies  about  eight  mil- 
lion six  hundred  thousand  miles,  making, 
together,  about  twenty-five  million  five  hun- 
dred thousand  miles  a  year. 

The  multiplication  of  rail-roads  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  promises,  within  a  few 
years,  to  give  great  rapidity  to  the  move- 
ments of  travellers,  and  it  is  a  subject  wor- 
thy of  inquiry,  whether  measures  may  not 
now  be  taken  to  secure  the  transportation 
of  the  mail  upon  them.  Already  have  the 
rail-roads  between  Frenchtown,  in  Mary- 
land, and  Newcastle,  in  Delaware,  and  be- 
tween Camden  and  South  Amboy,  in  New 
Jersey,  afforded  great  and  important  facili- 
ties to  the  transmission  of  the  great  east- 
ern mail.  The  rail-road  between  this  city 
and  Baltimore  will  soon  be  completed,  and 
the  distance  from  the  post-office  in  this 
place  to  that  of  Baltimore  will  not  be  ma- 
terially varied  from  the  present  road,  thirty- 
eight  miles.  From  Baltimore,  by  Port  De- 
posit, in  Maryland,  to  Coatesville,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, the  line  for  a  rail-road  is  located, 
and  the  stock  subscribed  for  its  completion  ; 
and  from  Coatesville  to  Philadelphia  a  rail- 
road is  made  and  in  operation.  The  dis- 
tance between  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia, 
on  this  road,  will  be  one  hundred  and  seven- 
teen miles ;  about  eighteen  miles  greater 
than  the  present  land  route.  From  Phila- 
delphia to  Trenton  bridge,  about  twenty- 
eight  miles,  the  rail-road  is  nearly  complet- 
ed ;  and,  from  New  Brunswick,  in  New 
Jersey,  to  Jersey  City,  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Hudson  river,  opposite  the  city  of  New 
York,  thirty  miles,  the  rail-road  is  in  a  state 
of  progress.  "When  these  works  shall  be 
completed,  the  only  interval  will  be  between 
Trenton  and  New  Brunswick,  about  twenty- 
six  miles,  to  complete  an  entire  rail-road 
between  this  place  and  the  city  of  New 
York;  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the 
enterprising  state  of  New  Jersey  will  long 
delay  to  perfect  a  communication  of  such 
great  importance,  passing  through  most  of 
her  Jargest  and  most  flourishing  towns. 

When  this  shall  be  done,  the  whole  dis- 
tance between  this  city  and  New  York,  on  a 
continuous  rail-road, will  not  exceed  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  miles,  and  the  journey  may 
be  performed,  at  all  times,  with  certainty, 
allowing  ample  time  for  stopping  at  impor- 
tant places  on  the  road,  in  sixteen  hours, 
and  ordinarily  in  a  shorter  period.  If  pro- 
vision can  be  made  to  secure  the  regular 
transportation  of  the  mail  upon  this  and  up- 
on other  rail-roads  which  are  constructing 


and,  in  some  instances,  already  finished,  it 
will  be  of  great  utility  to  the  public  ;  other- 
wise these  corporations  may  become  exor- 
bitant in  their  demands,  and  prove  eventu- 
ally to  be  dangerous  monopolies. 

W.  T.  Barry. 


TREASURY  DEPARTMENT. 

December  2,  1834. 

The  secretary  of  the  treasury  respectfully 

presents  the  following  report,  in  obedience 

to  the  '  Act  supplementary  to  the  act  to 

establish  the  treasury  department.' 

He  would  invite  the  attention  of  congress, 

I.  TO  THE  PUBLIC  REVENUE  AND  EXPENDITURES. 


The  balance  in  the  treasu- 
ry, on  the  1st  of  January, 
A.  D.  1832,  was     . 

The  actual  receipts  into  the 
treasury  during  the  year 
A.  D.  1832,  from  alL 
sources,  were 

Making  the  whole  amount 
in  the  treasury  in  that 
year,      .... 

The  actual  expenditures 
during  the  same  year,  in- 
cluding the  public  debt, 
were      .... 

The  balance  in  the  treasury, 
on  the  1st  of  January,  A. 
D.  1833,  was,  therefore, 

In  addition  to  this  balance, 
the   receipts  during  the 
year  1833  were,  from  all 
sources, 
viz. 

Customs,  .... 

Lands,       .... 

Dividends  on  bank  stock,  . 

Sales  of  bank  stock,  . 

Incidental  items, 

These  made,  with  the  above 
balance,  an  aggregate  of 

The   expenditures    during 
A.  D.  1833  were    . 
viz. 

Civil  list,  foreign  inter- 
course, and  miscellane- 
ous subjects, 

Military  service,  including 
fortifications,  ordnance, 
Indian  affairs,  pensions, 
arming  militia,  and  in- 
ternal improvements, 

Naval    service,    including 

gradual  improvement,   . 

66 


$4,502,914  45 


11,865,561  16 


36,368,475  61 


34,356,698  06 


2,011,777  55 


33,948,426  25 

29,032,508  91 

3,967,682  55 

474,985  00 

135,300  00 

337,949  79 


35,960,203  80 
24,257,298  49 

5,716,245  93 

13,096,152  43 
3,901,356  75 


782 


APPENDIX. 


Public  debt,      . 

Thus  a  balance  was  left  in 
the  treasury  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1834,  amount- 
ing to     . 

The  receipts  into  the  treasu- 
ry, ascertained  and  esti- 
mated, during  A.  D. 
1834,  are  computed  to  be 

Of  these  the  receipts  during 

the  first  three  quarters 

are  ascertained  to  have 

been      .... 

viz. 

Customs,   . 

Lands,       . 

Dividends  of  bank  stock, 

Sales  of  bank  stock, 

Incidental  items, 

And  those  during  the  fourth 
quarter,  it  is  expected, 
will  be  ... 

Thus,  with  the  balance  on 
the  1st  of  January,  1834, 
they  form  an  aggregate 
of  .... 

The  expenditures  of  the 
whole  year  are  ascertain- 
ed and  estimated  to  be 

Of  these  the  expenditures 
during    the    first    three 
quarters  are  ascertained 
to  have  been 
viz. 

Civil  list,  foreign  inter- 
course, and  miscellane- 
ous,       .... 

Military  service,  including 
fortifications,  &c. 

Naval  service,  including, 
&c 

Duties  refunded, 

Public  debt, 

The  expenditure  for  the 
fourth  quarter  including 
$4,462,330  99,  on  account 
of  the  public  debt,  it  is 
supposed,  will  be  about 

Thus  leaving,  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1835,  an  estr- 
mated  balance  of   . 


$1,543,543  38 


11,702,905  31 


20,624,717  94 


16,324,717  94 

12,740,872  25 
3,076,475  50 

507,370  19 


4,300,000  00 


32,327,623  25 
25,591,390  91 

16,545,342  92 

3,475,527  08 

8,349,400  06 

2,913,183  12 
108,546  19 


9,046,047  99 


$6,736,232  34 


This  balance  includes  what  has  before 
been  reported  by  this  department  as  not 
available,  the  sum  of  about  $1,400,000,  but 
Which  is  now  ascertained  to  be  reduced  to 
&bout  the  sum  of  $1,150,000,  making  the 
Computed  available  balance  on  the  1st  of 


January,  1835,  to  be  $5,586,232 ,34.  It  is 
estimated  that  of  former  appropriations 
there  will  remain  unexpended,  at  the  close 
of  this  year,  the  sum  of  $8,002,925  13.  Of 
this  amount,  it  is  supposed  that  only  $5,- 
141,964  27,  will  be  required  to  accomplish 
the  objects  intended  by  the  current  appro- 
priations, leaving  the  sum  of  $999,742  93 
applicable,  afterwards,  under  permanent 
appropriations;  and  that  of  $1,523,308  79,- 
to  be  applied  in  aid  of  the  appropriations 
for  the  ensuing  year,  without  reappropria- 
tion,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  estimates  when 
submitted,  and  the  balance  of  $337,909  14, 
which  has  not  been  required  at  all,  or  sea- 
sonably, for  the  objects  contemplated  in  its 
appropriation,  and  will,  therefore,  be  carried 
to  the  surplus  fund.  In  the  examination 
of  this  result  as  to  outstanding  appropria* 
tions,  it  should  be  noticed  that  one  small 
amount  of  unclaimed  interest  on  the  public 
debt,  and  another  of  unfunded  debt,  though 
chargeable  on  the  treasury,  are  not  includ- 
ed. Embracing  those,  and  the  amount  ap- 
plicable, afterwards,  to  permanent  appro- 
priations, there  would  not  be  money  enough 
in  the  treasury  to  pay  at  once  every  claim 
outstanding;  but,  excluding  them,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  effective  unexpended  funds, 
on  the  1st  of  January,  J  835,  will  be  $5,586,- 
232  34,  to  meet  what  will  be  required  for 
the  remaining  and  unexpended  appropria- 
tions, being  $5,141,964  27;  or,  m  other 
words,  that  our  available  means  then  on 
hand  to  discharge  all  the  ol  1  and  existing 
claims  on  the  treasury,  with  the  exceptions 
before  named,  will  be  about  $444,268  07 
more  than  their  actual  amount. 

The  next  subject  deserving  consideration 
is  the  condition  of 

II.  THE  PUBLIC   DEBT. 

All  the  four  and  a  half  per  cents,  out- 
standing at  the  commencement  of  the  pre- 
sent year,  have  been  redeemed,  except  the 
sum  of  $443  25.  Money  sufficient  to  meet 
the  whole  balance  was  placed  in  the  United 
States  bank  and  its  branches,  as  commis- 
sioners of  loans,  in  May  last,  and  that  por 
tion  not  yet  paid  to  the  holders  of  the  debt 
still  remains  in  those  depositories. 

A  part  of  the  five  per  cent,  stock  created 
in  March,  A.  D.  1821,  amounting  to  84,- 
712,060  29,  was  all  of  the  123  millions  of 
debt  existing  in  A.  D.  181.6,  and  of  the 
subsequent  additions  to  it,  which  was  left 
to  be  redeemed.  It  did  not  become  payable 
till  the  1st  of  January,  1835 ;  but  as  there 
was  sufficient  money  in  the  treasury  for 
the  purpose,  and  it  having  been  considered 
beneficial  to  the  public  to  save,  as  far  as 
practicable,  all  the  accruing  interest,  early 


APPENDIX 


783 


In  July  last,  agents  were  employed  by  this 
department  to  purchase,  at  par  if  possible, 
the  whole  of  the  remaining  debt.  Between 
that  time  and  the  30th  ultimo,  the  depart- 
ment had  succeeded  in  redeeming  about 
6491,258  35  of  it,  and  additional  purchases 
are  constantly  making.  In  October  last  the 
undersigned  gave  notice  that  the  whole  of 
this  debt,  unredeemed  after  the  1st  of  Janu- 
ary next,  would  cease  to  bear  interest,  and 
would  be  promptly  paid  after  that  date,  on 
application  to  the  commissioners  of  loans  in 
the  several  states.  Under  authority  from 
the  commissioners  of  the  sinking  fund,  this 
department  has  since  placed,  and  made 
arrangements  to  place,  seasonably,  in  those 
offices,  ample  funds  for  the  above  purpose. 
Thus,  before  the  close  of  the  year,  the  whole 
will  either  be  paid,  or  money  provided  to 
pay  it ;  and  the  United  States  will  present 
that  happy,  and  probably,  in  modern  times, 
unprecedented  spectacle,  of  a  people  substan- 
tially free  from  the  smallest  portion  of  a 
public  debt. 

Considering  these  facts,  it  was  deemed 
proper  to  charge  the  whole  amount  of  the 
remaining  debt  to  the  expenditures  of  the 
present  year.     Interest  on  all  not  paid  be- 
fore the  30th  ultimo  has  been  computed  till 
the  1st  of  January  next,  the  time  being  so 
6hort ;  and  the  account  for  the  payment  of 
the  public  debt,  during  the  year,  will  then 
stand  as  follows : 
All  the  disbursements  on 
account    of    the    public 
debt    during    the    year 
1834  will  be,  as  before 
shown,  .         .         .     $6,161,017  46 

Of  which  there  will  have 

been  applied  to  principal,      5,964,774  93 
And  to  interest,  .         .  196,242  53 

Making,  together,  the  sum  above  mentioned. 
The  stocks  which  will  have  been  redeem- 
ed by  the  application  of  this  sum  during 
the  year,  are — 
Of  the  residue  of  the  ex- 
changed   4£    per    cent, 
stock,  issued  under  the 
act  of  the  26th  of  May, 
1824,      ....    $1,252,62590 
The  residue  of  the  5  per 
cent,  stock  issued  under 
the  act  of  3d  March,  1821,      4,712,060  29 
Certain  portions  of  unfund- 
ed debt,  ...  38  74 
And  treasury  notes,  .         .                  50  00 
Making,  in  all,  the  principal  before  named. 
There  is  an  unfunded  debt 

of  about         .        .        .         $37,733  05 
Consisting  of  claims  regis- 
tered prior  to  1798,  for 
services    and    supplies 


during  the  revolutionary 
war,  of  about  .         .  $27,437  96 

Treasury  notes  issued  dur- 
ing the  last  war,  .  .  5,975  00 
And  Mississippi  stock,  .  4,320  09 
Nothing  has  been  paid  on  any  of  these 
during  the  present  year,  except  $88  74. 
But  should  the  certificates  ever  be  present- 
ed, which  is  not  very  probable  as  to  many 
of  them,  the  means  undoubtedly  will  al- 
ways exist  for  their  payment  at  this  depart- 
ment. 

III.  THE  ESTIMATES  OF  THE  PUBLIC  REVENUE 
AND  EXPENDITURES  FOR  THE  YEAR  1835, 

Next  require  attention,  and  are  as  follows  : 

The  receipts  into  the  trea- 
sury from  all  sources  dur- 
ing the  year  1835,  are 
estimated  at  .        .  $20,000,000  00 

viz. 

From  customs,  .        .      16,000,000  00 

Public  lands,     .         .         .        3,500,000  00 

Bank  dividends  and  mis- 
cellaneous receipts,         .  500,000  00 

To  which  add  the  balance 
of  available  funds  in  the 
treasury  on  the  1st  Janu- 
ary, 1835,  estimated  at  5,586,232  34 

And  they  make,  together, 

the  sum  of     .         .        .  $25,586,232  34 


The  necessary  appropriations  for  the  year 
1835,  including  those  under  new  and  perma- 
nent acts,  are  estimated  at  $15,660,232  73  ; 
but  the  whole  expenditures  for  the  service 
of  that  year  are  estimated  to  require  the 
additional  sum  of  $1,523,308  79,  which 
has  before  been  appropriated  and  mention- 
ed as  applicable  to  the  wants  of  1835  with 
out  a  reappropriation,  making  together, 
viz  $17,183,541  52 

Civil,   foreign  intercourse, 

and  miscellaneous  items,        2,788,225  85 

Military  service,  &c,  pen- 
sions, and  the  appropria- 
tions under  the  act  of  7th 
June,  1832,    .         .         .       9,672,654  50 

Unclaimed  interest  on  pub- 
lic debt,  .         .         .  50,000  00 

Naval  service  and  gradual 
improvement,         .         .        4,672,661  17 

To  this  add,  as  a  contin- 
gent expenditure,  about 
half  of  the  amount  of  the 
average  excess  of  appro- 
priations beyond  the  esti- 
mates during  the  last 
three  years,  .        .       2,500,000  00 

And  they  make  the  sum  of  $19,683,541  52 


784 


APPENDIX. 


Leaving  an  available  balance  in  the  treasu- 
ry at  the  close  of  the  year  1835,  or  on  the 
1st  of  January,  1836,  estimated  at  $5,902,- 
690  82. 

But  should  the  whole  amount  of  former 
appropriations,  current  and  permanent,  that 
"will  be  outstanding  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1835,  and  be  needed  to  complete  the  servi- 
ces of  former  years,  amounting,  in  all,  as 
before  shown,  to  the  sum  of  $6,141,707  20, 
be  actually  called  for  during  the  year  1835, 
there  would  be  an  apparent  deficiency  in 
the  treasury  on  the  1st  of  January,  1836. 
It  usually  happens,  however,  that,  of  the 
new  and  the  old  appropriations,  a  sum  of 
five  or  six  millions  remains  uncalled  for  at 
the  commencement  of  each  year ;  and 
hence  no  real  deficit  is  then  anticipated, 
nor  much,  if  any,  excess  after  defraying  all 
the  expenditures  then  chargeable  to  the 
treasury. 

This  estimate  of  receipts  is  formed  on 
the  supposition  that  the  value  of  imports 
during  the  ensuing  year,  and  especially  of 
those  paying  duties,  will  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  average  value  during  the 
last  three  years.  Though  our  population 
has  within  that  period  probably  increased 
over  one  million,  yet  our  manufactures  and 
internal  trade  have  probably  increased 
nearly  in  an  equal  proportion  ;  and  this  cir- 
cumstance, coupled  with  the  greater  caution 
and  frugality  practised  during  the  past 
year,  and  still  continuing,  will,  it  is  believed, 
tend  to  prevent  any  considerable  augmenta- 
tion in  the  consumption  or  importation  of 
foreign  articles. 

The  imports  during  the  year  ending  Sep- 
tember 30,  1834,  are  estimated  in  value  at 
$123,093,351,  being,  compared  with  the 
preceding  year,  an  increase  of  $14,101,541. 
Those  during  the  three  past  years  have,  on 
an  average,  been  about  $111,038,142. 

The  exports  during  the  same  year  are 
estimated  at  $97,318,721,  of  which  $74,444,- 
429  were  in  domestic,  and  $22,874,295  in 
foreign  products,  being,  compared  with  the 
preceding  vear,  an  increase  of  $6,655,321, 
of  which  $3,802,399  were  in  articles  of  do- 
mestic, and  $2,852,922  in  those  of  foreign 
products.  The  average  exports  during  the 
last  three  years  have  been  about  $91,719,690, 
of  which  $69,407,976  are  the  average  in 
articles  of  domestic  products,  and  $22,311,- 
714  in  those  of  foreign. 

It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  the  imports  of 
the  last  year  varied  in  amount  $12,055,209 
from  the  average  of  the  three  past  years, 
ind  those  paying  duties  are  believed  to 
have  varied  much  less.  It  is  therefore,  in 
connection  with  the  reasons  before  named, 
considered  safe  to  infer  that  the  imports  of 


the  ensuing  year  may  not  differ  materially 
from  that  average.  Should  they  not  so  dif- 
fer, the  revenue  from  customs  will  probab'y 
correspond  in  substance  with  that  of  the 
past  year,  except  so  far  as  it  maybe  chang- 
ed by  the  whole  amount  of  all  the  importa- 
tions when  compared  with  the  above  ave- 
rage ;  because  the  classes  and  value  of 
articles  paying  duty,  for  aught  which  is 
known,  will  probably  be  similar,  and  the 
rate  of  duties  on  them  will  not,  by  existing 
laws,  be  essentially  altered  till  the  31st  De- 
cember, A.  D.  1835. 

The  revenue  from  the  sale  of  public  lands 
has  been  estimated  at  half  a  million  more 
than  the  amount  it  was  estimated  for  the 
current  year,  and  one  million  more  than 
the  amount  for  1833.  This  estimate  would 
have  been  made  still  larger,  had  not  the 
sales  of  the  Chickasaw  lands,  which  will 
probably  exceed  half  a  million  of  dollars, 
been  pledged  by  treaty  to  other  purposes, 
and  not  to  the  general  revenue  of  the  go- 
vernment. This  large  computation  is  found- 
ed on  the  facts  of  the  progressive  increase 
for  some  time  evinced ;  the  sum  actually 
received  during  the  past  year ;  the  great 
quantity  of  new  and  saleable  lands  coming 
into  market ;  the  enlarged  demand  for  them 
to  satisfy  the  necessary  wants  of  our  grow- 
ing population,  and  of  the  emigrants  from 
Europe ;  and  the  high  prices  which  their 
produce  fortunately  obtains  both  at  home 
and  abroad. 

The  revenue  from  bank  dividends  has 
been  estimated  at  somewhat  less  than  here- 
tofore, in  consequence  of  the  sales  of  our 
bank  stock,  under  the*  act  of  July  10,  1832, 
for  the  investment  of  the  accruing  income 
of  the  navy  pension  and  hospital  funds,  hav- 
ing already  amounted  to  $656,600,  and  on 
which  the  treasury  can  now  receive  no  divi- 
dends applicable  to  general  purposes.  It 
might,  perhaps,  be  advisable  to  deduct  a 
still  further  sum  to  meet  any  contingency 
like  that  of  the  present  year,  in  which  the 
United  States  bank,  without  the  consent  of 
this  department,  or  the  sanction  of  congress, 
and  without  any  forewarning  of  its  intention, 
seized  on  about  $170,041  of  the  estimated 
revenue  from  this  source,  and  has  since 
withheld  it  from  the  public  treasury. 

Levi  Woodbukv. 

WEST  POINT. 

As  this  institution  is  one  of  the  highest 
importance  to  the  country,  and  as  its  situa- 
tion is  consequently  interesting,  we  have 
condensed  the  reports  of  two  of  the  most 
important  committees  appointed  for  its  ex- 
amination, as  a  valuable  addition  to  this  ap- 
pendix. 


APPENDIX. 


785 


REPORT  OF   THE   COMMITTEE    ON    THE    COURSE 
OF    STUDIES. 

The  committee  on  the  course  of  studies 
report  as  follows : 

The  only  preliminary  knowledge  requir- 
ed for  admission  into  the  military  academy 
is  reading,  writing,  and  the  first  elements 
of  arithmetic. 

The  science  which  is  justly  made  the  ba- 
sis of  instruction  at  the  academy,  is  mathe- 
matics. By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  first 
two  years  is  devoted  to  the  pure  science, 
and  its  applications  are  met  with  in  nearly 
all  the  studies  of  the  remaining  coarse. 
The  examinations  included  algebra,  syn- 
thetic, descriptive,  and  analytical  geometry, 
plane  and  spherical  trigonometry,  mensura- 
tion and  surveying,  perspective,  and  the 
differential  and  integral  calculus.  These 
examinations  were,  on  the  whole,  highly 
satisfactory,  and  showed,  at  the  same  time, 
the  fidelity  of  the  professors,  and  the  assi- 
duity of  their  pupils. 

Natural  philosophy  is  the  principal  study 
of  the  second  class.  A  thorough  examina- 
tion in  mechanics  having  been  held  in  Janu- 
ary, the  class  were  now  only  questioned 
generally  on  the  subject,  and  the  examina- 
tion was  principally  confined  to  electricity, 
magnetism,  optics,  and  astronomy,  with 
which  studies  the  class  exhibited  a  compe- 
tent acquaintance.  Your  committee  are 
pleased  to  have  it  in  their  power  to  speak 
in  terms  of  just  praise  of  the  manner  in 
which  this  department  is  conducted. 

The  second  class  were  also  examined  on 
chemistry,  and  your  committee  were  well 
satisfied  with  their  performance,  especially 
when  they  consider  the  unmerited  disadvan- 
tage under  which  the  department  labors. 
Instead  of  having  an  independent  organiza- 
tion, established  by  law,  it  exists  only  by 
executive  authority.  In  the  merit  roll, 
chemistry  is  valued  at  least  one-third  of 
natural  philosophy.  The  acting  professor, 
who  has  occupied  his  chair,  with  acknow- 
ledged ability,  for  many  years,  has  only  the 
pay  of  a  second  lieutenant,  and  is  outrank- 
ed, at  the  academic  board,  by  the  assistant 
professors,  many  of  whom  have  been  his 
pupils.  Your  committee  cordially  join  in 
the  recommendations  made  by  previous 
boards,  that  the  department  of  chemistry, 
including  mineralogy  and  geology,  be  placed 
on  the  footing  of  the  other  schools,  having  a 
permanent  professor,  and  two  officers  acting 
assistant  professors,  to  one  of  whom  the 
subjects  of  mineralogy  and  geology  might 
be  specially  intrusted. 

Engineering,  and  the  science  of  war,  con- 
stitute the  principal  studies  of  the  senior 
...  ass.  The  first  examination  held  was  on 
99 


these  subjects,  and  it  was  certainly  such  as 
must  have  proved  satisfactory  to  the  board. 
The  general  excellence  of  the  drawings 
exhibited,  and  of  the  sketches  executed  on 
the  black  boards  during  the  examination, 
was  particularly  striking. 

Infantry  and  artillery  tactics,  and  pyro- 
techny,  also  form  important  parts  of  the 
instruction  of  the  cadets  ;  but  as  these  sub- 
jects have  been  specially  referred  to  the 
committee  on  military  affairs,  it  has  not 
been  judged  proper  to  introduce  them  into 
the  present  report,  any  further  than  to  state 
that  the  examination  on  ballistics  exhibited 
one  of  the  most  direct  and  interesting  appli- 
cations of  mathematics  to  the  military  art, 
and  that  it  was  conducted  in  a  manner  equal- 
ly creditable  to  the  professor  and  his  pupils. 

A  part  of  the  first  two  years  is  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  French  language,  with 
which  the  cadets  are  required  to  become  at 
least  so  far  acquainted  as  to  understand  its 
grammar,  to  be  able  to  pronounce  it  intelli- 
gibly, and  to  translate  it  readily  into  Eng- 
lish. They  are  also  exercised  in  writing 
French  themes.  It  is  also  to  be  regretted 
that  very  few  of  them  make  such  progress 
as  to  be  able  to  speak  the  language.  The 
examinations  in  this  department  were  as 
satisfactory  as  could  be  reasonably  expect- 
ed from  the  time  allotted  to  the  study. 

In  this  academy,  great  attention  is  very 
properly  paid  to  the  art  of  drawing,  the 
practical  applications  of  which  are  so  fre- 
quent and  important  in  the  military  profes- 
sion. The  proofs  of  proficiency  in  figure, 
landscape,  and  topographical  drawing,  were 
very  satisfactory.  During  part  of  the  pre- 
sent academical  year,  this  department  was 
under  the  superintendence  of  a  distinguish- 
ed artist,  whose  resignation  and  removal 
from  the  country  are  subjects  of  general 
regret. 

The  instruction  in  grammar,  rhetoric, 
moral  philosophy,  and  political  science,  is 
confined  to  the  senior  year,  which  is  loaded 
with  professional  studies.  But  five  hours 
in  two  weeks  are  allotted  to  the  recitations. 
The  professor,  therefore,  justly  complains 
of  the  want  of  time  for  conveying  adequate 
instruction  in  his  department.  It  appears 
to  your  committee  that  this  evil  might  be 
remedied,  first,  by  extending  the  requisites 
of  admission  to  the  degree  which  they  have 
recommended  ;  and,  secondly,  by  teaching 
rhetoric  to  the  third  class  instead  of  the  first. 
This  study  ought  not  to  be  postponed  until 
incorrect  habits  of  speaking  and  writing 
may  be  confirmed  ;  and,  besides,  your  com- 
mittee are  informed  that  time  can  be  at 
present  better  spared  in  the  second  than  in 
any  other  year  of  the  course. 
6fi* 


786 


APPENDIX. 


The  library  consists  of  more  than  eight 
thousand  volumes  of  works,  for  the  most 
part  immediately  relating  to  the  subjects 
taught  at  the  academy,  the  whole  appearing 
to  be  judiciously  selected,  well  preserved, 
and  kept  under  good  regulations. 

Among  the  books  at  present  in  the  library, 
is  a  very  curious  and  interesting  series  of 
about  one  hundred  volumes  of  old  works  on 
mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  and  astro- 
nomy, containing,  among  others,  the  works 
of  Galileo,  Kepler,  and  Leibnitz,  and  the 
original  editions' of  lord  Napier's  logarithms. 

Though  the  subject  of  the  public  build- 
ings has  been  referred  to  another  committee, 
the  committee  on  the  studies  hope  they  will 
be  excused  if  they  call  the  attention  of  the 
board  to  the  rooms  appropriated  for  the  phi- 
losophical apparatus,  the  chemical  laborato- 
ry, the  mineralogical  cabinet,  and  the  libra- 
ry. These  rooms  are  not  only  inadequate 
to  their  several  purposes,  but  they  are  un- 
safe. The  furnaces  of  the  chemical  labora- 
tory are  in  a  room  with  a  wooden  floor,  im- 
mediately below  the  philosophical  appara- 
tus and  the  library,  and  no  part  of  the  whole 
building  is  fireproof.  Besides,  the  labora- 
tory and  the  philosophical  apparatus  are 
placed  in  the  same  rooms  in  which  the 
classes  are  assembled  to  lecture,  while  the 
accommodation  is  scarcely  sufficient  for 
either  of  these  purposes  singly.  On  the 
whole,  your  committee  think  a  new  fire- 
proof building,  with  rooms  for  a  laboratory, 
the  apparatus,  a  museum,  and  the  library, 
and  with  suitable  halls  for  experimental 
lectures,  is  exceedingly  desirable.  Your 
committee  also  think  that  an  astronomical 
observatory  ought  to  be  established  at  this 
place.  Its  importance  as  a  school  of  prac- 
tice for  cadets  who  may  hereafter  be  called 
upon,  as  engineers,  to  conduct  topographical 
and  geodisicdl  operations,  cannot  but  be 
felt;  an  excellent  position  for  it  is  presented 
on  the  land,  where  the  instruments  could 
be  seated  on  the  solid  rock;  the  building 
could  be  constructed  at  a  very  moderate 
cost,  and  all  the  instruments  necessary  to 
furnish  it  are  already  in  possession  of  the 
government. 

Respectfully  submitted  to  the  board  by 
the  committee. 

R.  M.  Patterson,  Chairman. 

June  14,  1834. 

■REPORT   OF  THE  MILITARY  COMMITTEE. 

The  committee  on  military  affairs  and 
discipline  directed,  first,  their  inquiries  to 
the  class  on  engineering,  and,  in  common 
with  the  other  members  of  the  board,  they 
were  highly  delighted  with  the  proficiency 
of  the   cadets.      They  were  surprised  to 


learn  that  the  course  of  military  engineering 
lasted  only  four  months,  and  they  must 
particularly  commend  the  industry  of  both 
professors  and  students,  which  enabled  the 
latter  to  acquire  so  much  knowledge  in  so 
short  a  time. 

The  examination  on  civil  engineering 
was  likewise  highly  satisfactory,  and  shows 
the  particular  care  paid  to  it  in  the  institu- 
tion. The  use  to  which  government,  in 
time  of  peace,  employs  the  officers  of  the 
army,  renders  these  studies  particularly  im- 
portant, and  the  country  at  large  will  be 
pleased  to  learn  the  attention  paid  to  them. 
In  this  department,  likewise,  models  are 
wanted,  and  could  be  procured  with  very 
little  trouble,  and  at  trifling  expense. 

The  examination  on.  artillery  showed  in 
the  cadets  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
theory  of  this  science  ;  and  their  exercises 
in  field  manoeuvres,  target  firing,  fireworks, 
and  the  explosion  of  a  mine,  left  no  doubt 
as  to  their  attainments  in  the  practice.  The 
target  firing  took  place  under  very  unfavo- 
rable circumstances,  owing  to  the  bad  quali- 
ty of  the  ordnance.  The  text-books  in  this 
department  are  principally  translations,  or 
compositions  of  the  best  foreign  works,  exe- 
cuted by  the  instructer  himself,  and  highly 
creditable  to  his  zeal  and  to  his  industry. 
The  laboratory  was  examined,  and  the  ca- 
dets seen  to  go  through  the  preparation  and 
manufacture  of  every  sort  of  fireworks  em- 
ployed in  war.  The  rockets  were  peculiarly 
remarkable  for  their  brilliancy,  and  the 
space  they  went  over,  as  compared  with 
their  size. 

The  ordnance  was  found  by  your  com- 
*;nittee  very  defective.  The  pieces  are 
generally  worn  out,  and  some  of  them  have 
been  condemned  as  worthless.  The  shot  re- 
ceived is  very  bad,  and,  being  in  general 
too  small  for  the  pieces,  and  of  irregular 
figures,  prevents  any  accuracy  at  target 
firing.  The  committee,  however,  have 
learned  that  a  requisition  has  been  made 
upon  the  ordnance  department,  and  that  a 
compliance  with  it  is  looked  for  during  the 
course  of  the  present  season.  The  commit- 
tee have  observed  that  all  the  carriages 
were  of  the  oldest  models,  and  they  are  of 
opinion  that  no  pains  ought  to  be  spared  to 
provide  this  institution  with  the  newest  and 
most  approved  inventions  and  models,  in 
order  not  to  teach  the  cadets  to  use  and 
employ  arms  and  machines  which  they  will 
have  nothing  to  do  with  when  they  enter 
on  actual  service. 

The  committee  heard  the  examination 
upon  infantry  tactics,  and  saw  the  cadets 
exercising  with  great  skill  and  precision. 
The  manoeuvres  of  light  infantry  have  been 


APPENDIX. 


78T 


successfully  introduced,  and  although  prac- 
tised but  a  short  time,  weie  very  well  exe- 
cuted. The  arms  were  examined,  as  well 
as  the  accoutrements,  and  were  found  in 
the  most  complete  order.  The  committee 
found  fault  only  with  the  shape  of  the  but- 
ton used  in  the  cadet's  uniform  They  are 
too  large  and  most  inconvenient.  When 
the  belt,  owing  to  the  size  of  the  cadets, 
comes  to  pass  over  one  of  them,  either  a 
most  unseemly  protrusion  is  created,  or  a 
hole  made  through  the  belt,  which  entirely 
destroys  the  uniformity.  It  is  considered 
that  bullet  buttons  could  be  advantageously 
replaced  by  flat,  or  nearly  flat  buttons. 

The  committee  next  directed  their  atten- 
tion to  the  military  duties  required  from  the 
cadets,  and  found  them  not  to  be  oppressive, 
nor  to  abstract  any  more  time  from  their 
studies  than  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order 
to  preserve  discipline,  and  give  them  mili- 
tary and  soldierlike  habits  of  precision. 

The  discipline  was  examined  in  its  vari- 
ous bearings,  and  seemed  excellent.  By 
many  inquiries,  it  was  ascertained  that 
whilst  power  on  the  one  hand  was  exercised 
in  the  most  paternal  manner,  and  always 
for  the  good  of  the  service,  on  the  other 
hand  the  officers  and  professors  were  gene- 
rally found  to  be  beloved  and  respected — a 
happy  state  of  things,  which  the  committee 
cannot  commend  too  much.  Some  of  the 
regulations  contained  in  the  pamphlet  which 
was  distributed  amongst  the  board  seemed, 
at  first  sight,  rather  severe ;  but  it  was 
found  compensated  by  the  mildness  of  its 
execution.  It  is  believed,  indeed,  that  few- 
er offences  have  taken  place  under  this  libe- 
ral system  than  if  too  much  rigor  should  be 
exercised. 

The  committee  have  been  highly  pleased 
with  all  that  they  have  seen  ;  and,  extend- 
ing their  observations  to  the  vast  field  of 
improvements,  they  beg  leave  to  suggest 
that,  since  the  United  States  have  now  ad- 
ded to  their  army  a  regiment  of  cavalry, 
the  cadets  ought  likewise  to  be  instructed  in 
cavalry  tactics.  Thirty  or  forty  horses 
would  be  sufficient,  and  could  be  used  at 
the  same  time  to  teach  the  cadets  the  service 
of  light  artillery.  The  importance  of  these 
two  branches  of  military  knowledge  is  too 
obvious  to  require  the  committee  to  say  any 
more  on  the  subject. 

Another  suggestion  the  committee  wish 
to  make  is,  as  to  the  necessity  of  a  large 
hall,  where  military  exercises  may  be,  to 
some  extent,  conducted  in  winter.  It  is 
thought  that  this  would  be,  in  a  high  degree 
conducive  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
cadets. 

Before  taking  leave  of  this  subject,  the 


committee  will  indulge  in  a  few  observa- 
tions upon  the  general  results  of  the  insti 
tution.  However  dangerous  standing  ar- 
mies are  to  a  nation's  liberty  in  time  of 
peace,  they  nevertheless  possess  immense 
advantages  in  time  of  war.  The  only 
way  to  reconcile  the  dangers  and  advanta- 
ges of  a  standing  army  is,  to  organize  it  in 
such  a  way  that  it  may  prove,  as  it  were, 
elastic,  so  as  to  be  able,  in  the  shortest  time, 
lo  assume,  from  the  smallest  possible  size, 
the  largest.  In  order  to  obtain  this  desidera- 
tum, a  military  academy  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary, where  the  higher  branches  of  the 
military  science  should  be  taught.  Officers 
of  infantry  and  cavalry  can  easily  be  recruit- 
ed from  the  rank  and  file  of  the  army  ;  but 
the  engineers,  the  staff,  and  the  artillery  re- 
quire men  educated  for  these  professions. 
In  time  of  peace,  those  cadets  who  cannot 
be  employed  in  these  corps  are  embodied 
in  the  infantry  and  cavalry;  but,  as  soon 
as  war  should  be  declared,  their  services 
would  be  required  in  the  scientific  depart- 
ments of  the  army,  which  would  partake  of 
the  general  increase,  and  their  places  in  the 
line  would  be  supplied  either  from  the  citi- 
zens generally,  or  from  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  army.  From  all  these  observations 
made  by  your  committee,  they  are  of  opi- 
nion that  the  military  education  received  at 
West  Point  fulfils  entirely  the  objects  of  an 
institution,  the  necessity  of  which  can, 
scarcely  be  doubted. 

The  whole  of  which  is  respectfully  sub- 
mitted. 

Achille  Murat,  Chairman. 

NAVY  EXPENSES  FOR  1835. 

There  will  be  required  for  the  navy  dur- 
ing the  year  1835,  in  addition  to  the  unex- 
pended balances  that  may  remain  on  hand 
on  the  1st  day  of  January,  1835,  the  sum 
of  three  million  six  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-one 
dollars  and  sixty-seven  cents. 
1st.   For  pay  and  subsis- 
tence of  the  officers  of  the 
navy,  and  pay  of  seamen,     $1,505,126  67 
2d.  For  pay  of  superinten- 
dents, naval  constructors, 
and  all  the  civil  establish- 
ment    at    the     several 
yards,  .         .         .  63,110  00 

3d.  For  provisions,  .        .  450,000  00 

4th.  For  the  repairs  of  ves- 
sels in  ordinary,  and  the 
repairs  and  wear  and 
tear  of  vessels  in  com- 
mission, .  .  .  974,000  00 
5th.  For  medicines  and 
surgical        instruments, 


788 


APPENDIX 


hospital  stores,  and  other 
expenses  on  account  of 
the  sick, 
6th.  For  improvements  and 
necessary  repairs  of navy 
yards,  viz. 

At  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  . 
At  Charlestown,  Mass., 
At  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,       . 
At  Philadelphia,     . 
At  "Washington,     . 
At  Gosport,  Va.,     . 


$40,000  00 

39,925  00 

99,500  00 

46,120  00 

3,520  00 

10,000  00 

100,450  00 

At  Pensacola, 

For  Sackett's  Harbor,    . 

7th.  For  ordnance  and  ord- 
nance stores, 

8th.  For  defraying  the  ex- 
penses that  may  accrue 
for  various  objects  not 
enumerated,  . 

9th.  For  contingent  expen- 
ses for  other  objects  not 
hereinbefore  enumerated, 


$44,600  00 
500  00 

15,000  00 


295,000  00 


3,000  00 
$3,689,851  67 


TABULAR  STATEMENT  OF  THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT. 


Statement  showing  the  amount  of  the  appropriations  made  for  the  service  of  the 

year  1834,  for  objects  under  charge  of  the  War  Department ;  the  amount  of  the 

estimates  for  the  same  for  1835;  and  the  amount  of  the  difference  between  them; 

arranged  with  reference  to  the  different  bureaux  having  charge  of  the  disbursements 

'for  the  several  branches  of  the  public  service. 


Appropriated 
for  1834. 


Estimated 
for  1835. 


Estimates 
for  1835,  less 
than  the  ap- 
propriation 
for  1834. 


Indian  department,  viz. 

Current  expenses, 

Annuities,  removal,  &c,  under  treaty  stipulations 
Pension  department 
Adjutant-general's  department 
Topographical  department 
Medical  department 
Purchasing  department  . 
Subsistence  department 
Ordnance  department 
Quartermaster's  department 
Paymaster's  department,  including  pay,  <5ec,  of 

officers,  &c,  of  the  military  academy 
Engineer  department 
Miscellaneous         .... 

Total 


119,045 

1,224,474 

1,215,281 

20,000 

30,000 

36,500 

325,748 

361,900 

787,102 

938,300 

1,600,281 

2,241,189 

103,441 


9.003,261  88 


59,800  00 
735,800  00 
702,718  47 

25,000  00 
31,500  00 
154,387  00 
341,700  00 
592,734  00 
613,000  00 

1,514,265  25 

1,004,560  00 

3,500  00 


59,245  00 
488,674  06 
512,562  53 

20,000  00 

5,000  00 

5,000  00 

171,361  00 

20,200  00 
194,368  10 
325,300  00 

86,015  75 

1,236,629  25 

99,941  47 


5,778,964  72 


3,224,297  16 


War  Department,  November  25,  1834. 


APPENDIX 


789 


PENSIONS. 


A  statement  showing  the  amount  of  funds  transmitted  to  the  pension  agents  of  the 
several  states  and  territories,  for  paying  pensions  in  1834. 


Invalids. 

Act  1818. 

Act  June 
7,  1832. 

IMaine       ......... 

15,948  04 

60,160 

95,865 

New  Hampshire 

14,048  93 

62,832 

92,719 

Massachusetts 

12,457  56 

75,004 

202,219 

Connecticut 

5,312  40 

38,356 

160,933 

Rhode  Island     . 

756  00 

9,864 

83,163 

Vermont 

9,089  01 

61,184 

124,617 

New  York  city 

68,822  43 

175,698  53 

468,187 

Utica  agency     . 

2,142  10 

4,080 

12,766 

Buffalo  do. 

907  00 

756 

9,673 

New  Jersey 

4,445  60 

35,520 

85,863 

Pennsylvania    . 

13,845  97 

32,016 

120,693 

Pittsburg  agency 
Delaware 

8,646  51 
1,948  00 

29,520 
4.032 

51,564 
293 

Maryland 

15,726  86 

11,568 

15,165 

District  of  Columbia 

7,034  00 

1,616 

9,219 

Virginia 

8,057  20 

30,600 

145,929 

North  Carolina 

2,157  30 

19,496 

94,523 

South  Carolina 

945  30 

9,136 

55,616 

Georgia 

875  66 

5,936 

52,449 

Kentucky 

13,952  70 

43,104 

159,913 

East  Tennessee 

4,204  80 

10,296 

29,130 

West  Tennessee 

3,803  01 

5,832 

41,576 

Ohio 

7,053  99 

46,808 

69,022 

Louisiana 

3,870  40 

864 

1,812 

Mississippi 

520  00 

960 

11,141 

Alabama 

2,682  00 

3,504 

40,527 

Missouri 

5,474  66 

1,440 

13,305 

Jonesboro'  agency 

— 

— 

14,658 

Indiana     . 

7,283  80 

10,279 

32,747 

Michigan  territory 

4,388  33 

2,252 

1,624 

Illinois     . 

3,422  18 

2,316 

22,844 

Arkansas  territory 

— 

— 

2,164 

Total 

249,821  74  794,849  53 

2,321,919 

War  Department,  Pension  Office,  November  7,  1834. 


790 


APPENDIX. 


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5 

APPENDIX 


791 


RAIL-ROADS  AND  CANALS. 

The  increase  of  rail-roads  and  canals  in 
the  United  States,  oflate  years,  has  been  so 
rapid  and  constant,  that  the  most  careful 
reader  of  a  daily  newspaper  can  scarcely 
have  retained  them  in  his  recollection. 
Almost  every  week  we  hear  of  new  works 
of  internal  improvement  in  progress,  not  in 
one  section  of  the  Union  only,  but  in  the 
south  and  west,  as  well  as  in  the  north  and 
east ;  and  wherever  the  enterprising  Ame- 
rican has  chosen  a  site  for  his  residence,  and 
the  operations  of  his  industry  and  skill.  A 
recent  publication,  by  Mr.  Tanner,  of  Phila- 
delphia, containing  a  brief  description  of  all 
the  canals  and  rail-roads  in  the  United  States, 
now  completed  or  in  progress,  will  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  a  valuable  acquisition 
to  those  who  desire  to  keep  pace  with  the 
march  of  improvement.  The  work  is  small, 
but  comprehensive.  It  is  embellished  with 
a  carefully  engraven  map  of  the  United 
States,  upon  which  the  canals  and  rail-roads 
in  each  state  are  accurately  marked ;  and 
the  accompanying  letter-press  descriptions 
fully  elucidate  the  extent,  courses,  points  of 
commencement  and  termination,  length, 
ascent  and  descent,  locks  and  inclined 
planes,  tunnels,  bridges,  cost  of  construction, 
&c.  of  these  important  works.  The  de- 
scriptions are  arranged  under  the  heads  of 
the  states,  so  that  any  road  or  canal  may  be 
referred  to  without  delay. 

MAINE. 

Length.  Cost. 

Cumberland  and  Oxford 

canal  20£  miles  $250,000 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Bow  canal  3±  $25,000 

Amoskeag  canal  50,000 

Hookset  canal  825  feet  17,000 

Union  canal  9  miles  50,000 

VERMONT. 

There  are  several  canals  in  this  state, 
viz.  Bellows'  Falls,  Aterquechey,  and 
White  River,  all  of  which  are  designed  to 
overcome  falls  in  the  Connecticut  river. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Canals. 

Middlesex  canal  27           $528,000 

Pawtucket  1£ 

Blackstone  45             600,000 

Montague  3 

South  Hadley  2 

Rail-roads. 

Boston  and  Worcester  45    est.  $883,904 

Boston  and  Providence  46 

Boston  and  Lowell  25 


Length.       Cor 
Quincy  3 

Besides  sereral  proposed  roads. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Stonington  rail-road  46 

CONNECTICUT. 

Farmington  canal  22  $600,000 

Enfield  canal  5£ 

NEW  YORK. 

Canals. 
Erie  canal  363        $9,500,000 

Champlain  canal  72  1,179,972 

Hudson  and  Delaware      65£ 
Lackawaxen  53 

This  is  a  prolongation  of  the  Hudson  and 
Delaware  canal.  Thirty-six  miles  of  its 
total  length  are  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania, 
Oswego  38  $525,115 

Seneca  20  214,000 

Chemung  31  300,000 

Crooked  Lake  7  120,000 

Tonnewanta  13 

Harlaem  3 

Chittenango  14 

Canals  in  progress. 
Chenango  93      est.  944,800 

Black  River  40 

Sodus  canal 

Rail-roads. 
Mohawk  and  Hudson         16  $700,000 

Schenectady  and  Saratoga  20  250  900 

Catskill  and  Canajoharie  70  (in  progress.) 
Ithaca  and  Oswego  29  150,000 

Rochester,  (in  progress) 
Schenectady  and  Utica     80 
Ruth  5 

Rochester  and  Batavia     28 
Troy  and  Ballston  52 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Canals. 
Delaware  and  Raritan 

canal  43 

Morris  101  1,200,000 

Salem  4 

Washington  1 

Rail-roads. 
Camden  and  Amboy         61 
Paterson  and  Hudson        16 
Jersey  city  and  New 

Brunswick  28 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Canals. 
Central  Division  Penn- 
sylvania canal  171£ 
Western    Division  do.  194        $3,000,000 
Susquehannah  Div.  do.  39          1,039,256 
West  Branch  canal  65             927,378 
North  Branch  Division  6*         1,096,178 
Extension  of  the  above 
to  Lackawana  14            220,594 


792 


APPENDIX. 


Delaware  division  of 
Pennsylvania  canal 

Pittsburg  and  Erie  ca- 
nal, as  far  as  com- 
pleted 

French  Creek  (in  pro- 
gress) 

Schuylkill  canal 

Union  canal 

Lehigh  Company's  ca- 
nals 

Conestoga  Navigation 

Codorus  do. 

West  Philadelphia  ca- 
nal 

Rail-roads. 

Columbia  rail-road 

Alleghany  Portage 

Mauch  Chunk 

Room  Run 

Mount  Carbon 

Schuylkill  Valley , 

Schuylkill  rail-road 

Mill  Creek 

Mine  Hill  and  Schuyl- 
kill Haven 

Pine  Grove 

Little  Schuylkill 

Lackawaxan 

West  Chester 

Germantown 

Lykens  Valley 

Philadelphia  and  Tren- 
ton 

Central  rail-road 

Oxford,  from  the  Co- 
lumbia rail-road  to 
the  Maryland  line, 
(now  in  progress) 

Norristown  and  Read- 
ing, (in  progress) 


Length.         Cost. 
59  1,275,705 


25 

25£ 

108 

82 

46 
18 
11 


2,500,176 
1,558,000 

81  1,600,000 

32 

5 

5 

7 

15  per  mile  5,500 
13  7,000 

7  20,000 


20 
4 

23 

16* 
9 

7 


264 

51 


160,000 


100,000 
90,000 


49      est.  947,425 


DELAWARE. 

Chesapeake  and  Dela- 
ware canal  13£        2,200,000 

New  Castle  and  French- 
town  rail-road  3  6             400,000 


MARYLAND. 

St.    Francisvilie    and 

Canals. 

Woodville  rail-road       26 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio 

341* 

Vicksburg  and  Weston     37 

Port  Deposite  canal 

10 

LOUISIANA. 

Potomac  Falls 

n 

New  Orleans  and  Pont- 

Great  Falls 

1200  yards 

chartrain  rail-road           5 

Rail-roads. 

Canals. 

Baltimore  and  Ohio 

S0i 

La  Fourche  canal 

Baltimore  and  Susque- 

L.  Veret  canal                     8 

hannah 

76 

New  Orleans  and  Pont- 

Baltimore  and  Port  De- 

chartrain canal                6 

posite 

KENTUCKY. 

Baltimore  and  Wash- 

Louisville   and    Port- 

ington 

374.  est.  1,433,644 

land  canal                       1J 

Length. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Washington      Branch 
canal 


CoH. 


Alexandria 


Roa- 
Roa- 


Canals. 

James  River 

Jackson  River 

Balcony  Falls 

Dismal  Swamp 
Rail-roads. 

Manchester 

Petersburg    and 
noke 

Portsmouth  and 
noke 

Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg 

Richmond  and  Freder- 
icksburg 64 

Belleplain  11 

NORTH   CAROLINA. 

Lake  Drummond  canal  5 

North  West  canal  6 

Weldon  canal  12 
Clubfoot  and  Harlow 

canal  l£ 

SOUTH   CAROLINA. 

Charleston  and  Augus 


25,974 
est.  372,208 


023,295 
340,000 


30* 
6| 
23 

13 

59J 


80 

21£  (in  progress.) 


do. 


ta  rail-road 
Canals. 
Santee  canal 
Win  yaw 
Catawba 
Saluda 
Drehr's 
Lorich's 
Lockhart's 


136| 
22 

61 
li 

2| 


700,000 


GEORGIA. 

Oge- 


165,000 


Savannah    and 
chee  canal  16 

Matamaba  and  Bruns- 
wick 12 

ALABAMA. 

Decatur  rail-road  62  (in  progress.") 

Huntsville  canal  16 

MISSISSIPPI. 


80,000 


730.UOO 


APPENDIX. 


Lexington   and    Ohio 
rail-road 

OHIO. 

Ohio  and  Erie  canal        307 
Miami  canal  68 


est.  1,000,000 


Rideau  canal 
Welland  canal 


746,852 

h 

129£  (in  progress.) 


In  addition  to  these  roads  and  canals,  va- 
rious others,  some  of  them  of  great  magni- 
tude, are  spoken  of  in  several  states,  par- 
ticularly in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Maryland  and  Kentucky.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  they  will  no  doubt 
all  be  completed. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  STATE  BANKS. 

General  abstract  of  the  number  and  situation  of  the  Stale  Banks,  derived  from  returns  made  to 
the  legislatures  of  the  several  states  in  1833  and  1834  $  compiled  under  the  direction  of  the 
clerk  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  materials  collected  by  Mr.  Wilde  ;  laid  before 
Congress  June  24,  1834. 


Statea. 


Alabama 
Connecticut     . 
Georgia 
Kentucky 

Louisiana         .        . 
Massachusetts 
Maine      .        . 
Maryland        , 
Mississippi 
New  York 
North  Carolina 
South  Carolina         , 
New  Hampshire 
Ohio 

Pennsylvania 
Rhode  Island  . 
Tennessee        .        . 
Virginia 
Vermont 
District  of  Columbia 


Total 


No. 


102 

ae 

8 
1 

70 
3 
1 

22 
2 

41 

51 
1 
4 

17 


Capital  Stock 
paid  in. 


2,576,1 18?S9 
5,703.015.00 
6,534,691.02 
1,875,418.63 

16,064,755.00 

23,236.250.00. 
2,727,000.00 
5,270.091.67 
2,666,805.45 

24,780,264  00 
1,824,725.00 
1,156,318.48 
2,271.300.00 
1.986,625.00 

17,061,944.51 
7,488,748.00 
1,243,827.47 
5,694,500.00 
912,000.00 
3,337,305.00 


139,416,703.12 


Notes  or  hills  in 
circulation. 


1,238,682.00 
2,557,227,49 
3,055,003.19 

838,091.14 
3.271,230.00 
7,889,110.67 
1,303,671.00 
1,433.698.42 
1,510,426.15 
15,933,122.62 

981,144.00 
1,862,442.19 
1. 238.013.50 

648,639.00 
10,366,232.61 
1,263,813.03 
1,520,880.66 
5,598,392.33 
1,468,394.00 
1,109,389.82 


Specie  andspe- 
cie  funds. 


2«6,795.02 
228,470.14 

1,273,874.02 
211,805.72 

1,568,293.46 
922,309.84 
108.403.76 
595,506.47 
113,320.47 

3.372,938.22 
242,142.73 
220,742. 35 
464,171.89 
186,591.26 

2.909,105.66 
401,281.95 
86,455.58 
937,751.90 
692,632.99 
432,077.66 


65.093,231.82        14.254,571.08 


General  estimate  of  the  situation  of  those  State  Batiks  from  which  no  returns  were  received. 
■    [From  the  document  laid  before  Congress  June  24,  1834.] 


States. 

Alabama 

Delaware 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

New  Jersey 

New  York j       , 

South  Carolina 

Indiana  

Illinois 

Ohio ,        , 

Maryland , 

Tennessee 

Florida 

Michigan ,        , 

Maine     .......'. 

, Total 

Brought  down 

Total 

United  States  Bank 

Grand  Total 

100 


No. 
Banks. 


101 


Capital  Stock 
paid  in. 


JOB. 

506 


1,732,089.00 

2,000,000.00 

7,600,000.00 

1,000,000.00 

2,500,000.00 

2,975,000.00 

2,000,000.00 

150,000.00 

200,000.00 

4,000,000.00 

4,000,000.00 

1,000,000.00 

1,000,000.00 

500,000.00 

50,000.00 


30,707,089.00 


Notes  or  bills  in 
circulation. 


815,789.00 

504,000.00 

1,522,500.00 

590.000.00 

1,448;000.00 

1,887,280.00 

1,862,000.00 

75,000.00 

100,000.00 

1,297,278.00 

1,008,000.00 

590,000.00 

600.000.00 

300,000.00 

45,704.00 


12,645,551.00 


139,416,703.12 


170,123,792.12 
35,000.000.00 


205,123,792.12 


65,093,231.82 


77,738,782.32 
10,298,577.90 


Specie  &  specie 
funds  on  hand. 


191,197.00 

222,500.00 

650,000.00 

43,000.00 

227,000,00 

284,565,00 

220,000,00 

15,000,00 

20,000.00 

373,182.50 

445,000.00 

43,000.00 

60,000.00 

30,000.00 

2,689.07 


5,827.133.57 


14.254,571.03 


17,081,704.65 
13,863,897.99 


88,037,360.70       30,945,602.64 

67 


794 


APPENDIX. 


DEPOSIT  BANKS. 

List  of  the  State  Banks  employed  as  Depositories  of  the  Public  Monet/,  with  a  statement  of 
their  conditions  according  to  the  latest  returns. 


Name. 

Place. 

Capital. 

Bills  in 
circulation. 

Specie. 

Maine  Bank,     .... 

Portland, 

Me. 

$105,000 

$37,195 

$11,051.77 

Commercial  Bank, 

Portsmouth, 

N.  H. 

67,000 

64,502 

32,677.15 

Burlington  Bank, 

Burlington, 

Vt. 

102,000 

75,336 

32,544.99 

Commonwealth  Bank, 

Boston, 

Mass. 

500,000 

105,723 

41,507.80 

Merchants'  Bank,    . 

do. 

do. 

750,000 

174,108 

50,466.09 

Merchants'  Bank,    . 

Salem, 

do. 

400,000 

31,798 

3,304.31 

Arcade  Bank, 

Providence, 

R.I. 

187,800 

22,702 

9,179.05 

Bank  of  Bristol, 

Bristol, 

do. 

147,260 

37,749 

3,131.00 

Newport  Bank, 

Farmers'  and  Mechanics'  Bank, 

Newport, 

do. 

120,000 

45,283 

8,099.00 

Hartford, 

Ct. 

Mechanics'  Bank,     . 

New  Haven, 

do. 

472,580 

13S,573 

New  London  Bank, 

New  London, 

do. 

150,000 

57,967 

21,026.51 

Middletown,      .... 

Middletown, 

do. 

419,300 

.      140,334 

Bank  of  America,     . 

New  York, 

N.  Y. 

2.001,200 

397,866 

369,496.00 

Mechanics'  Bank,     . 

da 

do. 

2,000,000 

719.830 

281,714.00 

Manhattan  Co., 

do. 

do. 

2,050,000 

530,417 

175,980.43 

Mechanics'  and  Farmers'Bank, 

Albany, 

do. 

442,000 

202,098 

25,607.00 

Girard  Bank,     .... 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

1,500,000 

466,220 

113,697.90 

Moyamensing  Bank, 

do. 

do. 

125.000 

109,590 

41,536.73 

Harrisburg  Bank,     . 

Harrisburg, 

do. 

158,525 

361,186 

38,708,13 

Union  Bank,                    * 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

1,843,125 

272.835 

100,609.36 

Bank  Metropolis,     . 

Washington, 

D.  C. 

500,000 

160,283 

209,524.90 

Bank  Alexandria,    .        » 

Alexandria, 

do. 

500,000 

78,742 

13.278.65 

Bank  of  Virginia,     .        . 

Richmond, 

Va. 

1,000,000 

821,000 

197,076.16 

"    Branch  do. 

Norfolk, 

do. 

440,000 

186,140 

16,943.83 

"    Branch  do. 

Petersburg, 

do. 

450,000 

535,065 

86,750.15 

"    Branch  do. 

Fredericksburg, 

do. 

300,000 

375,360 

45.363.60 

"    Branch  do. 

Lynchburg, 

do. 

300,000 

435,240 

16,366.84 

Planters'  Bank,        .        » 

Savannah, 

Geo. 

535,560 

135,765 

110,184.62 

Bank  of  Augusta,     .        *        . 

Augusta, 

do. 

600,000 

581,375 

162,170.40 

Branch  Alabama,     . 

Mobile, 

Ala. 

1,000,000 

203,170 

115,555.02 

Planters'  Bank, 

Natches. 

Mis. 

2,666,805 

1,510,426 

113,220.47 

Union  Bank,    .... 

New  Orleans, 

La. 

5,500,500 

1,281,000 

291,587.87 

Commercial  Bank,   . 

do. 

do. 

817,835 

145,000 

135,903.73 

Union  Bank,             , 

Nashville, 

Ten. 

1,243,827 

1,520,880 

86,455.58 

Lou.  Savings  Institution, 
Franklin  Bank, 

Louisville. 

Ken. 

Cincinnati, 

Ohio. 

986,625 

322,747 

110,624.05 

Commercial  Bank, 

do. 

do. 

1,000,000 

325,892 

75,967.20 

Bank  of  Michigan, 

Detroit, 

Mich. 

350,000 

200,000 

60,000.00 

Farmers'  andMechanics'Bank, 

do. 

do. 

700,000 

180,000 

15,000.00 

The  public  moneys  deposited  in  twenty-five  of  the  above  banks  about  the  1st  of  February,  1834,  accord- 
trig  to  the  statement  of  Mr.  Hardin,  amounted  to  $11,485,525.74. 


APPENDIX 


795 


COMMERCE. 

Table,  exhibiting  the  value  of  Imports  from,  and  Exports  to,  each  foreign  country,  during  the 
year  ending  on  the  30th  September,  1833. 


Countries. 


Prussia 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Swediah  West  Indies 

Denmark 

Danish  West  Indies 

Netherlands 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Dutch  West  Indies 

Dutch  Guiana 

Belgium 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Gibraltar 

Malta 

British  East  Indies 

British  West  Indies 

British  Guiana 

British  American  Colonies 
Cape  of  Good  Hope      .        .   -    . 

St.  Helena 

Mauritius 

Hanse  Towns 

France  on  the  Atlantic        .... 
France  on  the  Mediterranean     . 

French  East  Indies 

Bourbon       

French  West  Indies 

French  Guiana 

Spain  on  the  Atlantic  .... 

Spain  on  the  Mediterranean 
Teneriffe  and  other  Canaries 
Manilla  and  Philippine  Isles 

Cuba 

Other  Spanish  Wast  Indies 

Portugal 

Madeira 

Fayal  and  the  other  Azores 

Cape  de  Verde  Islands        .... 

Italy 

Sicily 

Trieste 

Turkey 

Hayti 

Mexico 

Central  America 

Honduras 

Colombia 

Brazil 

Argentine  Republic 

Chili 

Peru 

South  America,  generally   .... 

China 

Europe,  generally 

Asia,  do 

Africa,  do 

West  Indies,    do 

South  Seas 

Sandwich  Islands 

Northwest  Coast  of  America 
Uncertain  ports  ... 

Total 


"Value   of 
Imports. 


Domestic 
duce. 


$2,772,550 

124,570 

1,168,697 

32,202 

28,172 

1,138,700 

1,166,856 

750,290 

380,871 

49,326 

139,628 

36,668,315 

1,025.229 

152,280 

182,508 

31,073 

1,832,059 

1,358,239 

7,448 

1,793,393 

13,700 

21,621 

2,227,726 

12,351,526 

1,080,062 

19,993 

511,242 

337,794 

■806,714 

148,090 

504,498 

9,754,787 

1,879,324 

170,189 

319,349 

26,281 

39,318 

999,134 

165,714 

314,611 

786,044 

1,740,058 

5,452,818 

267,740 

101,615 

1,524,622 

5,089,693 

1,377,117 

334,130 

654,630 

18,409 

7,541,570 

269,425 
441,809 

21,557 
1,094 

1,811 


Value  of  Exports. 


Fro 


$223. 

12, 

244! 

100, 

180, 

1,279! 

1,    4 

93: 

288: 

92 

644 

29,582 

1,186 

120 

573 

50 

136 

1,754 

4 

4,390 

7 

7 


2,108,110 
9,769,685 
1,036,898 

6,586 

613,719 

4,693 

201,619 

136,150 

24,313 

1,021 

3,966,113 

383,992 

73.313 

119,341 

18,387 

162,033 

70,364 

6,123 

146,517 

167,208 

1,147,809 

1,649,314 

267,760 

70,522 

439,984 

2,474,555 

494,391 

730,140 

121,050 
537,774 
45,430 
60,152 
215,222 
353.061 
53;305 

22,292 


108,118,311  |    70,317,698       19,822,735 


Foreign   Pro- 
duce. 

$480,071 

70,262 
5,057 
112,453 
267,200 
722,409 
680,989 

54,038 

361.499 

1,452,768 
21,058 

164,570 

188,843 
59,760 

81,003 


795,186 

2,196,812 

768,826 

2,968 
24,346 

24,571 

546 

15,355 

8,376 

1,706,587 

27,398 

5,330 

15,642 

3,528 

44,987 

301,822 

2,940 

408,447 

518,471 

280,154 

3,758,777 

307,256 

28,724 

517,559 

797,546 

205,337 

733,800 


520 

577,042 

120,146 

14,712 

79,793 


11,266 


Total. 


$703,805 

12,812 

314,849 

105,220 

292,964 

1,546,870 

2,356,762 

774,841 

342,243 

92,515 

1,005,611 

31,035,441 

1,207,527 

120,482 

737,64-6 

50,828 

324,999 

1,814,065 

4,752 

4,471,084 

7,562 

7,854 

2,903,296 
11,966,497 

1,805,724 

9,554 

638,065 

4,693 

226,190 

136,696 

39,668 

9,397 

5,672,700 

421,390 

78,643 

134,983 

21,915 

207,020 

372,186 

9,063 

554,964 

685,679 

1,427,963 

5,408,091 

575,016 

99,246 

957,543 

3,272,101 

699,728 

1,463,940 

121,050 
1,433,759 
45.950 
537;  194 
335,368 
367,773 
133,098 

33,558 


90,140,433 


796 


APPENDIX 


Imports  and  Exports  of  each  state  and  territory,  in  the  year  ending  September  30th,  1833 . 
and  the  tonnage,  December  31,  1832. 


Value  of  Imports. 

Value  of  Exports. 

Tonnage, 

States  and 
Territories. 

Total  of  do- 

Dec. 31, 

In  American 

In  foreign 

Total. 

Domestic 

Foreign  pro- 

mestic   and 

1833. 

vessels. 

vessels. 

produce. 

duce. 

foreign  pro- 

duce. 

Tons  &95tha 

Me. 

$1,170,156 

$210,152 

$1,380,308 

$989,187 

$30,644 

$1,019,831 

192,714  63 

N.  H. 

167,754 

167,754 

145,355 

9,903 

155,2-58 

17,126  54 

Vt. 

523,260 

523,260 

377,390 

.   377,399 

1,531    4 

Mass. 

19,447,267 

493,644 

19,940,911 

5,150,584 

4,532,538 

9,683,122 

395,924  23 

R.  I. 

1,041,836 

450 

1,042,286 

330,869 

154,612 

485,481 

40,907  22 

Con. 

347,058 

4,956 

352,014 

427,603 

427,603 

52,878  79 

N.  Y. 

51,832.033 

4,086,616 

55,918,449 

15,411,296 

9,983,821 

25,395,117 

319,209  80 

N.J. 

170 

170 

30,853 

1,900 

32,753 

33,143  53 

Penn. 

9,730,254 

720,996 

10,451,250 

2,671,300 

1,407,651 

4,078,951 

88,162  11 

Del. 

9,043 

9.043 

45,911 

45,911 

13,265  64 

Md. 

4,904,009 

533,048 

5,437,057 

3,301,014 

761,453 

4,062,467 

80,705  70 

D.  Col. 

128,577 

21,469 

150,046 

981,366 

21,450 

1,002,816 

17,225    3 

Va. 

551,805 

138,586 

690,391 

4,459,534 

8,053 

4,467,587 

43,877  55 

N.  C. 

188,927 

9,831 

198,758 

432,986 

49 

433,035 

32,142  17 

s.  c. 

919,087 

598,618 

1,517,705 

8,337,512 

96,813 

8,434,325 

15,560  75 

Ga. 

132,113 

186.877 

318,990 

6,270,040 

6,270,040 

8,651  45 

Al. 

197.608 

68,'310 

265,918 

4,522,221 

5,740 

4,527,961 

7,210  31 

Mo. 

5,881 

5,881 

La. 

6,658,916 

2,931,589 

9,590,505 

16,133,457 

2,807,916 

18,941,373 

61,171  73 

Ohio, 

4,980 

3,a73 

8,353 

225,544 

225,544 

9,683  72 

Flo.  T. 

45,205 

40,181 

85,386 

64,613 

192 

64,805 

1,911  28 

Mich.  T. 

63,876 

63,876 

9,054 

9,054 

1,753  74 

Ten. 

3,047    1 

Missip. 
K.  West, 

925  43 

1,091  73 

Total 

98,060,772 

10,057,539 

103,118,311 

70,317,698 

19,822,735 

90,140,433 

1,439,450  21 

TONNAGE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  SEA-PORTS  OR  DISTRICTS. 
Dec.  31,  1832. 


New  York, 

N.  Y. 

298,832 

Providence, 

B.I. 

19,136 

Boston, 

Mass. 

171,045 

Belfast, 

Me. 

18,576 

Philadelphia 

Pa. 

77,103 

Plymouth, 

Mass. 

17,669 

New  Bedford, 

Mass. 

70,550 

Portsmouth, 

N.  H. 

17,126 

New  Orleans, 

La. 

61,171 

Norfolk. 

Va. 

15,790 

Portland, 

Me. 

47,942 

Passamaquoddy, 

Me. 

13,370 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

47,129 

Gloucester, 

Mass. 

13,266 

Bath, 

Me. 

33,480 

Wilmington, 

N.  C. 

13,265 

Salem, 

Mass. 

30,293 

Charleston 

s.  c. 

13,244 

Nantucket, 

do. 

28,580 

Vienna, 

Md. 

13,129 

Barnstable, 

do. 

28,153 

Bristol, 

K.I. 

12,879 

"Waldoborough, 

Me. 

24,948 

Bridgetown, 

N.J. 

12,690 

New  London, 

Ct. 

24,225 

Fairfield, 

Ct. 

10,892 

Penobscot, 

Me. 

22,115 

Alexandria, 

D.C. 

10,599 

Newbury  port, 

Mass. 

20,131 

Pittsburgh, 

Pa. 

10,091 

APPENDIX. 


7*7 


EXPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1833. 

Summary  statement  of  the  value  of  the  Exports  of  the  growth,  produce,  and  manu- 
facture  of  the  United  States,  during  the  year  ending  on  the  30th  day  of  Septem- 
ber, 1833. 


THE  SEA. 

Fisheries — 

Dried  or  cod  fisheries         .... 

$712,317 

Pickled   fish  or  river    fisheries,   herring, 

shad,  salmon,  mackerel 

277,973 

Whale  and  other  fish  oil             ... 

924,810 

Spermaceti  oil 

42,589 

Whalebone 

185,329 

Spermaceti  candles            . 

259,451 

$2,402,469 

THE  FOREST. 

Skins  and  furs 

841,933 

Ginseng 

183,194 

Product  of  wood — 

Staves,  shingles,  boards,  &c     . 

$1,969,191 

Other  lumber 

249,036 

Masts  and  spars 

32,625 

Oak  bark,  and  other  dye  .        .        .  ' 

93,609 

All  manufactures  of  wood 

318,641 

Naval  stores,  tar,  pitch,  rosin,  and  turpen- 

tine      ....... 

483,712 

Ashes,  pot  and  pearl         ,        .        .        . 

814,398 

3,961,212 

4,986,339 

AGRICULTURE. 

Product  of  Animals — 

Beef,  tallow,  hides,  and  horned  cattle 

958,076 

Butter  and  cheese 

258,452 

Pork,  (pickled,)  bacon,  lard,  live  hogs 

2,151,558 

Horses  and  mules 

167,330 

Sheep 

21,464 

3,556,880 

Vegetable  food — 

••i. 

Wheat 

2Q,592 

Flour       

5,613,010 

Indian  meal 

534,309 

Rye  meal 

140,017 

Rye,  oats,  and  other  small  grain  and  pulse 

102,568 

Biscuit,  or  ship  bread        .... 

252,555 

Potatoes            

52,052 

Apples 

33,262 

Rice 

2,744,418 

Indigo 

180 

9,839,468 

13,395,348 

Tobacco       .        .        .        . 

5,755,968 

Cotton 

36,191,105 

All  other  agricultural  products — 

Flax-seed 

228,300 

Hops 

92,963 

Brown  sugar 

7,635 

328,898 

MANTTFACTURES. 

Soap  and  tallow  candles        .... 

, 

8673,076 

Leather,  boots,  and  shoes      .... 

213.510 

67* 


798 


APPENDIX. 


Household  furniture 

Coaches  and  other  carriages 
Hats,  saddlery,  and  wax       .... 
Spirits  from  grain,  beer,  ale,  and  porter 
Snuff  and  tobacco         .        ... 

Lead             

Linseed  oil  and  spirits  of  turpentine 

Cordage        

Iron — pig,  bar,  and  nails       .... 

Castings 

Manufactures  of          .... 
Spirits,  from  molasses           . 
Sugar  (refined)  and  chocolate 

Gunpowder 

Copper  and  brass          .... 
Medicinal  drugs 

i 

$200,635 

28,830 

455,070 

144,069 

288,973 

5,685 

30,293 

23,140 

72.177 

48',009 

113,626 

28,463 

42,475 

139,164 

203,880 

126,355 

$2,837,430 

Cotton  piece  goods — 

White 

Nankeens 

Twist,  yarn,  and  thread    . 
All  other  manufactures  of 

1,802,116 

2,054 

104,335 

2,532,517 

5,964 

18,985 

43,943 

146,127 

21,380 

38,267 

16,599 

9,791 

5,400 

48,946 

46,484 

22,552 

3,347 

12,159 

93,494 

4,938 

5,087 

381 

366,842 

10,433 

13,753 

18,211 

Flax  and  Hemp — 

Cloth  and  thread       .... 

Bags,  and  all  manufactures  of 
Wearing  apparel           .... 
Combs,  buttons,  and  brushes 
Umbrellas  and  parasols 
Leather  and  morocco  skins,  not  sold  per  pounc 
Printing  presses  and  type     . 
Fire  engines  and  apparatus 
Musical  instruments     .... 

Books  and  maps 

Paper  and  other  stationery    . 

Paints  and  varnish       .... 

Vinegar        

Earthen  and  stone  ware        .        . 
Manufactures  of  glass 

do.  tin,  pewter,  and  lead  . 

do.  marble  and  stone 

do.  gold  and  silver,  and  gold  leaf 
Gold  and  silver  coin      .... 
Artificial  flowers  and  jewelry 
Molasses,  trunks,  brick,  and  lime 

3,485,600 
933,541 

Articles  not  enumerated — 

Manufactured 

Other 

• 

600,892 
332,649 

70,317,698 

APPENDIX 


799 


CONSTITUTION   OF    THE   UNITED  STATES. 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in 
order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  esta- 
blish justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity, 
provide  for  the  common  defence,  promote 
the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings 
of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  establish  this  constitution  for  the 
United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  1. — 1.  All  legislative  powers  here- 
in granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  congress  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a 
senate  and  house  of  representatives. 

Section  2. — 1.  The  house  of  representa- 
tives shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
every  second  year,  by  the  people  of  the 
several  states ;  and  the  electors  in  each 
state  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch 
of  the  state  legislature.  2.  No  person  shall 
be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  at- 
tained to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and 
been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected 
be  an  inhabitant  of  that  state  in  which  he 
shall  be  chosen.  3.  Representatives  and 
direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  states  which  may  be  included  with- 
in this  union,  according  to  their  respective 
numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by 
adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons, 
including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term 
of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed, 
three-fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The  actu- 
al enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 
years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  and  within  eve- 
ry subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such 
manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The 
number  of  representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
state  shall  have  at  least  one  representative  ; 
and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made, 
the  state  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  enti- 
tled to  choose  three  ;  Massachusetts,  eight ; 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations, 
one  ;  Connecticut,  five  ;  New  York,  six ; 
New  Jersey,  four ;  Pennsylvania,  eight ; 
Delaware,  one ;  Maryland,  six ;  Virginia, 
ten  ;  North  Carolina,  five  ;  South  Carolina, 
five  ;  and  Georgia  three.  4.  When  vacan- 
cies happen  in  the  representation  from  any 
state,  the  executive  authority  thereof  shall 
issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  up  such  va- 
cancies. 5.  The  house  of  representatives 
shall  choose  their  speaker  and  other  officers, 
and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeach- 
ment. 

Section  3. — 1.    The  senate  of  the  United 


States  shall  be  composed  of  two  senators 
from  each  state,  chosen  by  the  legislature 
thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each  senator 
shall  have  one  vote.  2.  Immediately  after 
they  shall  be  assembled,  in  consequence  of 
the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided,  as 
equally  as  may  be,  into  three  classes.  The 
seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall 
be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second 
year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration 
of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one- 
third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ; 
and  if  vacancies  happen,  by  resignation  or 
otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  any  state*  the  executive  thereof  may 
make  temporary  appointments  until  the 
next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall 
then  fill  such  vacancies.  3.  No  person  shall 
be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  state  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen.  4. 
The  vice-president  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  president  of  the  senate,  but  shall  have 
no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided.  5. 
The  senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers, 
and  also  a  president  pro  tempore,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  vice-president,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  office  of  president  of  the  United 
States.  6.  The  senate  shall  have  the  sole 
power  to  try  all  impeachments.  When 
sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath 
or  affirmation.  When  the  president  of  the 
United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall 
preside  ;  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted 
without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of 
the  members  present.  7.  Judgment,  in 
cases  of  impeachment,  shall  not  extend  fur- 
ther than  to  removal  from  office,  and  dis- 
qualification to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  trust,  or  profit,  under  the  United 
States ;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  never- 
theless be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment, 
trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  according 
to  law. 

Section  4. — 1.  The  times,  places,  and  man- 
ner of  holding  elections  for  senators  and 
representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each 
state  by  the  legislature  thereof;  but  the  con- 
gress may,  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or  alter 
such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of 
choosing  senators.  2.  The  congress  shall 
assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in 
December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint 
a  different  day. 

Section  5. — 1.  Each  house  shall  be  the 
judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifi- 
cations of  its  own  members  ;  and  a  majority 
of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  busi- 


800 


APPENDIX. 


ness  j  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn 
from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to 
compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members, 
in  such  manner  and  under  such  penalties  as 
each  house  may  provide.  2.  Each  house 
may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings, 
punish  its  members  for  disorderly  beha- 
vior, and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds,  expel  a  member.  3.  Each  house 
shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and 
from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  except- 
ing such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  re- 
quire secrecy  ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the 
members  of  either  house,  on  any  question, 
shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  pre- 
sent, be  entered  on  the  journal.  4.  Neither 
house,  during  the  session  of  congress,  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn 
for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other 
place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall 
be  sitting. 

Section  6. — 1.  The  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives shall  receive  a  compensation  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and 
paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States. 
They  shall,  in  all  cases,  except  treason, 
felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privi- 
leged from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at 
the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and 
in  going  to  or  returning  from  the  same ; 
and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house 
they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place.  2.  No  senator  or  representative  shall, 
during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected, 
be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall 
have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during 
such  time  ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member 
of  either  house  during  his  continuance  in 
office. 

Section  7. — 1.  All  bills  for  raising  reve- 
nue shall  originate  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives ;  but  the  senate  may  propose  or 
concur  with  amendments,  as  on  other  bills. 
2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the 
house  of  representatives  and  the  senate, 
shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented 
to  the  president  of  the  United  States  ;  if  he 
approve,  he  shall  sign  it ;  but  if  not,  he 
shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that 
house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who 
shall  enter  the  objection  at  large  on  their 
journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If, 
after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of 
that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it 
shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections, 
to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  like- 
wise be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by 
two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a 
law.    But  in  all  such  cases,  the  votes  of 


both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and 
nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting 
for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on 
the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If 
any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  presi- 
dent within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted) 
after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the 
same  shall  be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he 
had  signed  it,  unless  the  congress  by  their 
adjournment  prevent  its  return ;  in  which 
case  it  shall  not  be  a  law.  3.  Every  order, 
resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence 
of  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives 
may  be  necessary,  (except  on  a  question  of 
adjournment,)  shall  be  presented  to  the 
president  of  the  United  States  ;  and  before 
the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall 
be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  senate  and 
house  of  representatives,  according  to  the 
rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case 
of  a  bill. 

Section  8. — The  congress  shall  have  pow- 
er— 1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  im- 
posts, and  excises ;  to  pay  the  debts  and  i 
provide  for  the  common  defence  and  gene- 
ral welfare  of  the  United  States ;  but  all 
duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  shall  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  United  States  :  2.  To 
borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States  :  3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  fo- 
reign nations,  and  among  the  several  states, 
and  with  the  Indian  tribes  :  4.  To  establish 
a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uni- 
form laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies 
throughout  the  United  States  :  5.  To  coin 
money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of 
foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights 
and  measures  :  6.  To  provide  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States  :  7.  To 
establish  post-offices  and  post  roads  :  8. 
To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  use- 
ful arts,  by  securing,  for  limited  times,  to 
authors  and  inventors,  the  exclusive  right  to 
their  respective  writings  and  discoveries  : 
9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  su- 
preme court :  To  define  and  punish  pira- 
cies and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  na- 
tions :  10.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters 
of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules 
concerning  captures  on  land  and  water  :  11. 
To  raise  and  support  armies  ;  but  no  appro- 
priation of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  term  than  two  years  :  12.  To  pro- 
vide and  maintain  a  navy  :  13.  To  make 
rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of 
the  land  and  naval  forces :  14.  To  provide 
for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the 
laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections, 
and  repel  invasions  :     15.  To  provide  for 


APPENDIX. 


801 


organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the 
militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them 
as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  reserving  to  the  states  re- 
spectively the  appointment  of  the  officers, 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  ac- 
cording to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  con- 
gress :  16.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation 
in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such  district 
(not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may, 
by  cession  of  particular  states,  and  the  ac- 
ceptance of  congress,  become  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  United  States,  and  to 
exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  pur- 
chased, by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of 
the  state  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the 
erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock- 
yards, and  other  needful  buildings  : — and, 
17.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  neces- 
sary and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution 
the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department 
or  officer  thereof. 

Section  9. — 1.  The  migration  or  importa- 
tion of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  states 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit, 
shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  congress  prior 
to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on 
such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars 
for  each  person.  2.  The  privilege  of  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspend- 
ed, unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  in- 
vasion, the  public  safety  may  require  it.  3. 
No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law, 
shall  be  passed.  4.  No  capitation  or  other 
direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before 
directed  to  be  taken.  5.  No  tax  or  duty 
shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any 
state.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any 
regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the 
ports  of  any  one  state  over  those  of  another  : 
nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  state 
be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in 
another.  6.  No  money  shall  be  drawn 
from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriations  made  by  law :  and  a  regular 
statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and 
expenditures  of  all  public- money  shall  be 
published  from  time  to  time.  7.  No  title 
of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United 
States,  and  no  person  holding  any  office  of 
profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  congress,  accept  of  any 
present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any 
kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or 
foreign  state. 

Section  10. — 1.  No  state  shall  enter  into 
any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation  ;  grant 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  j  coin  money ; 
101 


emit  bills  of  credit ;  make  any  thing  but 
gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of 
debts  ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post 
facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation 
of  contracts  ;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 
2.  No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  im- 
ports or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection 
laws  ;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and 
imposts  laid  by  any  state  on  imports  or  ex- 
ports, shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States,  and  all  such  laws  shall 
be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the 
congress.  No  state  shall,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tun- 
nage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of 
peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact 
with  another  state,  or  with  a  foreign  power, 
or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or 
in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit 
of  delay. 

AKTICI.E    II. 

Section  1 . — 1 .  The  executive  power  shall 
be  vested  in  a  president  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office 
during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  together 
with  the  vice-president,  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected  as  follows  :  2.  Each  state 
shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legis- 
lature thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  elec- 
tors, equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators 
and  representatives  to  which  the  state  may 
be  entitled  in  the  congress  ;  but  no  senator 
or  representative,  or  person  holding  an  office 
of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States, 
shall  be  appointed  an  elector.  [3.  The 
electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states, 
and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom 
one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of 
the  same  state  with  themselves.  And  they 
shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted 
for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ; 
which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and 
transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  senate.  The  president  of  the 
senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  senate 
and  house  of  representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  the  president,  if 
such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  there 
be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority, 
and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then 
the  house  of  representatives  shall  immedi- 
ately choose,  by  ballot,  one  of  them  for 
president ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majori- 
ty, then,  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list,  the 
said'house  shall,  in  like  manner,  choose  the 
president.  But,  in  choosing  the  president, 
48 


802 


APPENDIX. 


the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  repre- 
sentation from  each  state  having  one  vote  ; 
a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a 
member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the 
states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  states  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.     In  every  case, 
after  the  choice  of  the  president,  the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the 
electors  shall  be  the  vice-president.     But  if 
there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have 
equal  votes,  the  senate  shall  choose  from 
them,  by  ballot,  the  vice-president.]*     4. 
The  congress  may  determine  the  time  of 
choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on  which 
they  shall  give  their  votes  ;  which  day  shall 
be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 
5.  No  person,  except  a  natural  born  citizen, 
or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the  time 
of  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be 
eligible  to  the  office  of  president ;  neither 
shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a 
resident  within  the  United    States.     6.  In 
case  of  the  removal  of  the  president  from 
office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  ina- 
bility to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
vice-president,  and  the  congress  may,  by 
law,  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death, 
resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  presi- 
dent and  vice-president,  declaring  what  offi- 
cer shall  then  act  as  president,  and  such 
officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  dis- 
ability be  removed,  or  a  president  shall  be 
elected.     7.  The  president  shall,  at  stated 
times,  receive  for  his  services  a  compensa- 
tion, which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  di- 
minished during  the  period  for   which  he 
shall  have   been  elected,  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolu- 
ment from  the  United  States,  or  any  of 
them.     8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution 
of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following  oath 
or  affirmation  :     9.    '  I  do  solemnly  swear, 
(or  affirm,)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
office  of  president  of  the  United  States,  and 
will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  pro- 
tect, and  defend,  the  constitution  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.' 

Section  2. — 1.  The  president  shall  be  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  and  navy  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  se- 
veral states,  when  called  into  the  actual  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States  ;  he  may  require 
the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  offi- 
cer in  each  of  the  executive  departments, 
upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of 
their  respective  offices  ;  and  he  shall  have 
power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for 

•  This  clause  was  annulled  by  the  12th  article  under 
Amendments. 


offences  against  the  United  States,  except 
in  cases  of  impeachment.  2.  He  shall 
have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  senate,  to  make  treaties,  pro- 
vided two-thirds  of  the  senators  present 
concur  ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate, 
shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  su- 
preme court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which 
shall  be  established  by  law.  But  the  con- 
gress may,  by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of 
such  inferior  officers  as  they  think  proper 
in  the  president  alone,  in  the  courts  of 
law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments.  3. 
The  president  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all 
vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the  re- 
cess of  the  senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next 
session. 

Section  3. — 1.  He  shall,  from  time  to  time, 
give  to  congress  information  of  the  state 
of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  con- 
sideration such  measures  as  he  shall  judge 
necessary  and  expedient :  he  may,  on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both 
houses,  or  either  of  them,  and,  in  case  of 
disagreement  between  them,  with  respect 
to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  ad- 
journ them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think 
proper ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and 
other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall  take  care 
that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed ;  and 
shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  Uni- 
ted States. 

Section  4. — 1.  The  president,  vice-presi- 
dent, and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  im- 
peachment for,  and  conviction  of,  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misde- 
meanors. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Section  1. — 1.  The  judicial  power  of  the 
United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  supreme 
court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  con- 
gress may,  from  time  to  time,  ordain  and  es- 
tablish. The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme 
and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices 
during  good  behavior ;  and  shall,  at  stated 
times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensa- 
tion which  shall  not  be  diminished  during 
their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  2. — 1.  The  judicial  power  shall 
extend  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising 
under  this  constitution,  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which 
shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ;  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers,  and  consuls  ;  to  all  cases  of  ad- 
miralty and  maritime  jurisdiction ;  to  con» 


APPENDIX 


803 


troversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall 
be  a  party  ;  to  controversies  between  two  or 
more  states ;  between  a  state  and  citizens 
of  another  state ;  between  citizens  of  dif- 
ferent states  ;  between  citizens  of  the  same 
state  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  dif- 
ferent states  ;  and  between  a  state,  or  the 
citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens, 
or  subjects.  2.  In  all  cases  affecting  am- 
bassadors, other  public  ministers  and  con- 
suls, and  those  in  which  a  state  shall  be  a 
party,  the  supreme  court  shall  have  original 
jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before 
mentioned,  the  supreme  court  shall  have 
appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and 
fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such 
regulations,  as  the  congress  shall  make. 
3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury,  and 
such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  state  where 
the  said  crime  shall  have  been  commit- 
ted ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any 
state,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or 
places  as  the  congress  may  by  law  have  di- 
rected. 

Section  3.— -1.  Treason  against  the  United 
States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  ene- 
mies, giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  No  per- 
son shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on 
the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same 
overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court.  2. 
The  congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the 
punishment  of  treason  ;  but  no  attainder  of 
treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or 
forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person 
attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Section  1. — 1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall 
be  given  in  each  state  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every 
other  state.  And  the  congress  may,  by  ge- 
neral laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which 
such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be 
proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Section  2. — 1.  The  citizens  of  each  state 
shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immu- 
nities of  citizens  in  the  several  states.  2. 
A  person  charged  in  any  state  with  treason, 
felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from 
justice,  and  be  found  in  another  state,  shall, 
on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the 
state  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up, 
to  be  removed  to  the  state  having  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  crime.  3.  No  person  held  to 
service  or  labor  in  one  state-  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  con- 
sequence of  any  law  or  regulation  therein, 
be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor  ; 
but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the 
party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be 
due.  * 


Section  3. — 1.  New  states  may  be  admit- 
ted by  the  congress  into  this  Union  ;  but  no 
new  state  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  state,  nor  any 
state  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or 
more  states,  or  parts  of  states,  without  the 
consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  states  con- 
cerned, as  well  as  of  the  congress.  2.  The 
congress  shall-have  power  to  dispose  of,  and 
make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations  re- 
specting the  territory  or  other  property  be- 
longing to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in 
this  constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States, 
or  of  any  particular  state. 

Section  4.— 1.  The  United  States  shall 
guaranty  to  every  state  in  this  Union  a  re- 
publican form  of  government,  and  shall 
protect  each  of  them  against  invasion ; 
and,  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or 
of  the  executive,  (when  the  legislature 
cannot  be  convened,)  against  domestic  vio- 
lence. 

ARTICLE    V. 

1.  The  congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of 
both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall 
propose  amendments  to  this  constitution ; 
or,  on  the  application  of  the  legislatures  of 
two-thirds  of  the  several  states,  shall  call  a 
convention  for  proposing  amendments, 
which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  consti- 
tution, when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of 
three-fourths  of  the  several  states,  or  by  con- 
ventions in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one 
or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  pro- 
posed by  the  congress  ;  provided,  that  no 
amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight, 
shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and 
fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first 
article  ;  and  that  no  state  without  its  consent 
shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the 
senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements 
entered  into,  before  the  adoption  of  this  con- 
stitution, shall  be  as  valid  against  the 
United  States  under  this  constitution  as 
under  the  confederation.  2.  This  constitu- 
tion, and  the  laws  of  the  United  States 
which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof, 
and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shaL  be 
made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land  ; 
and  the  judges  in  every  state  shall  be  bound 
thereby  ;  any  thing  in  the  constitution  or 
laws  of  any  state  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing. 3.  The  senators  and  representa- 
tives before  mentioned,  and  the  members  of 
the  several  state  legislatures,  and  all  execu- 
tive and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United 


804 


APPENDIX. 


States  and  of  the  several  states,  shall  be 
bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support 
this  constitution  :  but  no  religious  test  shall 
ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any 
office  or  public  trust  under  the  United 
States. 

ARTICLE   VII. 

1.  The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of 
nine  states  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  this  constitution  between  the 
states  so  ratifying  the  same. 

AMENDMENTS 

To  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  ratified  ac- 
cording to  the  provisiona  of  the  fifth  article  of  the 

foregoing  constitution. 

Art.  1 .  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an 
establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  ex- 
ercise thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or 
of  the  prass  ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to 
assemble;  and  to  petition  the  government' for  a  redress 
of  grievances. 

Art  2.  A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary 
to  the  security  of  a  free  state,  the  right  of  the  people 
to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Art.  3.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be 
quartered  in  any  house  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner ;  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

Art.  4.  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secured  in 
their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against 
unreasonable  aearchea  and  aeizures,  shall  not  be 
violated ;  and  no  warrants  ahall  issue  but  upon  pro- 
bable cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  par- 
ticularly describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the 
persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

Art.  5.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a 
capital  or  otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  pre- 
sentment or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the 
militia,  when  in  actual  service,  in  time  of  war  or 
public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for 
the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life 
or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case, 
to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life. 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor 
shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  without 
just  compensation. 

Art.  6.  In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused 
shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by 
an  impartial  jury  of  the  state  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall 
have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be 
informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  : 
to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him ;  to 
have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in 
his  favor ;  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for 
his  defence. 

Art.  7.  In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value 
in  controversy  shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right 
of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved  ;  and  no  fact  tried 
by  a  >ury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any 
court  of  the  United  Statesman  according  to  the  rules 
of  the  common  law. 

Art.  8.    Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor 


excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  pu- 
nishments inflicted. 

Art.  9.  The  enumeration  in  t'B  constitution  of 
certain  rights  shall  not  be  constructed  to  deny  ana 
or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

Art.  10.  The  lowers  not  delegated  to  the  United 
States  by  the  constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the 
statea,  are  reserved  to  the  states  respectively,  or  to 
the  people. 

Art.  11.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or 
equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  state,  or  by  citi- 
zens or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

Art  12.  I  1.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  re 
spective  states,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  president  and 
vice-president,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  themselves;  they 
shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
president,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for 
as  vice-president;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists 
of  all  persons  voted  for  as  president,  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  vice-president,  and  of  the  number  of  votes 
for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and 
transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  senate: 
the  president  of  the  senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of 
the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted  ;  the 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  presi- 
dent shall  be  the  president,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed: 
and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the 
persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding 
three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  president,  the 
house  of  representatives  shall  choose  immediately, 
by  ballot,  the  president.  But,  in  choosing  the  presi- 
dent, the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  represen- 
tation from  each  state  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for 
this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two-thirds  of  the  states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the 
states  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the 
house  of  representatives  shall  not  choose  a  president, 
whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them, 
before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then 
the  vice-president  shall  act  as  president,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the 
president. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
as  vice-president  shall  be  the  vice-president,  if  such 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors 
appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  senate 
shall  choose  the  vice-president;  a  quorum  for  the 
purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the 
office  of  president  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  vice* 
president  of  the  United  States. 

Art.  13.  If  any  citizen  of  the  United  States  shall 
accept,  claim,  receive,  or  retain  any  title  of  nobility 
or  honor  ;  or  shall,  without  the  consent  of  congress, 
accept  and  retain  any  present,  pension,  office,  or 
emolument  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  emperor, 
king,  prince,  or  foreign  power,  such  person  shall 
cease  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  shali 
be  incapable  of  holding  any  office  of  trust  or  profit 
under  them,  or  either  of  them. 


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